LAB MANUAL

I B.TECH ENGINEERING PHYSICS

USER MANUAL FOR: C-R CIRCUIT BOARD

AIM: To study the decay of current in a C-R circuit and to determine RC time constant. MICRO BOARD CONSISTS OF: -Fixed Power supply, switch, Ammeter, combinations of Resistor & Capacitors. THEORY: When a condenser C is charged through a resistance R then charge increases exponentially in accordance with the formula. Where Q is the charge in time t; and Qo is the maximum charge. The product CR is called time constant. It is the time taken to establish (1- e t /RC) part of the maximum charge in the condenser. It is equal to the time taken to establish 0.632 part of the total charge. When a condenser is discharged through a resistance, the charge falls in accordance with the formula. -t/RC Q = Qo e The time constant in this case is equal to the time, taken to decrease the charge of e part of the maximum charge. It is equal to the time taken to discharge to a value of 0.368 part of maximum charge. i.e. we can say that I = dq /dt t/RC =-t0 e Where C = capacitor in farad R = resistance in ohm I = current in the circuit When I = 0.36 I0, then t = RC PROCEDURE: 1. Rig up the circuit as per the circuit diagram. 2. Flip the switch towards push to charge, the capacitor start charging towards the power supply .The switch is in this position for short interval of time until the ammeter shows maximum deflection, but within the limit. Note down the maximum current as I0. 3. Now flip the switch to other side and start the stop clock. The current start falling. 4. Note the ammeter reading at a regular time interval. 5. Plot the graph of current (I) on Y-axis and time (t) on X-axis. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: S + A + 5V C -

Q = Qo (1-e t/RC )

OBSERVATION TABLE: farad C1 = farad ,C2 =

& C3 =

farad.
Time period in sec For R2 = C3 C1 C2 Time period in sec For R3 = C1 C2 C3

Sr. No Current in Time period in sec Amp For R1 = C1 C2 C3

Sr. No.

R in

C in Farad

Time constant (t) Theoretical Experimental

t exp t the

GRAPH: C u r I0 r e n t

0.36 I0

Time (sec)

Draw an intercept to the X-axis as shown in the graph the corresponding t gives the time constant.

USER MANUAL FOR: DIFFRACTION GRATING NORMAL INCIDENCE & MINIMUM DEVATION EXPERIMENT
AIM: -To determine the wavelength of a given light radiation using diffraction grating with (a) Normal incidence and (b) Minimum deviation method. APPARATUS: -Spectrometer, Sodium Vapour Lamp & Grating. DESCRIPTION : A plane diffraction grating consists of a parallel-sided glass plate with equidistant parallel lines drawn very closely on it by means of a diamond point. 15,000 lines per inch or (15,000/ 25.u) lines per cm are drawn on the grating. Such gratings are known as original gratings. But the gratings used in the laboratory are exact replicas of the original gratings on a celluloid film. The celluloid film is fixed over as optically plane glass plate. Care should be taken while handling the grating. It should be handled by the edge of the plate. THEORY: A parallel beam of monochromatic light from the collimator of a spectrometer is made to fall normally on a plane diffraction grating erected vertically on the prism table. The telescope initially in line with the collimator is slowly turned to one side. A line spectrum will be noticed and on further turning the telescope the line spectrum will again be noticed. While the former is called the first order spectrum, the later is called the second order spectrum. On further rotating the telescope, the third order spectrum may also be noticed, depending on the quality of the grating. But the number of orders of spectra that can be observed with a given grating limited. With the light normally incident on a grating having N lines per cm, if is the angle of diffraction of a radiation of wavelength in the n th order spectrum, then n N = Sin Sin or = nN Sin x 2.54 or = --------(1) n x 15,000 Knowing and n, the wavelength of light radiation is calculated using equation (1) for the normal incidence method. Again when a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident upon a grating is diffracted in such a way that the angle of deviation is minimum; then the wavelength () of the radiation is given by: 2Sin (D/2) = Nn 2 x 2.54 x Sin (D/2) = 15,000 Where D is the angle of minimum deviation and n is the order of the spectrum. Equation (2) is used for the minimum deviation method to calculate the wavelength of the light radiation. ----------(2)

PROCEDURE: a. Normal incidence method: -Preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made, focussing and adjusting the eye piece of the telescope to a distant object. The grating table is levelled with a spirit level. The grating is mounted on the grating table for the normal incidence. The slit of collimator is illuminated with sodium light. The direct reading is taken, the telescope is turned from the position through 90 and fixed in this position, as shown in the fig 1. The grating is mounted vertically on the grating platform, the rulings on it being parallel to the slit in the collimator. The platform is now rotated until the image of the slit as reflected by the glass surface is seen in the telescope. The vertically cross wire is made to coincide with the fixed edge of the image. The platform is fixed in this position. The vernier table is now rotated in the appropriate direction through 45, so that the rays of light from the collimator fall normally, on the grating.
C 45 45 T

Fig 1. Grating set for normal incident light The telescope is now released and rotated it so as to catch the first order-diffracted image on one side, say right (or left) as shown in the fig 2. With sodium light two images of the slit, very close to each other are seen. These are the D and1 D lines of sodium light. The point of intersection 2 of the cross wires is set on the D line and1the reading in the vernier I & II is noted. Similarly, the reading corresponding to the D line is noted. The telescope is now focused to the direct ray 2 passing through the grating and the point of intersection of the crosswire is set on the direct ray. The reading in the vernier I& II is noted. The difference in the readings corresponding to any one gives the angle of diffraction for that line in the first order spectrum.
C

Left side

T Direct

Right side

Fig 2. Diffracted Image

The experiment is repeated for the second order spectrum and the results are tabulated in table 1. The number of lines per inch as marked on the grating is noted and the number of lines N per cm is given by: Number of lines per inch N= 2.54 (b) Minimum deviation method: The direct image of the slit is observed through the telescope. The point of intersection of the cross wire is set on the sharp image of the slit. The vernier table is fixed and the reading on the circular scale is noted. The prism table is released from the vernier table. The telescope is turned to one side, (say right) and the first order-diffracted image is observed. The prism table is slowly rotated to the right. As it is slowly rotated to the right side, the image first moves towards left, reaches a limiting position and then retraces its path. In this limiting position, the telescope is fixed such that the point of intersection of the cross wire is on the D1 line and the reading on the circular scale is taken. The difference between the direct reading and this reading gives the angle of minimum deviation for the D 1 line in the first order spectrum. Similarly the angle of deviation for the D 2 line of the first order noted. Next, the angle of minimum deviation for the D1 and D 2 lines in the second order spectrum is found similarly. The results are tabulated in table 2. Table 1 OBSERVATIONS: Number of lines (as marked on the grating) per inch = -----------Number of lines per cm = N = -----------TABULAR COLOUMN: Order of the Spectrum Line Reading on the circular scale when the telescope is on the right hand side Vernier1 D First Order D
1

Direct reading vernier1 vernier2

Difference Mean
2

Sin

Vernier2

D Second Order D

Knowing , n and N, the wavelength ( ) of the given source of radiation for D1& D2 are calculated using equation (1).

lines

Table 2 OBSERVATIONS: Direct reading: Vernier 1 = Vernier 2 =

Order of the Spectrum Line Telescope in minimum deviation position Angle of minimum deviation Wavelength light

First Order

D1 D2 D1 D2

Second Order

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USER MANUAL FOR: DISPERSION OF LIGHT (Spectrometer Prism) EXPERIMENT

AIM: -To determine the dispersive power of the material of the given prism by the spectrometer. APPARATUS: -Spectrometer, Mercury Vapour Lamp & Prism. THEORY: -The essential part of the spectrometer are: (a) The telescope, (b) The collimator & (c) Prism table. (a) The Telescope: The telescope is an astronomical type. At one end of a brass tube is an objective, at the other end a (Rams dens) eyepiece and in between, a cross wire screen. The eyepiece may be focused on the cross-wires and the length of the telescope may be adjusted by means of a rack and pinion screw. The telescope is attached to a circular disc, which rotates symmetrically about a vertical axis and carries a main scale, divided in half-degrees along its edges. The telescope may be fixed in any desired position by means of a screw & fine adjustments made by a tangential screw. (b) The Collimator: The collimator consists of a convex lens fitted at one end of a brass tube and an adjustable slit at the other end. The distance between the two may be adjusted by means of a rack and pinion screw. The collimator is rigidly attached to the base of the instrument. (c) The Prism Table: The prism table consists of a two circular brass discs with three leveling screws between them. A short vertical brass rod is attached to the center of the lower disc & this is fitted into a tube attached to another circular disc moving above the main scale. The prism table may be fixed on the tube by means of a screw. The second circular disc moving over the main scale carries two verniers at diametrically opposite points. The vernier disc also revolves about the vertical axis passing through the center of the main scale and may be fixed in any position with the help of a screw. A tangential screw is provided for fine movements of the vernier scale. Most Spectrometers have 29 main scale divisions (half-degrees) divided on the vernier into thirty equal parts. Hence, the least count of the vernier is one-sixteenth of a degree or one minute. Preliminary Adjustments: The following adjustments are to be made before the commencement of an experiment with spectrometer. (i) Eyepiece Adjustment: The telescope is turned towards a bright object, say a white wall about 2 to 3 meters way and the eyepiece is adjusted so that the cross-wires are very clearly seen. This ensures that whenever an image is clearly seen on the cross-wires, the eye is an unstrained condition. (ii) Telescope Adjustment: The telescope is now turned towards a bright object, and its length is adjusted until the distant object is clearly seen in the plane of the cross-wires: that is the image suffers no lateral displacement, with the cross-wire of the eye shifted slightly to and fro. In this position the telescope is capable of receiving parallel rays. This means that whenever any image is seen

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clearly on the cross-wires, it may be taken that the rays entering the telescope constitute a parallel bundle. In case the experiment is to be performed in a dark room from which a view of distant object is difficult to obtain, the method suggested by Schewster may be adopted. A prism is placed on the prism table and a refracted image of the slit is viewed. The prism is adjusted to be almost at minimum deviation. At this stage, it will be found that the image is fixed telescope for two positions of the prism, which may be obtained by turning the prism table one way or the other. The prism is kept in one of these positions and (say) the telescope is adjusted until the image is clear. The prism table alone is adjusted so that the image leaves the field of vision (traveling towards the direct ray) and returns again. Now the collimator alone is adjusted for clarity of image. This is repeated a few times until the image is quite clear. (iii) Collimator Adjustment: The slit of the collimator is illuminated with light. The telescope is turned to view the image of the slit and the collimator screws are adjusted such that a clear image of the slit is obtained without parallax in the plane of the cross-wires. The slit of the collimator is also adjusted to the vertical & narrow. The refractive index of the material of the prism is given by Sin (A + D/2) --------------(1) = Sin (A/2) Where A is the angle of the equilateral prism and D is the angle of minimum deviation.

When the angle of incidence is small, the angle of deviation is large. As the angle incidence is slowly increased, the angle of deviation begins to diminish progressively, till for one particular value of the angle of incidence, the angle of deviation attains a least value. This angle is known as the angle of minimum deviation D. The dispersive power () of the material of the prism is given by B R = ( - 1) Where B= the refractive index of the blue rays R = the refractive index of the red ray and B + R 2

; the mean of B and R

Noting the angle of minimum deviation D, for blue & red rays B and R are calculated using equation (1). Using equation (2) the dispersive power of the material of the prism is calculated.

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PROCEDURE: The prism is placed on the prism table with the ground surface of the prism on to the left or right side of the collimator. Care is to be taken to see that the ground surface of the prism does not face either the collimator or the telescope. The vernier table is then fixed with the help of vernier screw. The ray of light passing through the collimator strikes the polished surface BC of the prism at Q and undergoes deviation along QR and emerges out of the prism from the face AC. The deviated ray (continuous spectrum) is seen through the telescope in position T2. Looking at the spectrum the prism table is now slowly moved on to one side, so that the spectrum moves towards undeviated path of the beam. The deviated ray (spectrum) also moves on to the same side for some time and then the ray starts turning back even through the prism table is moved in the same direction. The point at which the ray starts turning back is called minimum deviation position. In the spectrum, it is sufficient if one colour is adjusted for minimum deviation position. In this limiting position of the spectrum, deviation of the beam is minimum. The telescope is now fixed on the blue colour and the tangent screw is slowly operated until the point of intersection of the cross wire is exactly on the image. The reading for the blue colour is noted in vernier I and vernier II and tabulated. The reading is called the minimum deviation reading for the blue colour. The telescope is now moved on the red colour and the readings are taken as explained for blue colour. Next, the telescope is released and the prism is removed from the prism table. The telescope is now focused on to the direct ray (undeviated path) and the reading in vernier I and vernier II are noted. The difference of readings between the deviated reading for blue colour and the direct reading gives the angle of minimum deviation, reading for the blue colour (DB). Similarly, the difference of readings between the deviated reading for the red colour and the direct reading gives the angle of minimum deviation for the red colour (DR). the refractive indices for the blue and red rays are calculated using equation (1) (Assuming the angle of the equilateral prism, A = 60), the values of B and R are substituted in equation (2) and the dispersive power of the material of the prism is calculated. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: -

Collimator P a C S A D

Telescope T2

Arrangement of prism for dispersive power OBSERVATION TABLE: Least count of the vernier of the spectrometer, LC= Angle of prism A= Direct reading Vernier I = Vernier II =

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Colour of the line Blue

Position of minimum deviation Vernier I Vernier II

Angle of minimum deviation VernierI Vernier II

Red

User manual for : LASER diode Characteristics

A laser diode is a laser where the active medium is a semiconductor similar to that found in a light-emitting diode. The most common and practical type of laser diode is formed from a p-n junction and powered by injected electric current. These devices are sometimes referred to as injection laser diodes to distinguish them from (optically) pumped laser diodes, which are more easily produced in the laboratory. A laser diode, like many other semiconductor devices, is formed by doping a very thin layer on the surface of a crystal wafer. The crystal is doped to produce an n-type region and a p-type region, one above the other, resulting in a p-n junction, or diode. When an electron and a hole are present in the same region, they may recombine or "annihilate" with the result being spontaneous emission i.e., the electron may reoccupy the energy state of the hole, emitting a photon with energy equal to the difference between the electron and hole states involved. (In a conventional semiconductor junction diode, the energy released from the recombination of electrons and holes is carried away as phonons, i.e., lattice vibrations, rather than as photons.) Spontaneous emission gives the laser diode below lasing threshold similar properties to an LED. Spontaneous emission is necessary to initiate laser oscillation, but it is one among several sources of inefficiency once the laser is oscillating. In the absence of stimulated emission (e.g., lasing) conditions, electrons and holes may coexist in proximity to one another, without recombining, for a certain time, termed the "upper-state lifetime" or "recombination time" (about a nanosecond for typical diode laser materials), before they recombine. Then a nearby photon with energy equal to the recombination energy can cause recombination by stimulated emission. This generates another photon of the same frequency, travelling in the same direction, with the same polarization and phase as the first photon. This means that stimulated emission causes gain in an optical wave (of the correct wavelength) in the injection region, and the gain increases as the number of electrons and holes injected across the junction increases. The spontaneous and stimulated emission processes are vastly more efficient in direct bandgap semiconductors than in indirect bandgap semiconductors; therefore silicon is not a common material for laser diodes. As in other lasers, the gain region is surrounded with an optical cavity to form a laser. In the simplest form of laser diode, an optical waveguide is made on that crystal surface, such that the light is confined to a relatively narrow line. The two ends of the crystal are cleaved to form perfectly smooth, parallel edges, forming a Fabry-Perot resonator. Photons emitted into a mode of the waveguide will travel along the waveguide and be reflected several times from each end face before they are emitted. As a light wave passes through the cavity, it is amplified by stimulated emission, but light is also lost due to

Theory: Introduction:

absorption and by incomplete reflection from the end facets. Finally, if there is more amplification than loss, the diode begins to "lase".

Diode lasers have been called wonderful little devices. They are small and efficient. They can be directly modulated and tuned. These devices affect us daily with better clarity in our telephone system, higher fidelity in the music we play at home, and a host of other, less obvious ways.

Electrical Characteristics
The V/I Curve. The voltage drop across the laser is often acquired during electrical characterization. This characteristic is similar to the analogous characteristic of any other type of semiconductor diode and is largely invariant with temperature, as depicted in Figure 1. (Note: Diode laser manufacturers usually place the forward voltage on the X axis, in compliance with conventional practice in the electronics industry for other types of diodes. Companies manufacturing instrumentation to characterize diode lasers often present the curve in the manner of Figure 1, with the forward current on the X axis. Conventional electronics people would call this an I/V curve, rather than accept our nomenclature of a V/I curve). The typical voltage drop across a diode laser at operating power is 1.5 volts. V/I data are most commonly used in derivative characterization techniques.

Figure 1 : The V/I Curve The L/I Curve. The most common of the diode laser characteristics is the L/I curve (Figure 2). It plots the drive current applied to the laser against the output light intensity. This curve is used to determine the lasers operating point (drive current at the rated optical power) and threshold current (current at which lasing begins). The efficiency of a diode laser is also derived from the L/I curve. It is most commonly expressed as slope efficiency and measured in units of mW/mA.

Figure 2 : The L/I Curve A note of caution. It is extremely damaging to apply a large reverse bias to a laser diode. Manufacturers of diode lasers may look at the reverse bias breakdown characteristics of

the laser to control some of the device geometries. Even in that limited instance, manufacturers are careful not to exceed about 10 A of reverse current.

IMPORTANT NOTICE : DO NOT LOOK AT THE LASER DIRECTLY WITH THE LASER TURNED ON!

Experimental Procedure Apparatus:

Mikron/Micro Laser Diode Characteristics board comprising of: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Laser diode 0-5V variable Supply for laser diode 20mW Digital Optical power meter to measure optical power of Laser diode 20V Digital Voltmeter to measure voltage across laser diode 200mA DC Digital Ammeter to measure Laser diode Current

Procedure for V/I characteristics of a laser diode:

1. Connect the Laser diode circuit as shown below: 0-5V Variable Supply Coarse Fine

100 Laser Diode + + -

20V DVM

200mA Ammeter

2. Slowly increase supply voltage using variable Power supply using coarse and fine knobs.

3. Note down current through the laser diode at increasing values of Laser diode voltage of 0.5V, 1.0V, 1.5V, 2.5 V. 4. Do not exceed current limit of 30mA else the laser diode may get damaged. 5. Plot a graph of Laser diode voltage V/s Laser diode current as shown in figure 1.(As this experiment is conducted at room temperature, only one graph for a single temperature will be obtained.)

Procedure for L/I characteristics of a laser diode:

1. Connect the Laser diode circuit as shown below: 0-5V Variable Supply Coarse Fine

100 Laser Diode + Inbuilt Optical power meter (20 mW) 200mA Ammeter

2. Slowly increase supply voltage using variable Power supply coarse and fine knobs. 3. Note down the optical power measured by the optical power meter in mW at increasing current through the laser diode of 5mA to 26 mA at 1 mA step. 4. Do not exceed current limit of 30mA else the laser diode may get damaged. 5. Plot a graph of Laser diode optical power V/s Laser diode current as shown in figure2 .(As this experiment is conducted at room temperature, only one graph for a single temperature will be obtained.) 6. Calculate the slope of this curve. 7. This slope is efficiency of Laser diode in terms of mW/mA. 8. Draw a line through the curve cutting the X axis. The point of intersection of X axis and this line will give the threshold current of Laser diode.

USER MANUAL FOR: DETERMINATION OF LASER RADIATION EXPERIMENT

AIM: To determine the wavelength of a given source of laser using a plane transmission grating by normal incident method. APPARATUS: Plane diffraction grating, laser source, a scale and prism table. DESCRIPTION: A plane diffraction grating consists of parallel sides glass plates with equidistant fine parallel lines drown very closely upon it by means of a diamond point. The number of lines drown per inch are written on the diffraction grating by the manufacturers. The laser consists of a mixture in the ratio of about 10:1, placed inside a long narrow discharge tube. The pressure inside the tube is about 1 mm of Hg. The gas system is enclosed between a pair of plane mirror or pair of concave mirror so that a resonator system is formed. One of the mirrors is of very high reflectivity while the other is partially transparent so that energy may be coupled out of the System. The 6328 A transition of beam corresponding to the well-known red light of Laser are light amplification by stimulated emission of radiations. THEORY: An arrangement consisting of large number of parallel slits of the same width (e) and separated by equal opaque space (d) is known as the diffraction grating (e+d) is known as the grating element. A grating is constructed by rubbing equidistant parallel lines N ruled on the grating per inch are written over it. Hence (e+d) = 1= 2.54 cm i.e. the grating element (e+d)= 2.54 cm. The normal critical incidence the condition for obtaining principle maxima is(e+d) sin= 2.54 sin = nN Where is wavelength of light. N Lines per inch on the plane diffraction grating And n is order of diffraction light.
Second

RAY DIAGRAM: First order Central Maxima First order

Second Laser Grating Screen

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PROCEDURE: Keep the grating in front of the laser beam such that light is incident normally on it. When light of laser falls on the grating the central maxima along with four other lights are seen on the screen. The light next to central maxima is called the first order maxima and the light next to first order is second order maxima. Now measure the distance between the grating and the screen and tabulate it as d1 and the distance between central maxima to first order and then central maxima and second order is d2 and it is also tabulated. OBERVATION TABLE: Number of lines on the grating N= The distance between grating and the screen D =

cm

Order Left side No d1

right side d2

Mean d

sin = d / d2 +D2

= sin /nN

PRECAUTIONS: 1 Do not look at the laser beam directly. 2) The prism table should be perpendicular to the laser beam and the grating should be horizontal.

RESULT: The wavelength of laser beam=

nm.

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USER MANUAL FOR: L C R

BOARD

AIM: - To study the series and parallel resonance circuit and to find frequency and quality factor. MICRO BOARD CONSISTS OF: -Set of resistors, Capacitors, Inductors and Milli ammeter. R 1 = 150 R2 = 150 R = 330 3 C 1 = 0.01 C 2 = 0.1 F C3 = 0.22 F L = 2.5mH L 2 = 5mH L 3 = 7.5mH
1

PROCEDURE: SERIES RESONANCE: 1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. 2. Apply input signal using signal generator. The output should be 10V only. 3. Take the output across the resistor and feed it to Ammeter input sockets. 4. Vary the frequency till the Ammeter records a sharp rise and fall, adjust the signal such that the Ammeter deflection is the maximum possible. This is the resonant frequency of the connected combination of the circuit. 5. Adjust the signal generator amplitude such that to get full-scale deflection. In Ammeter now reduce the frequency till the deflection falls considerably. Then increase the frequency in regular intervals & note down the Ammeter readings. 6. Plot a graph between the meter deflection divisions and frequency. 7. Repeat the procedure using different combinations of L, C & R and study how Q is affected. Also study how Resonant Frequency depends upon different combination of L.C.R. PARALLEL RESOANCE: 1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram. 2. Apply input signal, from a reliable signal generator. The output should be 10V only. 3. Take the output across the tank circuit and connect to Ammeter input sockets. 4. Vary the frequency till the Ammeter records sharp fall. Adjust the signal such that the deflection falls down considerably. Then increase the frequency in regular intervals and note down the deflection. 5. Adjust the signal generators amplitude such that, to get full-scale deflection. Now reduce the frequency till the deflection falls down considerably. Then increase the frequency in regular intervals & note down the deflection. 6. Plot graph between the meter deflection divisions and frequency. 7. Repeat the procedure for different values of R and study how Q is affected. Also study how resonant frequency depends on different combinations of L.C.R. CALCULATIONS: For series circuit Z is minimum at Resonance. Resonance frequency of series circuit is1 fo = 2 LC Io = E R + Ro Eo = RIo Ro is the resistance of the coil. Zo = R + Ro

fo ( = f2 f1) f2 is the point beyond the fo (at the point Eo/2) f1 is the point before fo (at the point Eo/2) LWo Q is also equal to = R + Ro For parallel circuit Z is maximum at resonance. 1 fo = Zo = 2 LC L or Qo =L Wo CRo EZo Eo = Izo = (R + Zo) Qo = fo
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: L C R SERIES RESONANCE L GRAPH: C Im R
SIGNAL

Qo =

(=f2 - f1 as like the case of series circuit)

Im
I

GENERATOR

f1 L C R PARALLEL RESONANCE L GRAPH: -

f0

f2

FREQUENCY

SIGNAL

C A

R + -

GENERATOR

f0 FREQUENCY

USER MANUAL FOR: STUDY OF NORMAL MODES IN A STRING USING FORCED VIBRATIONS IN RODS (MELDES APPARATUS) EXPERIMENT
AIM: -To determine the frequency of a vibrating bar, or tuning fork using Meldes arrangement. APPARATUS: -Smooth pulley fixed to a stand, tuning fork, Connecting wires, Weight box, Pan, Thread & Power supply. THEORY: (a) Transverse arrangement: The fork is placed in the transverse vibrations position

and by adjusting the length of the string and weights in the pan; the string starts vibrating & forms many well-defined loops. This is due to the stationary vibrations set up as results of the superposition of the progressive waveform the prong and the reflected wave from the pulley. Well-defined loops are formed when the frequency of each segment coincides with the frequency of the fork. The frequency of the transverse vibrations of the stretched string by the tension of T dynes is given by:
1 = 2l 1 = 2 l m T 1 -----------(1) T/m

Where m = mass per unit length of the string l = length of a single loop.

(b) Longitudinal arrangement: When the fork is placed in the longitudinal position and the string makes longitudinal vibrations, the frequency of the stretched string will be half of the frequency () of the tuning fork. That is, when well-defined loops are formed on the string, the frequency of each vibrating segment of the string is exactly half the frequency of the fork.
During longitudinal vibrations, when the prong is in its right extreme position the string corresponding to a loop gets slackened string moves upto its initial horizontal position & becomes light. But when the prong is again in its right extreme position, thereby completing one vibration, the string goes up; its inertia carrying it onwards and thereby completes only a half vibration. Hence, the frequency of each loop is: 1 T/m 1 = 2l Hence, the frequency of tuning fork: 1 = 2 1 = T/m l T = l m 1 -----------(2)

PROCEDURE: The apparatus (tuning fork) is first arranged for transverse vibrations, with the length of the string

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3 or 4 meters & passing over the pulley. The circuit is closed vary the pot till the fork vibrates steadily. The load in the pan is adjusted slowly, till a convenient number of loops (say between 4 and 10) with well-defined nodes & maximum amplitude at the antinodes are formed, the vibrations of the string being in the vertical plane. The number of loops (X) formed in the string between the pulley and the fork are noted. The length of the string between the pulley and the fork (d) is noted. The length (l) of a single loop is calculated by: d l= x Let: m = mass of the pan. M = load added into the pan. cm.

: Tension, T = (M + m)g dynes Where g = acceleration due to gravity at the place. Increasing or decreasing the load M repeats the experiment, so that the number of loops increases or decreases by one. The experiment is repeated till the whole string vibrates in one or two loops & the observations are recorded. Next the tuning fork is arranged for the longitudinal vibrations. The experiment is repeated as was done for the longitudinal vibrations & the observations are recorded. At the end of the experiment, the mass m of the pan, the mass of the string (w) and the length (Y) of the strings are noted. OBSERVATION S: 1. Mass of the string (thread) = W = -------gm (correct to a mg) 2. Length of the (thread) string = Y = -----cm 3. Linear density of the thread = (W/Y) = --------gm/cm 4. Mass of the pan = m = --------gm (correct to a mg) TABULAR COLUMN:-

For transverse and longitudinal arrangement

S. o. Load applied into the pan M gm Tension T=(M+m)g dynes o. of loops X Length of X loops=d cm Length of each loop l=d/X cm T T l

-2-

USER MANUAL FOR : N EWTONS RINGS EXPERIMENT

AIM: -To determine (a) the wavelength of sodium vapour light and / or (b) the radius of curvature of the surface of the lens, by forming Newtons rings. APPARATUS: -Newtons ring set & Plane mirror. THEORY: Let R = Radius of curvature of the surface of the lens in contact with the glass plate (P). D = Diameter of the nth ring. th D2 = Diameter of the n2 ring. Then, the relation gives the wavelength of the light radiation: (D2 - D1) = ..(1) 4R (n2 n ) The radius of curvature of the lens is determined with a spherometer. The values of D and D 2 are very small and occur to the second power in equation (1). Hence they are to be measured carefully with the traveling microscope. Care is to be taken in moving the microscope to travel in a direction without moving back and forth while taking readings. This is very essential since the variation in the diameter of the rings is in the second decimal place and any back and forth movement of the microscope will result in wrong readings. It can be seen from equation (1) that the diameter of the rings increase with the increase in the radius of curvature R of the lens. With a lens of radius of curvature of about 100 cm, the rings formed will be convenient for measurement. Hence, it is desirable to select a Plano convex lens of long focal length for forming rings. PROCEDURE: -The apparatus consists of a light source. The light from it is rendered parallel by means of a convex lens. The parallel rays are incident on a plane glass plate through the magnifying glass inclined at 45 to the path of incident rays. Alternate bright & dark rings are observed through a traveling microscope. The point of intersection of cross wires in the microscope is brought to the center of ring system, if necessary, turning the cross wires such that one of them is perpendicular to the line of travel of the microscope. The wire may be set tangential to any one ring; & starting from the center of the ring system, the microscope is moved on to one side, say left, across the field of view counting the number of rings. After passing beyond 25th ring, the direction of motion of the microscope is reversed and the cross wire is set at the 20th dark ring, tangential to it. The reading on the microscope scale is noted. Similarly, the readings with the cross-wires set on 18th, 16th, 14th, -----2nd dark rings are noted. The microscope is moved in the same direction and the readings corresponding to the 2nd, 4th, 6th-------20th dark ring on the right side are noted. Readings are to be taken with the microscope moving in one & the same direction to avoid errors due to backlash. The observations are recorded in table 1. The Plano convex lens is taken out from the traveling microscope and the radius of curvature is determined by a spherometer. A graph is drawn with the number of rings as abscissa (X-axis) and the square of diameter of the ring as ordinate (Y-axis). The nature of the graph will be a straight line as shown in the fig. From graph the values of D and D2 corresponding to two number n1 and n2 are noted. Using these values in equation (1) the wavelength of the source is calculated. To determine the radius of curvature, R, of the lens; the wavelength, of the source used is to be taken from standard tables.

-3-

Y D2

D D

n n DIAGRAM: M

n2

P2 X S 45

P1 Arrangementof N ewtonsRing

OBSERVATIONS: -Radius of curvature of the lens in contact with glass plate R = TABULAR COLUMN: S. o of rings n Microscope Reading
Left side L 1 Right side R 1

cm.

Diameter of n

th

Square of diameter

-4-

USER MANUAL FOR : DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY MODULUS OF

THE MATERIAL OF A WIRE (TORSION PEN DULUM) EXPERIMENT AIM: To determine the rigidity modulus (n) of the material of the given wire using torsional pendulum. APPARATUS: - Torsion pendulum, Stop clock, meter scale, and vernier caliper, Screw Gauge Rough balance. THEORY: A torsional pendulum is a flat disk, suspended horizontally by a wire attached at the top of the fixed support. When the disk is tuned through a small angle, the wire is twisted .On being released the disk performs torsional oscillations about the axis performs torsional oscillations about the axis of the support .The twist wire will exert a torque on the disk tending to return it to the original position. This is restoring torque. For small twist the restoring torque is found to be proportional to the amount of twist, or the angular displacement, so that = - k ------------(1) Here k is proportionality constant that depends on the properties of the wire is called torsional constant. The minus sign shows that the torque is directly opposite to the angular displacement .Eqn 1, is the condition for angular simple harmonic motion. The equation of motion for such a system is = I = I d2/dt2 So that, on using the equation (1) we get -k = I d2/dt2 d2 / dt2 + k / I =0 (3)

The solution of the equation 3 is, therefore, a simple harmonic oscillation in the angle co-ordinate , namely = m cos ( t + ) Here m is the maximum angular displacement i.e. the amplitude of the angular oscillation. The period off oscillation is given by T = 2 I /k Where I = rotational inertia of the pendulum K= torsional constant If k and I are known, T can be calculated. PROCEDURE: Torsional pendulum consists of a uniform circular metal (brass or iron) disc of diameter about 10 cm and thickness of 1 cm. Suspended by a metal wire (whose n is to be determined) at the center of the disc .The other end of the wire is griped into another chuck, which is fixed to a wall bracket. The length (l) of wire between the two chucks can be adjusted and measured using meter scale .An ink mark is made on the curved edge of the disc. A vertical pointer is kept in front of the disc such that the pointer screens the mark when straight. The disc is set into oscillations in the horizontal plane, by tuning through a small angle .Now stopwatch is started and time (t) for

20 oscillations is noted. This procedure is repeated for two times and the average value is Taken. The time period T (=t/20) is calculated. The experiment is performed for five different lengths of the wire And observations are tabulated in table. The diameter and hence the radius (a) of the wire is determined accurately at least at five different places of the wire using screw gauge , since the radius of the wire is small in magnitude and appears with forth power in the formula of rigidity modulus. The mass (M) and the radius (R) of the circular disc are determine by using rough balance and vernier respectively.

A graph is drowning between l on x-axis and T2 on Y-axis. Rigidity modulus (n) of given wire is determine using the formula l 4 MR2 2 n= dyne /cm 2 2 T a

T2

OBSERVATION TABLE:Mass of the disc m = gm Radius of the disc R = cm Radius of the wire, a Sr.no PSR ,a (cm) HSR L.C PSR + (HSR*LC) Diameter (cm)

Radius

Time taken for 20 Sr. No Length of the wire l between chucks (cm) Oscillations (sec) Trial I Trial II Mean

time period T (sec)

T2

l/T2

USER MANUAL FOR : STUDY OF MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF A

CIRCULAR COIL - STEWART AND GEES EXPERIMENT AIM: -To study the variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying current. APPARATUS: -Stewart and Gees, Rheostat, Ammeter, Battery eliminator, Plug key single, Commutator four plugs. THEORY: The magnetic field (B) at a point on the axis of a circular coil carrying current i is given by the expression 0 ni a2 B= Tesla. 2 23/2 2 (x + a ) Where n is the number of turns, a the mean radius of the coil and x is the distance of the point from the center of the coil along the axis. To measure this field the Stewart and Gees type of tangent galvanometer is convenient. The apparatus consists of a circular frame c made up of non-magnetic substance. An insulated Copper wire is wounded on the frame. The ends of the wire are connected to the other two terminals. By selecting a pair of terminals the number of turns used can be changed. The frame is fixed to a long base B at the middle in a vertical plane along the breadth side. The base has leveling screws. A rectangular non-magnetic metal frame is supported on the uprights. The plane of the frame contains the axis of the coil and this frame passes through the circular coil. A magnetic compass like that one used in deflection magnetometer is supported on a movable platform. This platform can be moved on the frame along the axis of the coil. The compass is so arranged that the center of the magnetic needle always lie on the axis of the coil. The apparatus is arranged so that the plane of coil is in the magnetic meridian. The frame with compass is kept at the center of the coil and the base is rotated so that the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic needle in the compass. The compass is rotated so that the aluminum pointer reads zero zero. Now the rectangular frame is along East-West directions. When a current i flows through the coil the magnetic field produced is in the perpendicular direction to the plane of the coil. The magnetic needle in the compass is under the influence of two magnetic fields. B due to coil carrying current and the earths magnetic field Be which are mutually perpendicular. The needle deflects through an angle satisfying the tangent law. B Thus = Tan (1) Be B= Be Tan :

The theoretical value of B is given by-----------2 0 nIa B= 2 (X 2 + a 2 ) 3/2

PROCEDURE: - With the help of the deflection magnetometer and a chalk, a long line of about one meter is drawn on the working table, to represent the magnetic meridian. Another line perpendicular to the line is also drawn. The Stewart and Gees galvanometer is set with its coil in the magnetic meridian as shown in the fig. The external circuit is connected as shown in the fig, keeping the ammeter, rheostat away from the deflection magnetometer. This precaution is very much required because, the magnetic field produced by the current passing through the rheostat and the permanent magnetic field due to the magnet inside the ammeter affect the magnetometer reading, if they are close to it. The magnetometer is set at the center of the coil and rotated to make the aluminum pointer reads, (0,0) in the magnetometer. The key K, is closed and the rheostat is adjusted so as the deflection in the magnetometer is about 60. The current in the commutator is reversed and the deflection in the magnetometer is observed. The deflection in the magnetometer before and after reversal of current should not differ much. In case of sufficient difference say above 2 or 3, necessary adjustments are to be made. The deflections before and after reversal of current are noted when d = 0. The readings are noted in Table 1. The magnetometer is moved towards East along the axis of the coil in steps of 2cm at a time. At each position, the key is closed and the deflections before and after reversal of current are noted. The mean deflection be denoted as E. The magnetometer is further moved towards east in steps of 2cm each time and the deflections before and after reversal of current be noted, until the deflection falls to 30. The experiment is repeated by shifting the magnetometer towards West from the center of the coil in steps of 2 cm, each time and deflections are noted before and after the reversal of current. The mean deflection is denoted as W. It will be found that for each distance (x) the value in the last two columns of the second table are found to be equal verifying equation (1) & (2). A graph is drawn between x [the distance of the deflection magnetometer from the center of the coil] along x-axis and the corresponding Tan E and Tan W along Y-axis. The shape of the curve is shown in the fig.The point A and B marked on the curve lie at distance equal to half of radius of the coil (a/2) on either side of the coil. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: Circular Coil Deflection Magnetometer West

East

Commutator

A R E K

MODEL GRAPH: -

A B tan w tan E

(West) X X

(East)

OBSERVATION TABLE: Horizontal component of earths magnetic field Be = 0.38 X 10 -4 Tesla (or Wb . m 2 ) Radius of coil a = meter (Diameter of coil /2) Current carrying in the ammeter = Amp 0 = 4 X 10 7
Distance Deflection in East From the direction Center of coil X 1 2 3 Mean E 4 Deflection in West direction 1 2 3 4 Mean W = E + W 2 Tan

Distance X in meter

Theoretical B

Practical B

User manual for : Seebeck Effect Experiment

Theory: Introduction:

Thermoelectric devices are solid state devices that convert thermal energy from a temperature gradient into electrical energy (Seebeck effect) or convert electrical energy into a temperature gradient (Peltier effect). Seebeck first found that an electromotive force is generated by heating a junction between two dissimilar metals. The converse effect discovered by Peltier in 1834 and demonstrated beyond doubt by Lenz in 1838 when he successfully froze water at a bismuth-antimony junction. With the development of semiconductor compounds such as alloys of bismuth telluride or antimony telluride the pumping of substantial quantities of heat from one junction to another simply by passing an electric current is now possible and industrial and commercial applications are in process of development. Seebeck Effect: The effect is that a voltage, the thermoelectric EMF, is created in the presence of a temperature difference between two different metals or semiconductors. This causes a continuous current in the conductors if they form a complete loop. The voltage created is of the order of several micro volts per Kelvin difference. One such combination, copperconstantan, has a Seebeck coefficient of 41 microvolts per degree kelvin at room temperature. In the circuit:

(which can be in several different configurations and be governed by the same equations), the voltage developed can be derived from:

.(1) 3

SA and SB are the Seebeck coefficients (also called thermoelectric power or thermopower) of the metals A and B as a function of temperature, and T1 and T2 are the temperatures of the two junctions. The Seebeck coefficients are non-linear as a function of temperature, and depend on the conductors' absolute temperature, material, and molecular structure. If the Seebeck coefficients are effectively constant for the measured temperature range, the above formula can be approximated as: (2) The Seebeck effect is commonly used in a device called a thermocouple (because it is made from a coupling or junction of materials, usually metals) to measure a temperature difference directly or to measure an absolute temperature by setting one end to a known temperature. A metal probe held at a constant temperature in contact with a second metal of unknown composition can be classified by its TE effect. Industrial quality control instruments use this Seebeck effect to identify metal alloys. This is known as Thermoelectric alloy sorting. Several thermocouples when connected in series are called a thermopile, which is sometimes constructed in order to increase the output voltage since the voltage induced over each individual couple is small. Mobile charged carriers migrating to the cold side leave behind their oppositely charged and immobile nuclei at the hot side thus giving rise to a thermoelectric voltage (thermoelectric refers to the fact that the voltage is created by a temperature difference). Since a separation of charges also creates an electric field, the buildup of charged carriers onto the cold side eventually ceases at some maximum value since there exists an equal amount of charged carriers drifting back to the hot side as a result of the electric field at equilibrium. Only an increase in the temperature difference can resume a buildup of more charge carriers on the cold side and thus lead to an increase in the thermoelectric voltage. Incidentally the thermopower also measures the entropy per charge carrier in the material. The thermopower of a material, represented as S, depends on the material's temperature, and crystal structure. Typically metals have small thermopowers because most have halffilled bands. Electrons (negative charges) and holes (positive charges) both contribute to the induced thermoelectric voltage thus canceling each other's contribution to that voltage and making it small. In contrast, semiconductors can be doped with an excess amount of electrons or holes and thus can have large positive or negative values of the thermopower depending on the charge of the excess carriers. The sign of the thermopower can determine which charged carriers dominate the electric transport in both metals and semiconductors. Superconductors have zero thermopower since the charged carriers carry no entropy. Equivalently, the thermopower is zero because it is impossible to have a finite voltage across a superconductor. (For example, by Ohm's law, V=IR=0, since the resistance, R, is equal to zero in a superconductor.) If two contacts of conductors are maintained at a different temperatures (Th-Tc= T) , a 4

potential difference can be observed between them (VS). This is called Seebeck voltage and arises from the more rapid diffusion of carriers at the hot junction. These carriers diffuse to the cold junction, so that such a contact acquires a potential having the same sign as the diffusing majority carriers. The seebeck coefficient, S is defined as

Experimental Procedure
List of equipments: Mikron Seebeck effect Experiment setup with 1. Copper Constantan Thermocouple 2. Hot water/oil bath (Calorimeter with Small power film resistor heater) 3. Water (ice) bath (Calorimeter with ICE and Water mixture at 0C) 4. Digital Mili voltmeter 5. TwoThermometers 6. Connecting wires 1. Maintain Calorimeter with ICE and Water mixture at 0C (TC) 2. Increase temperature of Hot water Calorimeter bath slowly.(TH) 3. Note down the voltage (in millivolts) across the thermocouple at every 5C rise in hot water bath temperature. 4. Plot a graph of Seebeck voltage V/s T(=TH - TC) 5. Find the slope of the graph. (Seebeck coefficient at room temperature in terms of V/ C or V/ K)

Vs

User manual for : Peltier Effect Experiment

THEORY

Introduction:
Thermoelectric devices are solid state devices that convert thermal energy from a temperature gradient into electrical energy (Seebeck effect) or convert electrical energy into a temperature gradient (Peltier effect). Seebeck first found that an electromotive force is generated by heating a junction between two dissimilar metals. The converse effect discovered by Peltier in 1834 and demonstrated beyond doubt by Lenz in 1838 when he successfully froze water at a bismuth-antimony junction. With the development of semiconductor compounds such as alloys of bismuth telluride or antimony telluride the pumping of substantial quantities of heat from one junction to another simply by passing an electric current is now possible and industrial and commercial applications are in process of development.

Thermoelectric cooling: The thermoelectric effect is particularly interesting at metal-semiconductor junction, because it is much larger than in the case of a junction between two metals. Let us consider an n-type crystal with two Ohmic contacts (Fig.1.1) Ec is the energy of the conduction band electrons of the semiconductor, Eo is the Fermi level. Shaded area represents electron-filled energy bands. As the contact is formed and upon reaching the equilibrium the Fermi levels of the metal and semiconductor merges. With a potential applied across the contacts, electrons with energies greater than Ec-Eo

can get into the semiconductor. Consequently, metal-1 at the left-hand contact, loses the electrons occupying its highest energy states because electrons flow from left to right in the diagram in response to the applied potential. At the right hand contact, these electrons are deposited into metal-2, so that the hottest electrons are moved from metal-1 to metal2 by virtue of the contact effects and the current flow. As a result, metal-1 is cooled and metal-2 is heated by the amount of energy transferred per electron, which clearly equals Ec-Eo plus the kinetic energy of the electrons moving from a hot to a cold region. This is expressed in terms of the thermoelectric power Qn for a n-type semiconductor, which is defined as:

Where, KB is the Boltzmann Constant. Similarly the thermoelectric power for a p-type semiconductor is:

Equations (1) and (2) show that the large values of thermoelectric power found in semiconductors basically result from the fact that the average potential energy for conduction electrons (or holes) is larger than the Fermi energy, in contrast to the situation in metals. It is advantageous to use a p-type and an n-type element together, because the thermoelectric effects of the two are additive. Current (IP) flowing in a circuit containing a semiconductor metal contact tends to pump heat from one electrode to the other because of the Peltier effect. The Thermoelectric power of semiconductor is large enough to make such electronic cooling of practical interest, particularly where small size and absence of mechanical movements are desired. A single cooling unit consisting of a p-type element and an n-type element joined with Ohmic contacts is sketched in Fig.1.2

The current IP pumps heat from the common junction, cooling it an amount T below the hot junction ( T = Th-Tc). The Peltier cooling effect is reduced by heat conducted down the elements normal thermal conductance, together with Joule heating in the elements due to the electric current. The heat removal rate at the cold junction is expressed as:

Where, Qc is the heat removal rate from the cold junction k is the thermal conductance RP is the electrical resistance of the semiconductor elements S is the Seebeck coefficient is the Peltier coefficient ( = ST) Peltier coefficient of a junction is defined as the amount of energy absorbed or evolvedwhen a unit quantity of electric charge flows across the junction. It is expressed in terms of joules/coulomb. The value of Peltier coefficient depends not only on the pair of conductor/semiconductor in contact but also on the temperature of the junction. The factor comes from an exact solution of the heat-transport equation for the problem. The power balance flow chart as expressed by equations (4) and (5) is illustrated in Fig.1.3. There is an optimum current for maximum T for a Peltier cell (Fig.1.4). At low current the Peltier effect is small. At large currents, the cooling effect ( I) is large, but the Joule heating is even larger because it increases as the square of the current. The cooling performance of a Peltier cell is best described by the figure of merit, defined as:

Where, is the electrical conductivity and K is the thermal conductivity. It can be seen that a useful material has a large Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity but a small thermal conductivity.

Experimental Procedure
List of equipments: Mikron Peltier effect experiment (Peltier cell as a cooler) setup with : 1. Peltier cell 2. Copper Heat-sink 3. Thermal paste 4. Digital Voltmeter 5. Digital Ammeter 5. I.C Regulated built in power supply ( 0 3 V, 3 A) 6. Two thermometers Peltier cell as a cooler: Maximum temperature difference, T Procedure: 1. The Peltier device is connected on the board in the following manner:

2. Switch on the variable power supply on board. 3. Increase the current (Ip) to 0.25A by varying the current control knob slowly. 4. Note down the Voltage (Vp) reading. Wait for 2 minutes. Note the readings of Hot junction (Th) and Cold Junction (Tc). Calculate T = Th-Tc. 5. Repeat the steps 3 and 4 for Currents of 0.25A steps upto 3A. 6. Do not exceed 3A limit. This may damage the power supply. 7. Plot a graph of Tc v/s Ip and T v/s Ip. 8. Find the maximum temperature difference T.

User manual for : PIN Diode Characteristics Theory: Introduction: A PiN diode is a diode with a wide, lightly doped 'near' intrinsic
semiconductor region between a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor regions. The p-type and n-type regions are typically heavily doped because they are used for ohmic contacts. The wide intrinsic region is in contrast to an ordinary PN diode. The wide intrinsic region makes the PIN diode an inferior rectifier (the normal function of a diode), but it makes the PIN diode suitable for attenuators, fast switches, photodetectors, and high voltage power electronics applications. A PiN diode operates under what is known as high-level injection. In other words, the intrinsic "i" region is flooded with charge carriers from the "p" and "n" regions. Its function can be likened to filling up a water bucket with a hole on the side. Once the water reaches the hole's level it will begin to pour out. Similarly, the diode will conduct current once the flooded electrons and holes reach an equilibrium point, where the number of electrons is equal to the number of holes in the intrinsic region. When the diode is forward biased, the injected carrier concentration is typically several orders of magnitudes higher than the intrinsic level carrier concentration. A PIN diode obeys the standard diode equation for low frequency signals. At higher frequencies, the diode looks like an almost perfect (very linear, even for large signals) resistor. There is a lot of stored charge in the intrinsic region. At low frequencies, the charge can be removed and the diode turns off. At higher frequencies, there is not enough time to remove the charge, so the diode never turns off. The PIN diode has a poor reverse recovery time. The high-frequency resistance is inversely proportional to the DC bias current through the diode. A PIN diode, suitably biased, therefore acts as a variable resistor. This highfrequency resistance may vary over a wide range (from 0.1 ohm to 10 k in some case; the useful range is smaller, though). The wide intrinsic region also means the diode will have a low capacitance when reverse biased. In a PIN diode, the depletion region exists almost completely within the intrinsic region. This depletion region is much larger than in a PN diode, and almost constant-size, independent of the reverse bias applied to the diode. This increases the volume where electron-hole pairs can be generated by an incident photon. Some photo detector devices, such as PIN photodiodes and phototransistors (in which the base-collector junction is a PIN diode), use a PIN junction in their construction. The diode design has some design tradeoffs. Increasing the dimensions of the intrinsic region (and its stored charge) allows the diode to look like a resistor at lower frequencies. 2

It adversely affects the time needed to turn off the diode and its shunt capacitance. PIN diodes will be tailored for a particular use.

Experimental procedure: Reverse light current V/s Irradiance characteristics of a PIN Photodiode
Apparatus : Micro/Mikron PIN diode characteristics board consisting of: 1. PIN photodiode optically coupled with matching LED 2. 0-5V Variable Power supply to vary intensity of LED 3. 0-5 V Variable Power supply to vary Reverse voltage across PIN photodiode 4. 10 mA milliammeter to measure LED current 5. 200 A microammeter to measure PIN diode reverse light current 6. 5V Voltmeter to measure PIN diode reverse voltage Procedure: 1. Connect the circuit as shown below: 0-5 V Supply VPS2 0-5 V Supply VPS1

1K 220
LED PIN Diode

+ -

5V VR

+ 20 mA IL -

+ 200 A IR -

2. Set PIN diode Reverse Voltage (VR) constant at 4V using variable Power supply VPS1 3. Slowly increase LED current IL to 5mA by using variable Power supply VPS2 4. Measure and note down Reverse Light current (IR) at increasing values of IL 2.5mA, 5mA, 7.5mA,10mA,12. 5mA,15mA , 17.5mA, 20 mA,22.5mA, 25mA, 27.5mA and 30mA

LED current (IL) 2.5mA 5 mA 7.5mA 10 mA 12.5 mA 15 mA 17.5 mA 20 mA 22.5mA 25mA 27.5mA 30mA

IR at VR1 = 4V

6. Plot graphs of LED Current V/s Reverse current. PIN Diode Reverse Current (A)

4V

LED current (mA)

Reverse light current V/s Reverse Voltage characteristics of a PIN Photodiode

Procedure: Procedure is same as above. Plot graphs of Reverse light Current V/s Reverse voltages for various LED currents.

PIN Diode Reverse Current (A)

IL=30mA

PIN Diode Reverse Voltage (V)

Forward current V/s Forward Voltage ( Forward bias) characteristics of a PIN Photodiode
Procedure: 1. Connect the circuit as shown below: 0-5 V Supply VPS2 0-5 V Supply VPS1 Ground

1K

220
LED PIN Diode

5V VF

+ 20 mA IL +

200 A IF

0-5 V Supply VPS1 Positive (Note the VPS1 supply and micro-ammeter /voltmeter polarities are reversed.) 2. Set LED current IL to 5mA by using variable Power supply VPS2 3. Slowly increase PIN diode Forward Voltage (VF) using variable Power supply VPS1 5

4. Measure and note down Forward current (IF) at increasing values of VF at 0V,0.1V, 0.2V,0.3V,0.5V,0.6V,0.7V,0.8V 5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 for LED current IL at 10mA,15mA, 20mA, 25mA and 30mA 6. Plot graphs of Forward current (IF) V/s Forward Voltage (VF) for various values of LED current IL

Forward Current (IF)

PIN diode Forward Voltage (VF)