Chemical reaction:

A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.

Combustion:
A chemical reaction during which a fuel is oxidized and a large quantity of energy is released is called combustion The oxidizer most often used in combustion processes is air, for obvious reasons it is free and readily available. Pure oxygen O2 is used as an oxidizer only in some specialized applications, such as cutting and welding, where air cannot be used. On a mole or a volume basis, dry air is composed of 21 percent oxygen, 79 percent nitrogen, nitrogen behaves as an inert gas and does not react with other elements, other than forming a very small amount of nitric oxides.Each kmol of O2 in air is accompanied by 3.76 kmol of N2. 2)

Fuels:
Any material that can be burned to release thermal energy is called a fuel. Most familiar fuels consist primarily of hydrogen and carbon. They are called hydrocarbon fuelsand are denoted by the general formula( Cn Hm).

Dfferent types of fuels:

Solid:(wood,coal,peat,lignite,cow dung, etc. ) and (coke, charcoal,petroleum), Liquid:(crude oil) and (diesel, petrol,tar, kerosene,LPG) Gaseous:(natural gas) and (water gas, blast furnace gas,coal gas,coke oven gas,CNG)

Calorific value:
is the amount of energy released as heat when a compound undergoes complete combustion with oxygen. Unit: kj/kg or kj/mol in SI units.

Higher Calorific Value: (HCV)

is determined by bringing all the products of combustion back to the original precombustion temperature, and in particular condensing any vapor produced. Such measurements often use a standard temperature of 25C. This is the same as the thermodynamic heat of combustion since the enthalpy change for the reaction assumes a common temperature of the compounds before and after combustion, in which case the water produced by combustion is liquid.

Lower Calorific Value: (LCV)

is determined by subtracting the heat of vaporization of the water vapor from the higher heating value. This treats any H2O formed as a vapor. The energy required to vaporize the water therefore is not realized as heat. LHV calculations assume that the water component of a combustion process is in vapor state at the end of combustion. LCV = HCV 2472 (m)
where m is the mass of water

Importance of Combustion analysis:

This analysis process intended to improve fuel economy, reduce undesirable exhaust emissions and improve the safety of fuel burning equipment. Combustion analysis begins with the measurement of flue gas concentrations and gas temperature.

Air by fuel Ratio:

is defined as the ratio of the mass of air to the mass of fuel for a combustion process. OR

The airfuel ratio can also be expressed on a mole basis as the ratio of the mole numbers of air to the mole numbers of fuel. = mass of air/mass of fuel = (mole numbers of air)/(mole numbers of fuel)

Fuel-air ratiois inverse of Air-fuel ratio.Theoretical air-fuel ratio can be estimated from stoichio-metric combustion analysis for just complete combustion. ie,(minimum amount of air)

Orsat Gas Analyzer:

Def: Orsat gas analyzer is a commonly used device to analyze the composition of combustion gases. The amounts of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and oxygen are measured on a percent by volume and are based on a dry analysis. In this device, a sample of the combustion gases is collected and cooled to room temperature and pressure, at which point its volume is measured. The sample is then brought into contact with a chemical that absorbs the CO2. The remaining gases are returned to the room tem-perature and pressure, and the new volume they occupy is measured. The ratio of the reduction in volume to the original volume is the volume fraction of the CO2. Volume fraction is equivalent to the mole fraction if ideal-gas behavior is assumed. The volume fractions of the other gases are determined by repeating this procedure. In Orsat analysis the gas sample is collected over water and is maintained saturated at all times. Therefore, the vapor pressure of water remains constant during the entire test 6) On a mole or a volume basis, dry air is composed of 20.9 percent oxygen, 78.1 percent nitrogen small amounts of other gases.

Then dry air can be approximated as 21 percent oxygen O2 and 79 percent nitrogen N2 by mole numbers 7)

Incomplete Combustion:
The combustion process is incomplete if the combustion products contain any unburned fuel or components such as C, H2, CO, or OH. Reasons: 1) Insufficient oxygenis an obvious reason for incomplete combustion. 2) Incomplete combustion occurs even when more oxygen is present in the combustion chamber than is needed for complete combustion. This may be attributed to insufficient mixing in the combustion cham-ber during the limited time that the fuel and the oxygen are in contact. 3) Another cause of incomplete combustion is dissociation,which becomes important at high temperatures.

8) Pyrolysis:
decomposition of organic material at elevated temperatures without the participation of oxygen. It involves the simultaneous change of chemical composition and physical phase, and is irreversible. The word is coined from the Greek-derived elements pyro "fire" and lysis "separating". Most fuels, such as diesel oil, coal or wood, pyrolysis occurs before combustion. In incomplete combustion, products of pyrolysis remain unburnt and contaminate the smoke with noxious particulate matter and gases

9)

Lean mixture:
Fuel-air mixture will be called lean mixture when equivalence ratio is less than unity

Rich mixture: For equivalence ratio value being greater than unity the mixture will be rich mixture
10)

Equivalence ratio:
It is the ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to the theoretical fuel-air ratio for complete combustion. 10)

Dry bulb temperature:

Dry bulb temperature refers to the temperature of air measured with ordinary thermometer having its bulb open.

Wet bulb temperature:

Wet bulb temperature refers to the temperature measurement with the thermometer having its bulb covered with wet cloth and exposed to air stream whose temperature is being measured. For getting wet bulb temperature thermometer bulb is covered with water wet cloth/wick moistened with water and then temperature is measured.

Difference between dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature is called wet bulb depression. Wet bulb depression is zero in case of saturated air as the dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperatures are equal.

Dew point temperature:

It is the temperature at which condensation of water vapour present in moist air just begins. It could be understood from different examples that if the moist air temperature is reduced then water vapour gets condensed. Examples for such condensation is formation of dew on grass, condensation of water vapour on exterior surface of steel tumbler having cold water inside, condensation of water vapour on glass window-panes during winter season etc. Dew point temperature shall be equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to partial pressure of water vapour in moist air. Difference between dew point temperature and dry bulb temperature is called dew point depression. 12)

Enthalpy:
Enthalpy H (from the Greek word enthalpien, which means to heat) is a property and is defined as the sum of the internal energy U and the PV product. H = U + PV

Enthalpy of reaction: Enthalpy of reaction hR is defined as the difference between the enthalpy of
the products at a specified state and the enthalpy of the reactants at the same state for a complete reaction. hR = hC = H prod + H react.

Enthalpy of Vaporization:
The quantity hfg is called the enthalpy of vaporization(or latent heat of vaporization). It represents the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit mass

of saturated liquid at a given temperature or pressure. It decreases as the temperature or pressure increases and becomes zero at the critical point.

Enthalpy of formation: Enthalpy of formation is the enthalpy of a substance at a specified state due to
its chemical composition. The enthalpy of formation of all stable elements (such as O2, N2,H2, and C) has a value of zero at the standard reference state of 25qC and 1 atm.