Chapter

1 Part I
Automa0on and Its Components

Automa0on - Wikipedia
Automa0on is the use of control systems and informa0on technologies to reduce the need for human work in the produc0on of goods and services. In the scope of industrializa0on, automa0on is a step beyond mechaniza0on. Whereas mechaniza0on provided human operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular requirements of work, automa0on greatly decreases the need for human sensory and mental requirements as well. Automa0on plays an increasingly important role in the world economy and in daily experience. Automa0on has had a notable impact in a wide range of industries beyond manufacturing (where it began). Once-ubiquitous telephone operators have been replaced largely by automated telephone switchboards and answering machines. Medical processes such as primary screening in electrocardiography or radiography and laboratory analysis of human genes, sera, cells, and 0ssues are carried out at much greater speed and accuracy by automated systems. Automated teller machines have reduced the need for bank visits to obtain cash and carry out transac0ons. In general, automa0on has been responsible for the shiI in the world economy from industrial jobs to service jobs in the 20th and 21st centuries.

Automa0on Tools

Engineers now can have numerical control over automated devices; e.g., CAD or CAM. Informa0on technology, together with industrial machinery and processes, can assist in the design, implementa0on, and monitoring of control systems. EOne example of an industrial control system is a programmable logic controller (PLC). An automated online assistant on a website, with an avatar for enhanced humancomputer interac0on. Human-machine interfaces (HMI). In industrial process and manufacturing environments, they are called operators or something similar. In boiler houses and central u0li0es departments they are called sta0onary engineers. Dierent types of automa0on tools exist:
* ANN - Ar0cial neural network * DCS - Distributed Control System * HMI - Human Machine Interface * SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisi0on * PLC - Programmable Logic Controller * PAC - Programmable automa0on controller * Instrumenta0on * Mo0on control * Robo0cs

Mo0on Control
Mo0on control is a sub-eld of automa0on, in which the posi0on and/or velocity of machines are controlled using some type of device such as a hydraulic pump, linear actuator, or an electric motor, generally a servo. Mo0on control is an important part of robo0cs and CNC machine tools, however it is more complex than in the use of specialized machines, where the kinema0cs are usually simpler. The la]er is oIen called General Mo0on Control (GMC). Mo0on control is widely used in the packaging, prin0ng, tex0le, semiconductor produc0on, and assembly industries.
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Mo0on Control - Components

A mo0on controller to generate set points (the desired output or mo0on prole) and to close a posi0on and/or velocity feedback loop. A drive or amplier to transform the control signal from the mo0on controller into a higher power electrical current or voltage that is presented to the actuator. Newer "intelligent" drives can close the posi0on and velocity loops internally, resul0ng in much more accurate control. An actuator such as a hydraulic pump, air cylinder, linear actuator, or electric motor for output mo0on. One or more feedback sensors such as op0cal encoders, resolvers or Hall eect devices to return the posi0on and/or velocity of the actuator to the mo0on controller in order to close the posi0on and/or velocity control loops. Mechanical components to transform the mo0on of the actuator into the desired mo0on, including: gears, shaIing, ball screw, belts, linkages, and linear and rota0onal bearings. The interface between the mo0on controller and drives it controls, such as Pronet IRT, Ethernet Powerlink, and EtherCAT Common control func0ons include:
Velocity control. Posi0on (point-to-point) control: There are several methods for compu0ng a mo0on trajectory. These are oIen based on the velocity proles of a move such as a triangular prole, trapezoidal prole, or an S-curve prole. Pressure or Force control. Electronic gearing (or cam proling): The posi0on of a slave axis is mathema0cally linked to the posi0on of a master axis. A good example of this would be in a system where two rota0ng drums turn at a given ra0o to each other. A more advanced case of electronic gearing is electronic camming. With electronic camming, a slave axis follows a prole that is a func0on of the master posi0on. This prole need not be salted, but it must be an animated func0on.

Numerical Control
Numerical control (NC) refers to the automa0on of machine tools that are operated by abstractly programmed commands encoded on a storage medium, as opposed to manually controlled via handwheels or levers, or mechanically automated via cams alone. The rst NC machines were built in the 1940s and 1950s, based on exis0ng tools that were modied with motors that moved the controls to follow points fed into the system on punched tape. These early servomechanisms were rapidly augmented with analog and digital computers, crea0ng the modern computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools that have revolu0onized the machining processes. In modern CNC systems, end-to-end component design is highly automated using computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) programs. The programs produce a computer le that is interpreted to extract the commands needed to operate a par0cular machine via a postprocessor, and then loaded into the CNC machines for produc0on. Since any par0cular component might require the use of a number of dierent tools-drills, saws, etc., modern machines oIen combine mul0ple tools into a single "cell". In other cases, a number of dierent machines are used with an external controller and human or robo0c operators that move the component from machine to machine. In either case, the complex series of steps needed to produce any part is highly automated and produces a part that closely matches the original CAD design.

Robo0cs

Automated Highway systems

An automated highway system (AHS) or Smart Road. It is most oIen touted as a means of trac conges0on relief, as it would dras0cally reduce following distances and headway, thus allowing more cars to occupy a given stretch of road. The cars have power steering and automa0c speed controls, which are controlled by a computer. The cars organize themselves into platoons of eight to twenty-ve cars. The platoons drive themselves a meter apart, so that air resistance is minimized. The distance between platoons is the conven0onal braking distance. If anything goes wrong, the maximum number of harmed cars should be one platoon. The origin of research on AHS was done by a team from The Ohio State University led by Dr. Robert E. Fenton. Their rst automated vehicle was built in 1962, and is believed to be the rst land vehicle to contain a computer. Steering, braking and speed were controlled through the onboard electronics, which lled the trunk, back seat and most of the front of the passenger side of the car. Research con0nued at OSU un0l federal funding was cut in the early 1980s. The PATH project, a prototype automated highway system, was tested in San Diego County, California in 1991 along Interstate 15. However, despite the technical success of the program, investment has moved more toward autonomous intelligent vehicles rather than building specialized infrastructure. The AHS system places sensory technology in cars that can read passive road markings, and use radar and inter-car communica0ons to make the cars organize themselves without the interven0on of drivers. Such an autonomous cruise control system is being developed by Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Volkswagen and Toyota. The SARTRE Project (Safe Road Trains for the Environment), is a European Commission funded project inves0ga0ng implementa0on of platooning on unmodied European motorways. Begun in September 2009, the three year project successfully trialled a two vehicle platoon in January 2011.

automa0on components Transistors

Transistors
Transistors have three components: Base Emi]er Collector

These components are made of semiconductor material, e.g. Silicon and germanium. There are two types of Transistors
(Bipolar Junc9ons): NPN PNP The dierence is the type of material and the direc9on of current ow. P- posi.ve material with holes N-nega.ve material (with free electrons)

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 When a Transistor is used in a digital circuit, it is employed as an OFF/ON switch.

Barrier Poten.als: Electrons are a]racted to P material and occupy holes at the junc0on. This creates a nega0ve voltage and prevents the other electrons from driIing to the P material. Likewise, the holes created at the junc0on in the N material will set up a posi0ve poten0al. The eect of this ac0on is to set up a Barrier Poten0al at the junc0on, that prevents further electrical ac0vity.
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Forward Biasing
A P-N Junc9on can be made to conduct by applying a voltage across the material as shown below:

The idea is to break the barrier poten.al.

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The posi9ve voltage tends to repel holes in P material toward the Poten9al Barrier. Similarly, the nega9ve voltage tends to repel electrons toward the Poten9al Barrier. As the voltage is increased, the Poten9al Barrier will overcome, and electrons and holes will tend to ow. The above act is called Forward Biasing. Up to the Barrier Poten9al, very liHle current ows. But as soon as this Barrier is reached (for Silicon and Germanium Poten9al Barriers are 0.7 and 0.3 volts), the semiconductor conduc9vity increases drama9cally.

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Reverse Biasing
The Polarity of the voltage source is reversed. Here, the barrier poten0al is enlarged. The electrons in the N material will be drawn away from the P-N junc0on, as will the holes in the P- material. This tends to increase the resistance at the junc0on.

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Basis of Transistor Opera.on

When the electrons are owing from the emi]er to the base, the reverse bias of the collector tends to sweep the electrons across the base/collector junc0on. As the base voltage is increased, more electrons will tend to ow out of the emi]er into the base and they will be swept away into the collector in larger numbers. This represents the amplifying characteris.c of the transistor. When the base is 0 or very low, the V voltage causes barrier poten?al in the base-collector junc?on. This is the cuto state.

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Schema.c For Switch logic

No bias on base very li]le electron ow high resistance most of voltage drops across Transistor Bias on base high electron ow low resistance rela0ve to R1 most of voltage drop across R1

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 Vout 0 volts; No bias = 0 5 volts = 1 5 volts; Biased = 1 0.4 volts = 0 Transistors combined in circuits with other electronic devices form digital circuits. The simplest of the digital circuits is called the logic gate.

Vin

Truth Table

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Digital Logic/Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra is essen.al for designing digital circuits. Boolean Algebra func9on can be expressed in one of three dierent ways: Truth Table Switching Func0on Logic Diagram Given one, the other three can be obtained. There are three basic connec9ves 1.Logic Addi0on(OR gate) 2.Logic Mul0plica0on(AND gate) 3.Nega0on(NOT gate) All switching func9ons represent some combina9on of these three.
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automa0on components Motors

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Basic Principles of a DC Motor

It makes use of the fact that a conductor carrying a current in a magnetic field experiences a force. It consists of two basic components: A rotating component called armature and a stationary component called stator The armature is wrapped by coils of current carrying wire. The principal variation among different types of DC motors lies in the mechanisms to develop the magnetic field in a permanent magnet DC motor, the field is developed by permanent magnets. Here, torque, T, is

T = K t I a = KT I a

Ia
= magnetic flux (constant for permanent magnet) = armature current

K t = proportionality constant
The magnetic flux comes from stator.
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Operating Characteristics of a DC Motor

To use a dc motor for a particular application, an important criterion is in the torque to be delivered by the motor. At low speeds, during acceleration from rest, the motor must provide enough torque to overcome the system inertia. At working velocities, the motor most provide enough torque to overcome friction created by the work, e.g., in grinding a metal surface. Important DC motor characteristic is torque speed relationship.

At zero speed, when the motor is beginning its rotation, the current developed is proportional to the applied voltage and the resistance in the armature:

V voltage applied ia = = Ra armature resistance

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Now, when a conductor moves through a magnetic field, there is a generator effect, that is a voltage appears across the conductor. This voltage has a polarity that is opposite to the applied voltage and known as back electromotive force (EMF). In general: EB = Back EMF = K B a

K B = proportionality constant

a
After Rotation has begun,

= Armature speed

ia =
Then

V E B V K B a = Ra Ra
Torque speed relationship

T = KT i a = KT

V K B a Ra

for = 0 , T = V for
= max T = 0

Ra

Torque

Speed
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Loading dc motors
Primary loads on motors are friction, inertia, and constant or varying torque loads. For a rotating system, in the absence of outside forces: No Friction: T = I where I = inertia With Friction: Work= T Power= T

T = I + F

where F = friction

= angular velocity rad/sec = linear speed/r =a r r = radius

Work = F r = Frd = T

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Power Transmission
Gear trains, lead screws
Seen by the motor
w table F1

Reflected torque Reflected inertia

F2 r2

gear

F1 = force on gear 1

motor

TL = F1r1
By laws of conservation and no friction in gear train.

Tref = TM = F2 r2 for gear 2

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Tv = f = (constant ) (speed )

Tref = reflected torque of the load or at the motor

r2 = gear ratio G 1

G = r1

Tref = TL G
1 = M or G

gear train reduces the torque of the load as seen by the motor.

M = 1G

gear 1 rotates at slower angular velocity than gear 2.

T = I

I TM TL I = ref M = L 1 r2 r1 r2 r1
G 1

r I ref = I L 1 2 I ref = I L G 2 M r1

With gear train, smaller motors can be used because of reduced inertia and torque requirements on the motor side.
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Dc motors are typically capable of high rotational velocities and relatively low torque.
Joint or load Motor

Total inertia and friction seen by dc motor

J eq = J a + J1 G 2

Feq = Fa + r 2 F1

J eq and Fa are inertia and friction of motor J1 and F1 and are inertia and friction of the load
No friction for gears is assumed

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Speed Control of dc Motors

Since speed and torque are proportional to the current flowing in the armature of a dc motor, the simplest and most direct method of speed control is the control the magnitude of this current. This can be done by adding a variable resistor in series with the armature.

R1

Potentiometer V

Simple open loop control of dc motor

Here,

K T (V k B ) v ia = ,T = Ra + R1 Ra + R1
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Closed Loop System

Command

Comparator

Amplifier

Signal flow

FEEDBACK
G

Amplifier derives the motor. It could be a single transistor or more than one transistor. The generator is coupled to the motor shaft so that it emits a voltage proportional to its angular velocity (like tachometer). The comparator compared the voltage with what that voltage ought to be if the motor is rotating at desired speed. This is desired speed is indicated by the command signal. The comparator then adjusts the amplifier output to the motor as required to adjust the motor speed.
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Stepping Motors
Inherently digital devices; incremental positioning devices. A magnetic field rotates around a stator.

N N
S N

Avg. North

N S S Avg. South

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automa0on components Sensors

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Sensors and Data Acquisi?on

Sensors

discrete

con0nuous

Mech.

Elec.

Opt.

Mech.

Elec. Acous0cal

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Discrete event (on/o) sensor

State changes based on occurrence of some events, for example, passing a part by a point A at a conveyor.
Con0nuous sensors

Measures the magnitude of some a]ribute, for example, viscosity, pH in

chemical process, speed of conveyor Mechanical Limit Switches

ON/OFF; for example, to limit machine travel in its various axes.

level type: rod (arm) connected to a lever shaI mechanical ac0on electrical contact push-type: Normally closed or normally open

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Photoelectric Sensors
Two main components:
LED +V Amplier Oscillator power in Emi]er Receiver Demodulator Signal

LED: Light emiOng diode; emits light when energized with applica9on of voltage Receiver is a photo-sensi9ve transistor. It is biased from the light emiHed from LED.
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Dierent Sensing modes:

Opposed sensing mode;

emi]er and receiver are posi0oned opposite to one another; light interrup0on

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Retro-reec.ve sensing mode Emi]er and receiver are housed in the same package. A target on the other side to return the light. Not good when object is highly reec0ve.

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Diused Sensing Mode

EmiHer and receiver housed and in the same package; return light from the object; light spreads; object returns beam.

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Convergent Beam Sensing

EmiHer and receiver in the same package; focused target; object returns light to the receiver; can focus detec9on on a specic area.

Sensor Arrays

To detect height of objects, for example, array of photo-electric or proximity sensors can be put together.

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Con0nuous Sensors and Feedback Control

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A/D: Device transforming a con?nuous signal into digital signal. The following steps are followed:

1. Signal periodically sampled to form a series of discrete 0me samples. 2. Each discrete analog sample falls within one of nitely many predened amplitude levels called quan0zing levels. 3. Amplitude levels are encoded into digital form.
A D P O R T A Computer P O R T B D A

Digital In

Out Digital

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Ultrasonic Range Sensors

Ini0ate 0ming

Pulse generator
transmit receive

Timing Circuit Pulses of sound to measure distance d

Liquid level

pulse generator

2d = t v
1 v 2 t v = speed of sound d= t = time

2d = round trip = 0me the 0mer is on

Pulses of sound to measure distance. When pulse is generated, a 0mer is also started coun0ng clock cycles. Receiver receives the sound reec0on. Timer is stopped and distance calculated.

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Op.cal Angle Encoders

Light is transmi]ed through a slo]ed or ruled disk on a rota0ng shaI onto photo- detectors that converts transmi]ed light into electrical signals. Opaque and transparent areas of the disk alterna0vely occlude and reveal the light source as the disk rotates. Varia0ons in photo-detector outputs are then processed and interpreted as changes in shaI posi0on.

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Each bit is generated by a photo-detector according to the arrangement of opaque areas on the disk. The outer disk ( b 2 ) has only one black and one white segment, thus indica0ng 180 rota0on. The b1 ring has two black and two white segments, thus has a resolu0on of 90 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 7

o
0-90 45-90 90-135 135-180 180-225 225-270 270-315 315-0

b2 0
0 0 0 1 1 1 1

b1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

b3
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

231 2 The b0 ring has = 2 black and 2 3 1 = 22

white segments thus has a resolu0on of 45.

This arrangement is not used in prac9ce because 6 more than one bit changes as we cross a boundary.

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Ex: To move from region 3 to 4, the binary output changes from 011 to 100. Since there is no guarantee for synchroniza0on of these changes, a condi0on like 111 may occur. Alterna0ve approach is to have a coding scheme where only one bit changes at a 0me. b3 b2 b1 n 0-45 Grey code 0 0 0 0 45-90 1 0 0 1
2 3 4 5 6 7
90-135 135-180 180-225 225-270 270-315 315-0

0 0 1 1 1 1

1 1 0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 0 1

Absolute angle encoders are available with as many as 16 output bits. The code generated repeats a[er one revolu9on. High resolu9on requires large no. of detectors and bits (rings).
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Incremental Op.cal Angle encoders

An incremental indica0on of disk rota0on may be obtained by using two bits of binary output. Therefore, only two detectors are required.

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Encoder output vs. rota.on

To monitor changes in angular posi9on, a counter hardware is used.

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Posi.ve direc.on 1 A 0 1 B 0
delay t t

count up

At each transi0on period, a pulse is generated and be input to the counter. The output of counter can be binary. For every rota0on of there will be 4 signals so the output of binary will be incremented by 4. Resolu0on of the encoder is
4

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Nega.ve direc.on A 1 0
delay t

1 B 0
t

count down

Every 0me that the counter is decremented by 4, the encoder is moved by

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