Journal of Alloys and Compounds 541 (2012) 346352

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Journal of Alloys and Compounds

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Constitutive modeling and microstructure change of Ti6Al4V during the hot tensile deformation
J. Xiao, D.S. Li, X.Q. Li , T.S. Deng
School of Mechanical Engineering & Automation, Beihang University, P.O. Box 704, Beijing 100191, China

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
Uniaxial tensile tests were performed on a Ti6Al4V alloy sheet over the temperature range of 9231023 K with the strain rates of 5 1045 102 s1 up to a 25% length elongation of the specimen. The true stressstrain curves reveal that the ow stress decreases with the increase of the temperature and the decrease of the strain rate. In the same process, the accompanying softening role increases. On the basis of these experimental data, the Arrhenius-type equation was investigated to characterize the hot deformational behavior. Four material constants were determined to be the fourth-order polynomial functions of true strain. The equations show that the ow stress depends on strain, strain rate and temperature. Further, the microstructures, the grain sizes and the microhardnesses of the deformed specimens were measured. The observed results show that the microstructures and the microhardnesses have not changed largely and the grain sizes uctuate around the initial one. Thus the ow stress model is provided for the process route compiling and the nite element simulation of the hot forming process of the thin-wall Ti6Al4V alloy component. 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 8 April 2012 Received in revised form 8 July 2012 Accepted 9 July 2012 Available online 17 July 2012 Keywords: Ti6Al4V alloy Hot uniaxial tensile test Arrhenius-type equation Constitutive models Microstructure

1. Introduction Titanium alloys have been widely utilized in the aerospace eld due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, excellent toughness, sound corrosion resistance, good strength and fatigue resistance at elevated temperatures [1]. Among the alloys, Ti6Al4V is the most important and widely used titanium alloy and has held over 50% of the full shares of titanium applications [2]. However, titanium alloy components are more difcult to be fabricated than other traditional metallic materials due to their poor formability at room temperature, high ow stress at elevated temperatures and the high sensitivity of ow stress to temperature [3]. These posed limitations on their wider use in industries other than aerospace. Hot forming is an effective and key solution for the forming of titanium components, so the constitutive relationship describing the hot forming behavior is a research focus in the material constitutive modeling. Chen et al. investigated the hot compression behavior of a TC11 alloy in the strain rates ranging from 103 to 101 s1 and the temperatures ranging from 1073 to 1363 K, and established the constitutive equation for hot deformation of the alloy at the peak stress with the power function equation [4]. Applying the articial neural network based on the comprehensive dataset collected from both the Western and Russian literature, Malinov et al. established a model to analyze and predict the correlation
Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +86 10 82318283.
E-mail addresses: cnxiaojunjie@163.com, littlestrongcn@163.com (X.Q. Li). 0925-8388/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2012.07.048

between processing (heat treatment) parameters and mechanical properties in titanium alloys and developed a graphical user interface using the model to predict the properties of titanium alloys at elevated temperatures and optimize the processing parameters [5]. Luo et al. established the unied constitutive model with the internal state variables based on compressive tests in the deformation temperatures ranging from 1093 to 1303 K at the strain rates ranging from 103 to 10.0 s1. There were 20 material constants in those models, which were identied with the help of experimental ow stress and grain size of prior a phase in the isothermal compression of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy. The relative difference between the predicted and experimental ow stress was 6.13%, therefore the constitutive model was considered with high prediction precision and can be used to characterize the high temperature deformation behavior of titanium alloys [6]. Fan and Yang proposed the constitutive model via internal state variables for unied prediction of ow stress and microstructure evolution during hot working of wrought two-phase titanium alloys in both single-beta region and two-phase region [7]. Vanderhasten and his co-workers explored the tensile behavior at the strain rates from 5 104 to 5 102 s1 and various temperatures up to 1323 K, and utilized the modied Norton-Hoff law to characterize the tensile behavior of Ti6Al4V in the domains based on the temperaturestrain rate combinations. For each domain, the Norton-Hoff parameters have been determined and the equation has a high precision [8]. Up to present, although the constitutive model has been established with the Arrhenius-type equation via hot compression

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tests [3,916], few literatures have been found to establish the constitutive model of a titanium alloy sheet with the Arrheniustype equation based on uniaxial tensile test in hot environment. This investigation is performed in this paper to predict the hot tensile deformation behavior of the Ti6Al4V alloy sheet at elevated temperatures.
2. Material and experiment 2.1. Test material The material used for the current study is a Ti6Al4V alloy sheet. The chemical composition of this alloy is listed in the Table 1. The initial hot treatment condition of the Ti6Al4V alloy sheet was annealed after hot and cold rolling into sheet of 1.5 mm thickness. The specimen was fabricated in rolling direction, keeping consistent with the longitude direction, viz. the tensile direction. The initial microstructure is shown in Fig. 1.

3. Results and discussion 3.1. True stressstrain curves The true stressstrain curves obtained from the uniaxial tensile tests at the temperatures of 923, 973 and 1023 K and the strain rates of 0.0005, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01 and 0.05 s1 are presented in Fig. 2ac.

3.2. Characteristics of true stressstrain curves In general, the results of true stressstrain curves reveal that the ow stress decreases with the increase of the temperature or decrease of the strain rate, while the softening role increases. At a given temperature, ow stress increases as strain rate increases. Nevertheless, at a given strain rate, ow stress decreases as

2.2. Experimental details Hot tensile tests were performed on the Zwick/Roell Z100 electric universal test machine equipped with a furnace, which was composed of three independent heating zones. This furnace has a constant temperature zone with 30 cm length and offers the possibility to control the atmosphere temperature with 3 K precision. Flat samples with a gauge of 35 mm length and 12.5 mm width were fabricated by laser cutting. Prior to the hot uniaxial tensile test, the specimens were heated to the deformation temperature and maintained for 5 min to ensure a homogenous temperature distribution through the specimens. The tensile machine was programmed to operate at a constant strain rate. The experimental setup utilized an extensometer to measure the amount of specimen deformation in length via two long cylindrical contacts, and the sample deformation was determined from the mobile contacts displacement due to the friction between them and the specimen. Since the experimental time of the specimen deformed during the deformation temperature was not long, the oxidation of them was so little as to be neglected. After each test, samples were cooled to room temperature inside the furnace. The cooling rate was 6 K/min approximately. Finally, the engineering curves obtained from the uniaxial tensile tests were converted into the true stressstrain curves. After deformation, to investigate the change of microstructure and property of the deformed specimen, the microstructure was observed using the optical microscope of OLYMPUS BX51X, and the grain size measurements was performed according to the mean linear intercept method by Sisc IAS Image Analyzing System. In addition, the microhardness was measured with the HXZ-1000 testing instrument.

Table 1 Chemical compositions of Ti6Al4V alloy sheet (wt.%). Ti Matrix: remainder Al 5.97 V 4.25 Fe 0.05 C 0.01 N 0.011 H 0.005 O 0.08 Others Each <0.10, Total <0.10

Fig. 1. Initial microstructure (1000) of the Ti6Al4V alloy sheet.

Fig. 2. True stressstrain curves at three temperatures for different strain rates, s1. (a) At 923 K, (b) at 973 K and (c) at 1023 K.

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temperature increases. The curves present a peak stress in the ow curve at a particular strain, and then followed by the ow softening or steady state. The softening role has to be attributed to the adiabatic heating generated during deformation [11]. The true stressstrain curves exhibit three states. First, when the deformation is performed under the strain rates of 0.0005, 0.001 and 0.01 s1 and at the temperature of 1023 K, the strain rates of 0.0005 and 0.001 s1 and at the temperature of 973 K, and the strain rate of 0.0005 s1 and at the temperature of 923 K, the ow stress of the material exhibits a slight transitional drop when the ow stress comes to the peak stress, and then tend to be a steady state. This thermal softening behavior is more obvious at higher temperatures. However at the rest of the temperatures and the strain rates conditions, the stressstrain curves show steady state characteristic without any obvious peak stress basically. Second, under the strain rate of 0.005 s1 and at the temperature of 1023 K, the strain rates of 0.005 and 0.01 s1 and at the temperature of 973 K, and the strain rate of 0.001 s1 and at the temperature of 923 K, the ow stress presents a steady state after the stress comes to a steady value gradually. Last, under the strain rate of 0.05 s1 and at the temperature of 1023 K, the strain rate of 0.05 s1 and at the temperature of 973 K, and the strain rates of 0.005, 0.01, and 0.05 s1 and at the temperature of 923 K, the ow stress of the material increases and decreases very slowly with the increasing strain in the whole true strain scope of 00.223. From the aforementioned stressstrain character, it can be concluded that the work-hardening effect is pronounced at the higher strain rate and the lower temperature. For the higher temperature and the lower strain rate, the stressstrain curves show transient ow softening behavior signicantly. 4. Establishment of constitutive equation 4.1. Arrhenius-type constitutive equation According to the investigation of Zener and Hollomon [17], the strain rate of the deforming of metal materials at high temperature is controlled by the thermal activation. The relationship of strain _ rate e and temperature T can be expressed with the parameter Z [9,18].

Combining Eqs. (1) and (4), one can write:

_ A3 sinharn2 e expQ =RT

Eq. (5) is a kind of modied hyperbolic sinusoidal Arrhenius-type equation. It adapts the calculation at all stress levels and is considered to characterize the normal hot deforming behavior well by many investigation results [3,916,1922]. 4.2. Material constants identication The above Eq. (5) requires the determination of four constants, namely A3 , a, n2 and Q . It can be seen from Fig. 2 that the ow stress of Ti6Al4V alloy changes with the increasing strain, especially at high strain rates. So the constants could be connected with the strain and they should be determined at varied strain values. Among them, 0.01 is the true strain of peak stress approximately. Taking the true strain 0.01 for example, the identication process of the constants is introduced. Combining Eq. (1) and (2) and taking natural logarithm on both sides of the Equation:

_ ln e ln A1 n1 ln r

Q RT

The parameter n1 is determined as the inverse of strain rate sensitivity index m, which is dened as:

_ m f e; T

@lnr j _ @lne T;e

In order to determine m, the ow stress versus strain rate in a lnln plot at different temperatures has been plotted in Fig. 3. The strain rate sensitivity is considered constant and is determined from the average of the curve slopes. The average value of n1 is 9.958. Combining Eqs. (1) and (3) and taking natural logarithm on both sides of the equation, lead to:

_ ln e ln A2 br

Q RT

_ Z e expQ =RT

where Z is ZenerHollomon parameter, whose physical signicance is the strain rate factor compensated by temperature Q is hot _ deformation activation energy, kJ/mol. e is strain rate, s1. R is mol gas constant, 8.314 kJ/(mol K), and T is forming temperature, K. The Arrhenius-type equation, which describe the relationship between ow stress and Z, can be mathematically expressed as [18]:

_ In order to determine b, the ln e r plot at different temperatures has been plotted in Fig. 4. The curve slopes are the inverses of the b. After calculation, the average value of b is 0.0372. According to a b=n1 , the values of n1 and b, a can be got and the value of it is 0.00374 MPa1. Taking natural logarithm on both sides of the Eq. (5), one can write:

lnsinhar

_ ln e Q ln A3 n2 RT n2 n2

Z Fr A1 rn1

for ar < 0:8

2 3 4

Z Fr A2 expbr for ar > 1:2 Z Fr A3 sinharn2 for all

where A1 , A2 , A3 , a, n1 , n2 and b are experimentally determined temperature-independent material constants. Ai (i = 1, 2, 3) is structure factor, s1. r is ow stress, MPa. a is parameter of stress level, MPa1, and ni (i = 1, 2) is stress exponent. The application scopes of the three forms of Arrhenius-type equation have some difference. Exponential Eq. (2) adapts the scope of low stress level, power exponent Eq. (3) adapts the scope of high stress level, and hyperbolic sinusoidal Arrhenius-type Eq. (4) ts the experimental results well at a large scope of strain level and stress level.

_ Fig. 3. The linear relationship between ln e and ln r.

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It can be seen from Eq. (9) and Fig. 5 that, at different temper_ atures, the lnsinhar ln e tting curves present linear relationship, the slope is 1=n2 and the interception is Q =RT ln A3 =n2 . The values determined above were taken into the expression Q =RT ln A3 =n2 to calculate A3 . Then, averaging the A3 values, the mean value of A3 is found to be 1.140 1017 s1. After A3 , a, n2 and Q evaluation, i.e. A3 = 1.140 1017 s1, a = 0.00374 MPa1, n2 = 7.477 and Q = 365.91 kJ/mol, the constitutive Eq. (4) of the true strain value of 0.01 can be written as:

r 1=a ln Z=A3 n2 Z=A3 n2 1

_ Z e exp365:91=RT
_ Fig. 4. The linear relationship between ln e r.

i1  2

10

11

Taking a, stress, and strain rate into Eq. (9) and utilizing the linear regression via least square method, the relationship of _ ln e lnsinhar was plotted in Fig. 5. The slope of the curves is the inverse of constant n2 . After averaging, the mean value of n2 is 7.477. It can be seen from Eq. (9) that, supposing the strain rate to be a constant, lnsinhar and the T 1 present the linear relation. The slope of it is v , which is equal to Q =n2 R. Under the different strain rates, the relationship between lnsinhar and the T 1 can be seen from the Fig. 6. The average value of v is 5.682. So according to Q v n2 R, Q is 365.91 kJ/mol.

At other strain values, the solving processes of the material constants are the same of those at strain 0.01. The results are listed in Table 2. Utilizing the fourth-order polynomial regression functions to t the material constants, the constants may be expressed as a function of true strain as shown by Eqs. (12)(15)

a 0:00386 0:0129e 0:241e2 1:362e3 2:556e4 n2 8:234 83:678e 675:347e2 2473:753e3 3289:836e4 Q 377:154 1196:992e 1171:932e2 51687:807e3 191845:146e4 ln A3 40:435 122:555e 296:524e2 8905:718e3 28350:245e4

12 13 14 15

4.3. Constitutive equation verication Eqs. (1), (10) and (12)(15) represent the constitutive equations for the Ti6Al4V alloy deformation at high temperatures, which can be used to predict ow stress. The ow stress depends on strain, strain rate and temperature. a, n2 , ln A3 and Q vary with strain and are independent of temperature and strain rate at a xed strain. The value of a varies from 0.00365 to 0.00417. The constant ln A3 is between 39.188 and 27.010. The value of n2 varies from 7.462 to 3.861 and the activation energy varies from 365.351 to 267.271 kJ/mol. Further, n2 keeps a decreasing tendency with increasing true strain before reaching saturation at a true strain of 0.2. ln A3 and Q decrease with the increasing strain. Applying the determined material constants to the deformation constitutive equations, the ow-stress value is calculated at the different strain values, viz. 0.01, 0.025, 0.05, 0.075, 0.1, 0.125, 0.15, 0.175, 0.2 and 0.223, at strain rates from 0.0005 to 0.05 s1 and temperatures varying from 923 to 1023 K. Fig. 7ac shows a comparison of experimental stressstrain data with predicted values for the ve tested strain rates under different temperatures. The symbols of the ten open points are the predicted results, whereas the close solid lines are the experimental data. 4.4. Evaluation of deformation constitutive equation As seen from Fig. 7, the agreement between the experimental and predicted values is satisfactory. In order to evaluate the

Fig. 5. The linear relationship between strain rates and ow stress of Ti6Al4V.

Table 2 Identication results of a, n2 , Q and ln A3 .

e
0.01 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.223

a; MPa1
0.00374 0.00372 0.00378 0.00414 0.00402 0.00421

n2 7.477 5.394 4.579 4.082 4.074 3.823

Q ; kJ/mol 365.910 323.301 305.795 296.839 294.660 265.774

ln A3 ; s1 39.275 34.161 31.924 30.392 30.488 26.778

Fig. 6. The linear relationship between T 1 and lnsinhar.

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Fig. 8. Mean errors of the ow stress varying with the temperatures and the strain rates.

j: strain rate number, 1, 2, . . ., 5 corresponding to 0.0005, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05 s1; k : strain number, 1, 2, . . ., 10 corresponding to 0.01, 0.025, 0.05, 0.075, 0.1, 0.125, 0.15, 0.175, 0.20, 0.223; V p : predicted value from the constitutive equation; V e : experimental value of the hot uniaxial tensile test. Fig. 8 shows the mean errors of ow stress calculated at strains of 0.010.223 with an interval of 0.025 approximately. The curves reveal that the mean errors exhibit a better agreement at relatively low temperatures than that at high temperatures. Taking the arithmetic average of the mean error of ow stress for all true stress strain curves, the overall averaged mean error is 5.92% and the maximum mean error is 10.10%, i.e. the worst case, which appears at the strain rate of 0.0005 s1 and the temperature of 1023 K. However, the majority of mean errors are below 10%. The results indicate that the established deformation constitutive equations present a good estimate of the ow stress for Ti6Al4V alloy. Obviously, the above constitutive equations are directly derived from experimental data via phenomenological approach, so they cannot reveal the correlation between the deformation mechanisms such as dynamic recovery, dynamic recrystallization and microstructure evolution. However, the inuence of the deformation can be exhibited from the predicted stressstrain curves as shown from Fig. 7ac. Hence, the present constitutive equations are an effective method to predict the mechanical response of Ti6Al4V during hot forming under the external loading, but its shortcoming is that the microstructure evolution cannot be considered.
Fig. 7. Comparison between predicted data and experimental true stressstrain curves for the specimen deformed at the strain rates of 0.0005, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01 and 0.05 s1, and for all the temperature tested. (a) The comparison results of 923 K. (b) The comparison results of 973 K. (c) The comparison results of 1023 K.

5. Microstructure and property changes 5.1. Microstructure observation In the middle effective section of the deformed specimen, the microstructure was observed by optical microscope to characterize the a and b phase size and morphology quantitatively. Fig. 9 shows the presence of the a phase grains with a small amount of intergranular b phase in different test conditions [11]. Fig. 9 shows that a small amount of b phase lies in the intergranular position of the a phase grains. Almost in all deformation conditions, the microstructures exhibit equiaxed grain, which are similar to the initial microstructure shape. This may be explained as the following two aspects. Firstly, as the starting recrystallization temperature of Ti6Al4V is 1023 K, only the specimen in the deformation conditions at 1023 K temperature can recrystallize easily. While, at the temperature of 923 and 973 K, the

accuracy of the deformation constitutive equations further, the mean error is dened as
10 X eijk

Mean errorij
where

k1 10

16 ; k2N

eijk

  V p V e  Ve

17

eijk : error of constitutive equation at a xed true strain in a special deformation condition; i: temperature number, 1, 2, 3 corresponding to 923, 973, 1023 K;

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Fig. 9. Microstructures of Ti6Al4V deformed in different deformation conditions.

microstructures mainly occurred dynamic recovery. At the temperature of 1023 K, the grains were pulled longitudinally and the dimension of grain size in length is a bit larger than that in width. Secondly, after the deformation, the specimens were cooled to room temperature in furnace and the cooling rate was slow, so the microstructures may have changed to some extent. Otherwise, Fig. 9 also presents a trend of microstructure changing for the hot uniaxial tensile tests, i.e. both increasing the temperature at a given strain rate and decreasing the strain rate at a given temperature seems to promote a more homogeneous microstructure. This result accords with the conclusions drawn by Bruschia et al. in his study [11]. 5.2. Grain size measurement Utilizing the mean linear intercept method, the grain sizes of the specimen deformed were measured via the Images Analyzing System. Fig. 10 is the measurement results. The initial grain size is 11 lm, and the grain sizes of the deformed specimens uctuate around the initial size in a small amplitude. The amplitude scope is between 13 and 10 lm. Therefore, the grain size of specimen may be considered not having changed in the deformation conditions with furnace cooling. 5.3. Microhardness change The microhardness of the deformed specimen was measured at ve points, which were chosen randomly, on the surface of the middle effective section of the specimen. Here, to depict the results concisely, the plane parallel to the tensile direction was dened as surface 1, and the plane vertical to the tensile direction was dened as surface 2. Fig. 11 depicts the change of the microhardnesses. Fig. 11 shows the change trend of the microhardnesses of the deformed specimens. Generally, in surface 1 and surface 2 and at every deformation temperature, the microhardnesses present with uctuating character except at the 923 K in surface 1. In the

Fig. 10. Grain sizes of the deformed specimens in different deformation conditions.

Fig. 11. Microhardnesses of the deformed specimens on the surface 1 and surface 2 in different deformation conditions, respectively.

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exceptional case, the microhardness increases with the increasing strain rate. This is attributed to the work-hardening mainly. Also, for the same grain size of titanium alloy, the change trend of microhardness is the same with that of the ow stress [23,24]. In the hot working of titanium alloy, strain hardening and thermal softening occur at the same time. If the hardening role is bigger than the softening one, the ow stressstrain curve will increase monotonously. This is why the exception occurs, which mainly takes place at warm forming temperature and high strain rate conditions. Moreover, Fig. 11 shows that the microhardnesses of the deformed specimens in the plane parallel to the tensile direction uctuate around the initial one in a small amplitude. While in the plane vertical to the tensile direction, the microhardnesses wholly decrease and the losing amount of microhardness is between 3.97% and 12.02% comparing to the initial one. 6. Conclusions Hot deformation behavior of Ti6Al4V alloy sheet have been investigated via uniaxial tensile tests which were carried out in the 9231023 K temperature regime and 0.00050.05 s1 strain rate scope for the true strain range of 00.223. The main conclusions are summarized below. (1) The true stressstrain curves reveal the tensile deformation behavior of Ti6Al4V in hot environment and show the typical features of non-linearity, temperature sensitivity and strain rate dependence. (2) The Arrhenius-type constitutive equations coupling ow stress with strain, strain rate and temperature are established for Ti6Al4V alloy sheet. A set of material constants, viz. A3 , a, n2 and Q in the constitutive equations, have been determined with the functions of true strain. (3) The prediction precision of the constitutive equations presented is veried with the comparison of predicted and experimental data. The overall averaged mean error is 5.92%, which implies the predicted results present good agreements with the experimental values. (4) The microstructure observation results of the deformed specimens show that they have not changed obviously comparing to the initial one, and the grain sizes uctuate around the initial size in a small amplitude. Moreover, the

microhardnesses in the plane parallel to the tensile direction change in a very small scope and are almost equal to the initial one. While in the plane vertical to the tensile direction, the microhardnesses wholly decrease.

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the sponsored items of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51175022), the Aviation Science Foundation of China (2010ZE51050) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (YWF-10-01-B08) for their support of this study. Also, the authors are very grateful to the editors and the reviewers for their constructive suggestions. References
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