JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 102, NO.

C7, PAGES 15,781-15,796,JULY 15, 1997

A unified directional spectrum for long and short

wind-driven waves

T. Elfouhaily, B. Chapron, and K. Katsaros

Institut Franais de Recherche pour l'Exploitationde la Mer, Plouzan6,France

D. Vandemark
NASA GoddardSpaceFlight Center,Laboratoryfor Hydrospheric Processes, WallopsIsland,Virginia
Abstract. Review of several recent ocean surface wave models finds that while

comprehensive manyregards, in thesespectralmodelsdo not satisfy certain additional, but fundamental, criteria.We propose that thesecriteriaincludethe abilityto properly describe diversefetch conditions and to provideagreement with in situ observations of CoxandMunk [1954]andJiihneand Riemer[1990]andHara et al. [1994]data in the highwavenumber regime.Moreover,we find numerous analytically undesirable aspects suchas discontinuities across wavenumber limits,nonphysical tuningor adjustment parameters, and noncentrosymmetric directional spreading functions. This paper describes twoa dimensional wavenumber spectrum valid over all wavenumbers analytically and amenable to usage electromagnetic in models. The two regimemodel is formulatedbasedon the Joint North SeaWave Project(JONSWAP) in the long-wave regimeand on the work of Phillips[1985]andKitaigorodskii [1973] at the highwavenumbers. omnidirectional The and wind-dependent spectrum constructed agreewith past and recentobservations is to including criteriamentioned the above.The key featureof this modelis the similarity of description the high- and low-wavenumber for regimes; both formsare posedto stress that the air-seainteraction process frictionbetween of wind andwaves(i.e., generalized wave age,u/c) is occurring all wavelengths at simultaneously. waveageparameterization This is the unifyingfeatureof the spectrum. The spectrum's directional spreading functionis symmetric aboutthe wind directionand hasboth wavenumber wind speed and dependence. ratio methodis described A that enables comparison this spreading of function with previous noncentrosymmetric forms.Radar data are purposefully excluded from this spectral development. Finally, a test of the spectrum madeby deriving is roughness lengthusingthe boundary layer model of Kitaigorodskii. Our inferenceof drag coefficient versus wind speedandwaveage shows encouraging agreement with Humidity Exchange Over the Sea (HEXOS) campaign results.
and observation. Extensiveattentionhas been given to both aspects [e.g.,Kitaigorodskii al., 1975;Phillips,1985].Banner et A reliable statistical description wind-generated of surface [1990]observed that for the full rangeof wavenumbers, theory wavesis of crucialimportance improving for understanding of and observation remain unreconciled. continuous motionsand exchanges across air-seainterface. the It is recognizedthat for remote sensingstudies,precise Satellite remotesensing, engineering design marinevessels, knowledge theshort-scale roughnesstheprimerequireof of wave is wave forecasting, and atmosphere-ocean interactionresearch ment.As a first-orderapproximation, studiesoften present a are all fields where knowledgeof the directionalwind wave spectrumfor only high wavenumbers. However, it is now acfield is needed. ceptedthat shortwavesare intimatelycoupledwith intermeAmongstatistical descriptions waves,spectral of formulation diate- and long-scalewaves necessitating the need for full is generally privileged stemming from the earlywork of Phillips wavenumber modelssuchas thosedeveloped Donelanand by [1958].There is a wealth of theoreticaland empiricalstudies Pierson [1987], Bjerkaas Riedel and [1979], Apel [1994]. and These detailingcandidate equilibrium windwavespectra the literin modelsare widelyused in microwave radar scattering studies ature [e.g.,Toba, 1973;Hasselmann al., 1973;Mitsuyasu et and of to spectral definition. Honda, 1974;Kitaigorodskii al., 1975;Kahma, 1981;Donelan because their attention high-frequency et It is our contentionthat regardless the meansof construcof etal., 1985; Phillips, 1985].Presently, iswell-accepted the it that long-wave spectrum resultingfrom the Joint North Sea Wave tion (theoreticalor empirical), a wave spectrumshouldbe In Project(JONSWAP [Hasselmann al., 1973])reasonably et rep- capable of reproducingcertain observations. the highfrequencyregime, integration of the slope spectrumshould resentsfetch-limited wind wave development.In the highmean squaresloperesults Coxand of frequency regime,presentmodelsare tenuousin both theory providewind-dependent Munk [1954]. It should also well-represent the dynamicsof Copyright1997by the AmericanGeophysical Union. gravity-capillary wavecurvature seenin laboratory as measurementsbyJihne Riemer[1990]andbyHara et al. [1994].For and Paper number 97JC00467. 0148-0227/97/97JC-00467509.00 longwaves,wave age and extendedfetch are needed.In addi1. Introduction

15,781

15,782

ELFOU .HAILY ET AL.: UNIFIED DIRECTIONAL

SPECTRUM FOR LONG AND SHORT WAVES

10 0
10'

10 -5
10'

0 -l
10 -15 10 -3

10'

10 -2

10 -1

10

101

10 2

10 3

1010 -3

10 -1

10

101

10 2

10 3

wavenumberk (rd/m)

wavenumber (rd/m) k

Figure1. Bjerkaas Riedel and [1979] omnidirectional (a) spectrum and(b) curvature SBR spectrumBRfor B
the full wavenumber rangeandfor windspeeds from3 m/s(leastenergetic) 21 m/swith a 2 m/sstep.The to
secondary gravity-capillary peak is observed k m 37 0 rad/m or 1.7 cmwavelength. sharpspectral for A cutoff for capillarywavesis apparentnear 1000 rad/m.
tion, because interestlies in remote sensing our inversion studies, the analyticalformulation of the model is crucial.A brief review of severalfull wavenumber spectrais givenin this pa-

for its abilityto satisfy mostof available surface displacement measurements based openoceandatafor low frequencies on
andwind wavetank data for high frequencies. This spectrum is

wavenumber ranges. The first spectral per.Remaining difficulties these with proposed spectral forms definedin four separate can be summarized as follows: range, nearthespectral of gravity peak waves, corresponds to 1. The Bjerkaas and Riedel[1979] spectrum a composite thePierson Moskowitz is and [1964] spectrum (sea).Gravity and

modelwith no wave age dependency. Pierson [1987]spectrum doesnot agreewith the CoxandMunk [1954] observations. 3. Apel's[1994]spectrum doesnot agreewith the Cox and

short-gravity wavesare fromPierson [1976],while small-gravity

wavesare from Kitaigorodskii [1983] and 2. The meansquare slope inferredfromtheDonelan and to gravity-capillary
Leykinand Rosenberg [1984].Finally, the capillarywaverange is modeledby meansof the slope spectrameasuredby Cox [1958].Bjerkaasand Riedel connected thesemodel spectra by to Munk observations. addition, question placement In we the of adjustingdifferent arbitrary constants match curvesat the A the gravity-capillary secondary peakat 0.8 cmfor all windSpeeds. limits between segments. drawbackof this spectrumis the As an alternative,we presenthere a refined spectrum that number (five) of winddependent tuningparameters needed to relies heavilyon earlier works but is precisein its agreement insurecontinuitybetweenthe spectralsegments. addition, In with observation and relativelysimplein its analyticform. The onlyfully developed conditions be reproduced sea can with this spectrumis derived strictlyfor the case of a wind-generated model. Figuresla and lb illustratethe omnidirectional specseas,that is, wind and wave direction are aligned. Radar ob- trum(Sa) andthe curvature spectrum a = k3S see (B BR, servations intentionallyexcludedfrom the development are to the appendix definitions), for respectively, different for friction limit uncertainties. velocities (i.e., for differentwind speeds). This paperis dividedinto three sections. First,we providea Fung and Lee [1982] simplifiedthis spectrumand gave a reviewof commonly usedspectra. Discrepancies between these formulationbasedon only two spectralregimes: Pierson and spectra,especially the high-frequency for region,motivatedus Moskowitz [1964]for gravity wavesandPierson [1976]for gravwaves. to propose new analytical a model.The second part is dedi- ity-capillary catedto the development the omnidirectional of component of

thisspectrum. calledour SPectrum We unifiedbecause feait turesa generalized wave age dependency (u/c) in both long- 3.
and short-waveformulations.To extend this spectrumto two dimensions, desired a spreadingfunction valid over the we wholerangeof wavenumbers wind speeds. thisend,the and To

Donelan and Pierson [1987] Spectrum

In the comprehensive modelof DonelanandPierson [1987],

(SrP)the equilibrium rangeis againdivided two parts. in

Donelan Pierson and [!987] directional spectrum.

Gravity waves are describedusing JONSWAP formulation lastpart is a review existing of spreading functions well as [Hasselmann al., 1973].Shorterwavesare theoretically as et dethe developmentof a new spreadingfunctionthat describes rived by requiring a balance between wind input and local observed upwind-crosswind characteristics. Finally,in the con- dissipation that occurs throughviscous dampingand wave clusionwe provide a new set of parametersthat improvesthe breaking. For these short waves,wave-waveinteractionsare assumed negligible.

2.

3.1. Low-Frequency Spectrum Bjerkaas and Riedel [1979] Spectrum The Bjerkaas Riedel[1979]spectrum a) (and its and (S The low wavenumber of thisspectrum P) correpart (S

subsequent versions) widely is used theliterature, in especially sponds gravity to waves having wavenumber to 10times up the

ELFOUHAILY ET AL.: UNIFIED DIRECTIONAL SPECTRUM FOR LONG AND SHORT WAVES

15,783

usesthe JONSWAP formulationwith a slightmodificationto accountfor a spectralslopeof -2.5 rather than the familiar slopeof -3.0. This modification assimpleasmultiplying is the JONSWAP spectrum an additionalk-dependentfactor,the by

spectral (kp). This peak limitwas introduced Donelan al. 3.2. High-Frequency Spectrum by et [1985]andLeykin andRozenberg[1984]. S e spectrum To derive their short-wavespectrum,Donelan and Pierson The
[1987] follow the propagationtheory of the spectralenergy densityas described Hasselmann al. [1973]. The action by et spectraldensity(./) of the wave field may be introducedaccordingto

square rootof k/kp.

We reproduce hereafter the formulation of the low-

(,
of the short surface waves.

)=

cq(, )

(5)

frequency spectrum termsof wavenumber, in although was it

originallygiven in frequencyby Donelan et al. [1985]. These DP formulaswill alsobe usedthroughoutthis article. For Si , the omnidirectionalcurvaturespectrumof long wavesis given by

where c is the phasespeedand is the directionalspectrum

On the basisof the radiative transfer equation, changes in wave action spectraldensityare described [e.g., Phillips, by 1977]
0
Ot

B})p opmeWp -- 1 k p
where

(1)

q"VgV,Sz Sinq-- q-- s Snl Sdi

(6)

S e omnidirectional gravity wavespectrum, equal k-3BP;

range parameter;

In the left-handsideof (6), onerecognizes order,the time in velocity and the gradientof ./with respect spatialhorizontal to
vector r.

derivative action of spectral density, wave t. he group ap rear orPhillips Kitaigorodskii face and equilibrium partial
kp wavenumber thespectral of peak;
LpM Pierson-Moskowitz shapespectrum; by Hasselmann al. [1973]. et These functionsand parametersare defined as follows:

The right-handside of (6) consists three "source"terms of

Jp peak enhancement or "overshoot" introduced related to wind input, nonlinear effects introduced by, for factor
respectively.

instance,wave-wave interactions, and energy dissipation mainly dominatedby viscosity, breaking and bottom friction,

over the water surface, actionspectral the density tendsto be constant sucha stationary in case.A a consequence, first the = (3) time derivativeterm in the energybalanceequationvanishes. The lattercarries inverse an waveage = Uo/Cp depen- However,the gradientof ./(second term in (6)) can only be wave advections dencywhere Uo is the wind speedat a height of 10 m above neglectedfor short waves since it expresses which are not negligible long waves.Then, but only for for thewatersurface Cpis thephase and speed the dominant of short waves, (6) simplifiesto the "equilibrium" or spectral long wave.
balance case where

L pM--exp{-75(kp/k)2}

(2)

Consider situationa steady blowing the of wind horizontally

3= 1.7

0.84 < fc < 1

Sin-3- -3- s-'- 0 Snl Sdi

(7)

3, = 1.7 + 6 log (fc)

1 < fc < 5

F = exp -

k_ 1 22 ,

= 0.08114 3] +
0.84< c < 5

Donelan and Pierson[1987] stated further assumptions; in addition to using a perturbation approach and an additive propertyof sourceterms,they neglected wave-wave the interactionand bottom friction.Equation (7) then leadsto

Sin-3- -3'Svi = 0 Sbr s

(8)

ap= 0.0062 '55

where Sbr and S,,isare wave breakingand viscous dissipation

terms.

with g the accelerationdue to graviS.

c = g cos()
where 0 is the anglebeeen the wind and the dominantwaves

The wind input sourceterm Sin, taken fom Miles' [1957, 1959] theory indicatesthat wave amplitude grows exponentially:
Sin-- ,5z (9)

atthe spectral istaken beclose zero our peak; to to in study.where /3 is the exponentialgrowth rate. This latter is windHasselmann al. [1973]andDonelan al. [1985]relatethe vector-dependent each spectralwavenumber.Exponential et et for inverse waveageto the dimensionless fetchX by an empirical behavioris also implied for viscous dampingof the capillary power law basedon field obseations: wavesas theoreticallyexplainedby Lamb [1932], namely,

fl= 22X-'33

fl = 11.6X-'23

(4)

Svi -- -Da s

(10)

D viscous decay theaction of X = k, where x is the dimensional fetch in meters. Seas where = 4vk2 istheexponential of are saidto be fully developed, matureand youngwhen c has spectraldensityand v is the kinematicviscosity water. A definingcomponentof the Donelan and Pierson[1987] valuescloseto 0.84, 1.0, and >2.0, respectively. Equation (4) spectrumis their handling of hasan asymptotic valueof zero for largefetches, nonphysical model for the high-frequency a result.Therefore e is onlyvalidfor shortfetches. im- dissipation S throughwavebreaking.This term is taken to be an exponentialfunction of the curvaturespectrum B: provement (4) isprovided section of in 5.2.1.

15,784

ELFOUHAILY

ET AL.: UNIFIED

DIRECTIONAL

SPECTRUM

FOR LONG AND SHORT WAVES

100

'

10-4

10 -2

.
10 Ec -4
0

10 -2
10 -3

10 -12

10 -4

10 -3

10 -2

10 -4

10

101

10 2

10 3

10 4

10 -3

10 -2

10 -1

10

10 4

10 2

10 3

10 4

wavenumber (rd/m) k

wavenumber (rd/m) k

Figure2. Fullydeveloped Donelan Pierson and [1987] omnidirectional (a) spectrum and(b) curvature SDP spectrumDefor the full wavenumber B range for windspeeds and from3 to 21 m/switha 2 m/sstep. The
secondary gravity-capillary peak is locatedat a wavenumber below 100 rad/m and an abrupt discontinuity

occurs 10kp.The increase the curvature at of spectrum highwavenumbersan artifact at is caused the by
absolute value in (17).

Sbr= --(o)olBn)
where n and a are unknown functions. The Donelan

(11)
and

Piersonspectrumis then built with

__ q-n2 n-- (n n2) k2+k2m
and

n = 5, n2 = 1.15

(12)

The azimuthal energy spread (16) unrealistically of excludes angles closeto _+ ,r/2. To permit the spreadof energyaroundto the crosswind directionand evenbeyondit, Donelanand Pierson[1987]droppedthe cosine dependence (16). This leaves in all azimuthaldependence with the definition of a spreading functionthat is identicalfor shortand long waves.They used the hyperbolic secant its well-knowntractableintegrability. for Consequently, omnidirectional the spectrum high wavefor
numbers becomes

ik _ + k2 Ina = (ln - Ino2)2+ k2m In a2 cl

(13)

In c = 22, In a2 = 4.6, b = 3

BhDe(k) =

ato

(17)

where(I)mais the maximumof the appliedspreading x function. The constants (12) and (13) havebeen determined in from Then, the full omni-directional spectrum reads: gravitywaveobservations from Ku-bandradar backscatter and measurementsof gravity-capillarywaves. Here km = 370 rad/m is the wavenumbercorresponding wavesof 1.7 cm to wavelength. These constants shouldalso insurecontinuitybeFigure 2 showsthe fully developedDonelan and Pierson tween the low- and the high-wavenumber regimes. [1987] omnidirectional spectrumDe (Figure anditscurS 2a) By combining(8)-(11), the directionalspectrumof short vature spectrum (Figure An increase thedegree BDe 2b). of of wavesis simply saturationfor wavenumbers beyondthe spectralcutoff is observedin Figure 2b. This is an artifact of the spectralformu(14) lation caused the absolute by value in (17).

SDP(k) )e k 10kp] (18) --Ik-3B <10kpJ k-3B k> e

XIrhr>P(k 92)=

Ik-4

Rather than employing often-citedwave-growth the parameter introducedby Plant [1982]

4.

Apel [1994] Spectrum

Apel [1994] developedan analyticallysimple full spectral model to permit electromagnetic computations. This analytical the wind forcingfor shortwavesis obtainedfrom a quadratic "improved"spectrum wasderivedfor validityacross entire the fit of Larson and Wright's[1975] data, as range of oceanwaves.It gatheredtogether spectralbranches alreadymodeledby many investigators and integrated .new laboratory data especially the gravity-capillary in waveregion. Apel called his spectrum the "Donelan-Banner-Jfihne" specwhere u is the wind speedat a height of M2 from a wave of trum because the spreading of functionmadeup to matchthe wavelength,k and c is the corresponding phase speed. The one from Donelan et al. [1985], the omnidirectional spectral quantitiesp, and Pw are volume densityfor air and water, slopeto be (-4) fromBanner[1990],andfinallythe placement respectively. of curvaturespectrallevel of the secondary gravity-capillary (5)

(0.04 _+0.02)(u*/c) 2 COS 92

to

13 pw c(k) q 1}2 _O.194 cos Pa {U(rr/k) >

(16)

ELFOUHAILY

ET AL.: UNIFIED

DIRECTIONAL

SPECTRUM FOR LONG AND SHORT WAVES

15,785

10 o

E 10-'
10 -$

'10 -2
o

:. .., 10 ,..,.-

10 -3

10 -ls 10 -3

10 -2

10 -1

10

101

10 2

10 3

10 4

10 -4 10 -3

10 -2

10 -1

10

101

10 2

10 3

wavenumberk (rd/m)

wavenumberk (rd/m)

Figure3. Apel[1994] omnidirectional (a) spectrumA and(b) curvature S spectrumA for the full waveB
numberrangeand for wind speeds from 3 up to 21 m/swith a 2 m/s step.The secondary gravity-capillary peak is at 750 rad/m (or 8 mm wavelength).

peak at 750 rad/m from laboratorymeasurement Klinkeand of It> in (19) is an additionalfunctionthat appearsas a result Jihne[1992]. from integrationof the vector spectrumover the azimuth diApel [1994]wrotethe final form of hisomnidirectional spec- rection,
trum as

S(k) = Ak-3m pMJp[gro -+Sgres][?dislD (19)

where

Iz>2x qbs(Zs) = erf

(23)

qbs[0.28+ 10(kp/k)'3] Zs 7r/s = -'5 =

spectralconstantthat has been chosenas 0.00195 to fit wave height variance or significantwave height
observations;

Figure 3 shows realizations this omnidirectional of spectrum

SA (Figure anditscorresponding 3a) curvature spectrumA B

(Figure 3b) for several wind speeds. This spectrum placesthe gravity-capillary peak at 8 mm wavelength.

LpM Pierson-Moskowitz shapespectrum (2);

Jp JONSWAP peakenhancement (3);

Rro low-pass quadraticfilter with roll-off wavenumberof 100 rad/m as shownby Klinke and Jihne[1992]
based on tank data;

5.

Unified Omnidirectional Spectrum

The shapeof surfacewave spectrais still under investigation s curvaturelevel of an assumed secondary gravitypeak due to the absenceof a unified universalform. Figure 4 illusat 750 rad/m wavenumber. trateshow muchthe spectra presentedabovediffer. Significant differences exist between these spectra and unfortunately, there are further examples that exhibit similardivergence, e.g., Wallops spectrumfrom Huang et al. [1981], McClain et al. The resonancewavelengthis twice smaller than that pro- [1981] and Sobieski al. [1986, 1988].The analyticalspectrum et posedby Bjerkaas and Riedel[1979] and that usedby Donelan that we construct below attemptsto take advantageof spectral and Pierson[1987], who statethat gravity-capillary wavescen- developments presentedin the previoussections. We follow tered around 1.7 cm wavelengthshould be amplified. The Apel's [1994] objectiveof buildingan analyticalspectrum that author justified his point of view by recalling the effect of can be easily used in modeling electromagneticinteractions nonlinear wave-wave interactions that have transition rates with the sea surface.Indeed, the primary need of EM models one order of magnitude faster for capillary waves than for is the autocorrelationof the displacement field or its Fourier gravityones. transform, i.e., the elevation spectrum. Model functionswere provided for the resonancegravitycapillarypeak, R .... of the curvaturespectrumand the dissi- 5.1. Previous Approaches pation mechanism, Vdis,as TheBjerkaas Riedel and [1979] spectrum BR)isdependent (S on too many arbitrary constants due to segmentmatchingand - kres level "tuning,"which make its use very limited. Although, the

log = -4.95 3.451- exp-4.7// (s) +

(20)

Rres--sech kw ak
kres 400 =

(21) Donelan Pierson and [1987] spectrum P) seems be well (S to

a = 0.8

kw= 450 (rad/m)

constructed the long waves < 10kp, the short-wave for k branch questionable. a matterof fact,SPoverestimates is As
mean squareslopesby a factor of 1.7 [Donelanand Pierson,

l/dis exp{-(k/kdis) = 2}

kdis 6283 rad/m (22) =

15,786
10 -1

ELFOUHAILY

ET AL.' UNIFIED

DIRECTIONAL

SPECTRUM FOR LONG AND SHORT WAVES

0.25

II \\
I
I

0.2

Cox Munk,1954 & clean Wu clean 1992,

0.15
/ /

/ /
/

// /

,, ,, ,, ,,

Plant's limit
0.1

0.05

10-3 10 -2

..... ...... l//l!,, i ........

10-1 10

,, ,,
0

101
wavenumberk (rd/m)

10 2

103

104

10

12

14

16

18

20

U1O(m/s)

Figure 4. (a) The three presented curvature spectra a wind speedof 10 m/s. (b) Measuredtotal mean for

square slopes Cox Munk[1954] from and versus mean-square (mss) slope inferred fromthethreespectra.B}t S (solid), De (dashed-dotted), S^ (dashed) S and place gravity-capillary peakat 1.7cm,10 cm,4 cm, the wave
and 0.8 cm, respectively.

1987, p. 4984;Apel, 1994, p. 16281],comparedto the Cox and tionship. The frequency spectrum and the wavenumber S Munk [1954] optical measurements (Figure 4b). The total spectrum shouldpreserve total energyafter conversion: S the mean-square slopeis highlysensitive the shapeof the specto Sf(f )df = Sk(k)dk (25) tral tail. Shemdin and Hwang[1988]showed discrepancies with

theSDetailbymeasuring frequency slope spectra to 300Hz up with a laser-optical sensor. TheyfoundthatSDehasan early

Therefore derivative thegroup the of velocity a = dto/dk V

is involved in the total derivative of the wavenumber curvature

sharpspectral cutoffat frequencies higherthan 8 Hz whichwas spectrum(k) = 2rrk VvS, ). B 3 (f not substantiated their Tower Ocean Wave and Radar Deby Figure 5b demonstrates that the Bjerkaasand Riedel specpendence experiment(TOWARD) and Marine Remote SenstrumSmr,whencorrectly expressed frequency, in places the ing experiment(MARSEN) observations. Those in situ findsecondary gravity-capillary peak at 31 Hz. We conclude that in ingssuggest arbitrary that parameters anda) of the SDe (n contrastto Apel's [1994] suggestions will continueto place we need to be revised.At the end of this paper we proposenew the secondary peak of the curvature spectrum 370 rad/m (or at constant valuesthat improvethe shapeof the spectraltail. Finally, Apel's [1994] spectralmodel is a relatively simple 1.7 cm wavelength)for all wind speeds.This wavenumber is consistent because corresponds the it to algebraicform that usesthe long-wavespectrumof Donelan placement physically minimum phasespeedwhere the maximumimpact of hydroand Pierson[1987], data and spectralshapeof Banner [1990] modulationsby wind and longer and measurements for gravity-capillary waves of Jihne and dynamicand aerodynamic Riemer [1990]. This compositespectrumhas been shownto wavesmust occur[Smith,1990]. Under light wind conditions,an assumption blockage of reproducethe verticallypolarizedradar field data to within the wavesmay explainthe locationof experimental errors (rms - 3 dB). Laser slopegaugedata of betweengravityand capillary Jihne andRiemer[1990]are reproduced here for completeness the secondary peak near 0.8 cm [e.g.,Zhang, 1995].Therefore in Figure 5a. The degree of saturationof the frequencyspec- we do not dismissthe idea of the secondarypeak at this are trum Bf(f) = fSSf(f) shows obvious an secondary gravity- placement.Further measurements requiredto distinguish capillary peak(fpeak) located about Hz. Hence are the realisticwind speeddependency this regime. at 31 we of tempted to say that by converting directly this frequency As often recalled, the most successful measurementsof the (fpeak) wavenumber to (kpeak) the adopted via dispersion meansquareslope(mss)of the seasurface rehavebeenmadeby lationshipfor long and shortwaves, Coxand Munk [1954].They evaluatedthe mssfor cleanwater is generallyaccepted that theseopticalsurfacemeasurements to = 2rrf providetotal integrationof the slopespectrum, while, in conkm= X/Pw#/T370rad/m = trast,wavecomponents shorterthan 30 cm are almostentirely where Pw, #, and T are water density, accelerationdue to absentwhen considering denseslick surface.The Cox and a gravity, and water surface tension, respectively; the gravityMunk linear fit to their data versuswind speedfor a clean capillarysecondary peak of curvaturespectra would lie around surface is 750 rad/m (-8 mm wavelength).This procedureis obviously

ro #k{1 + (k/kin) 2= 2}

(24)

surface and for a dense artificial slick. Over a clean surface, it

wrong. fpeak the frequency The of saturation spectrum B(f)

= fSS(f) isnotsimply related kpeak thewavenumber to of

curvature spectrum ) = k3Sk(k)bythe dispersion Bk(k rela-

mSSclean = '

10-3(3+ 512U0)_ 0.004 +

1 m/s<U0<13m/s

(26)

ELFOUHAILY AL.:UNIFIED DIRECTIONAL ET SPECTRUM FORLONGAND SHORT WAVES

0.1

15,787

12.2
:
:

17.2

0.01

i i

7.3
!
i

i
..

..' ..'

'"-.4 5.4
3.9

.-.:&','.' :-..,...., ...

2.7

0.0001

E-005
0.1

1
10 o

lO frequency (Hz)
i ....... i ....... i
......

lOO

.......

+ + +
+ +

,--10-1
+ +

+ +

10 -2
?,
+

++
+

10 -3

10 -4 10 -1

........

........

, , i i,

10

101
frequencyf (Hz)

10 2

10 3

Figure (a) Figure of Jihne Riemer 5. 7 and [1990] which depicts measured curvature spectra versus frequency several for values wind of speed inmeters second. measured given per The secondary gravity-capillary peak seems belocated to between Hzand Hz.(b)Frequency 30 40 curvature spectra Sm(solid of curve) and

S^ (pluses) their with secondary placed 31Hzand Hz,respectively, = 10m/s. peaks at 130 forUzo

Wu [1972,1990]reanalyzed theseopticaldata and showed Phillips [1977]hasalsoargued with the lineardependence thata two-regime logarithmic variation moreappropriate is for and hasdemonstrated a logarithmic that variationis evident
the total mss of the clean surface:

especiallyfor total mssfrom the artificial slick surface:

mSStclean -2 = 10

3.2 In 1 Ulo 1 +1.2 (U10/7) 7 < < m/s

3.2 + 6 In (U10/7)
7 < Ulo < 20 m/s

mSsslic 4.6 x 10 In (kJko) k -ks=2w/0.3

-3

(28) k0=#/U20

(27)

Plant[1982] demonstrated byusing (u*/c) 2 depenthat a

15,788

ELFOUHAILY

ET AL.: UNIFIED

DIRECTIONAL

SPECTRUM

FOR LONG AND SHORT WAVES

dencyof the growthrate (equation(15)) and the requirement

that the momentum flux from wind to waves not exceed the

This is in good agreement with measurements the longof wave fully developed spectrum reportedby Kahma [1981] as

wind stress, omnidirectional the total mean-square slopemust be less than 2 x (0.04 + 0.02). Thus the upper limit for mean-squareslopesof clean surfacesis 0.12, namely,

wherevalues ao lie between x 10-3 and 6.4 x 10-3. of 4.4

However,Donelanet al. [1985] and Dobsonet al. [1989],from an extensive data setof developing states, sea reporteda nearly square-root dependency. adopt the functionalform for 1 We

mSSclea 0.12 n(

(29)

ap based theirresults: on

Equation(27) onlyreaches thisupper limit for a wind speed of 30 m/s. Figure 4b showsthe total mssinferred by the three spectrapresentedabove for clean and slick coveredsurfaces. The Bjerkaas and Riedel [1979], the Donelan and Pierson [1987],and theApel [1994] spectraall exceed Plant'slimit. the So, for thosespectrathe fractionalwave-induced stress be will higherthan the total wind stress. This cannotbe justifiedunder classical theory.There is no compensating negativestress contribution.Caudal [1993] reacheda similarconclusion showing that the Donelan and Pierson spectrumand the Plant wave growth expression not consistent. are
5.2. Our Approach

O/p 6 X 10 = -3

(34)

The constant 6 x 10-3 is still coherent with Kahma measure-

mentsof the equilibriumrange for fully developedseas. Its worth noting that the long-wavespectrumis wave-age-

dependent and thus fetch dependent (4). However,(4) via predictszero inversewave age as an asymptotic value for infinite fetch. To extendthis shortfetch relationship large to fetches, Young al. [1994]haveshownthat total dimensionless et energy; is well represented deepwater by in

; = 3.64 x 10-3 tanh(C0 2's

(35)

C = 1.81 x 10-2X'4
whereX is the nondimensional fetch as definedin (4). We combinethis resultwith a dimensionless energy/inverse-waveage relationship givenby Donelanet al. [1985] and confirmed by Dobsonet al. [1989] to arrive at

We propose an omnidirectional spectrum expressedas a sum of two spectraregimes:

S(k) : -3[B,-}-Bh]

(30)

where subscripts and h indicate low and high frequencies, I respectively, B stands the curvaturespectrum = and for (B

c = 0.91 tanh(C)-'7s

(36)

k3S).
5.2.1. Long-wavecurvature spectrum. We write here B in a general form as

Bl= Op Fp -

Cp

This relationshiphas 0.91 as an asymptotic value for large fetch. Sincewe know that for fully developedseasthe inverse wave age shouldin theorybe 0.84, a modification (36) is of needed,and we suggest

(31) c = 0.84 tanh{(X/Xo)'4} -'7s X0 = 2.2 x 104

(37)

whereap is the generalized Phillips-Kitaigorodskii Phil[e.g.,

lips, 1977]equilibriumrangeparameterfor longwavesdependent on the dimensionless inverse-wave-age parameter 1 -

Ulo/Cp (Uo is thewindspeed a height 10 m fromthe at of watersurface), is thewave c(k) phase speed Cp= c(kp) models is obtained. and isthephase speed thespectral at peak, Fp isthelong-wave As an additional check, one can calculate the dimensionless and
side effect function (see below) dependenton dimensionless significant wave height as a functionof dimensionless fetch:

This fetch wave-agerelationshipis comparedwith JONSWAP Hasselmann al. [1973],Kahma [1981],Donelanet al. et [1985],Dobsonet al. [1989], and finally, Younget al. [1994] relationships Figure 6a. Overall agreementwith former in

parameters and = Uo/Cp. k/kp The long-wave effect side function is given Fp by
(32)

/-/s 0.26tanh = {(X/Xo)'4} TM

X 0= 2.2 X 10 4

(38)

Equation (38) gives,for large fetch values, the standard dimensionless significant waveheightof fully developed seas as measuredby Piersonand Moskowitz[1964] (approximately for The first and second termsin (32) are standard Pierson and 0.24).Equation(38) mayalsobe compared, both shortand a Moskowitz [1964]and JONSWAP peak enhancement functions longfetches,to the modelof Wilson[1965],who proposed fit by wave recorder: as given in (2) and (3), respectively. The third term, on the to data observed a ship-borne other hand, is an additionalcutoff that limits the energycon-

1 = taining of thespectrum than10kp.Thislimitation /-/s= 0.3{ - (1 + x/X/Xv)-2} Xv 6.25x 104 (39) part less in

spectralroll-off wasobserved tank data by Klinke and Jiihne in This equation and (38) are in goodagreement X varying for [1992].The oscillation the curvature of spectrum (Figure 8b) from102 to 105 up (Figure 6b). also created thisfall-offat 10kpwasobserved Leykin by by et 5.2.2. Short-wave curvature spectrum. The high-freal. [1984]. quencycurvaturespectrum, h, is expressed B as The generalized Phillips-Kitaigorodskiiequilibrium range
1 Cm parameter long for waves (ap) isa function thedimensionof 1 = Olm lU'rn h (40) less inverse-wave-age parameter = Uo/Cp. oneconsid1 If ers, first as approximation, a linear dependencyapversus of 1, where a m is the generalizedPhillips-Kitaigorodskii equilibi.e., ap = aol, the corresponding frequency spectrum for

gravitywavesbecomes

S(oo) aoUogW = -4

(33)

rium range parameter for short wavesdependenton the dimensionless parameter(U*/Cm), where u* is the frictionvelocityat the water surface, is the short-wave c phasespeedand

ELFOUHAILY
10 5

ET AL.: UNIFIED

DIRECTIONAL

SPECTRUM FOR LONG AND SHORT WAVES

15,789

ox \\ ox\ \\

OX\\
ox\

\
\

104 x

00
o
,_

'10 3
0 X

102
0

15,790
10 -1

ELFOUHAILY

ET AL.: UNIFIED DIRECTIONAL

SPECTRUM FOR LONG AND SHORT WAVES

0.!

Cox & Munk,1954 clean

0,

Wu 1992, clean

.,10 -2

O.C

/
/ /

x
--/

II

10 XN I I -;3
x
x

O.C

0.I:

10 --4
0

u* (m/s)

U10 (m/s)

Figure (a) and 7. JtihneRiemer (stars) Haraal. [i990] and et [1994] (crosses) measurements of secondary the
gravity-capillary peak level at 400 rad/m of the curvaturespectrum. Apel [1994] saturated exponential fit

(dashed-dotted curve), linearapproximation our (solidcurve) andlogarithmic model(dashed curve). (b) Comparison meansquare of slopes calculated fromour unified spectrum (solid curve) modified and Donelan andPiersOn [1987](dashed curve)with datafrom CoxandMunk [1954].
1

(k,)= S(k)do(k, )

(45)

where k is the wave wavenumber and qo the wave direction is

relativeto the wind.S(k) is the omnidirectional spectrum and is the spreading functiondefinedas (k, )=
k(k, )

mensional covariance surface of displacements,real andeven a function. This propertyof the heightcovariance essential is in electromagnetic scatteringcomputationsand dictates that spreading functions musthavea symmetric property regarding the origin,i.e., centrosymmetric property(for moredetails,see

Guissard [,1993]). Therefore Fourier the series expansion a of

spreading functionmust containonly evenharmonics:

(46)

fo ) 2 d k(k,

(k, ) =

1 q- a2n (2nq) cos

n=l

(47)

Unfortunately, noncentrosymmetric spreading functions are As longasthe spreading functionis not specified, still has one an exactformulation the directional of spectrum using(46) widelymodeledand usedin the literature [Donelanand Pierby son,1987; Apel, 1994].Thisis ratherconfusing electromagfor in (45). 1993]. To overcomethis difficulty, A directional spectrum the Fouriertransform the bidi- netic modelers[Guissard, is of

1-
:5 'E 10-11
0

10_3

10-15 10 "

10 -2

10 -1

10

101

102

10 3

10 4

10-4/ 10 -3

10 -2

10 -1

10

101

10 2

103

104

wavenumber (rd/m) k

wavenumber (rd/m) k

Figur 8. (a) Our unifiedomnidirectional spectrum and(b) its corresponding S curvature spectrum for B the full wavenumber rangeand for wind speeds from 3 m/s up to 21 m/swith a 2 m/s step.The secondary

gravity-capillary is at 370rad/mor i.7 cmwavelength. peak

ELFOUHAILY

ET AL.' UNIFIED

DIRECTIONAL

SPECTRUM

FOR LONG AND SHORT WAVES

15,791

-X-X- X-X-X
0.8

'x

x\\\

x\ \\\\\
\

xxx./'2x 0. xx x x x
X
x

x
-0.2
1

xX
O.

Xxx, ...... x.xX,

)-2 10 -1 10 101 10 2 10 3
wavenumberk (rd/m)

10 -2

10 -1

10

101

10 2

03

wavenumberk (rd/m)

Figure 9. (a) A ratio for Donelanand Pierson[1987] (solidcurve),Mitsuyasu al. [1975] (dashedcurve), et Apel [1994](dashed-dotted curve),Fungand Lee [1982](stars)andNickolaev al. [1992](crosses). Our et (b) unified z5ratio model for wind speedfrom 3 m/s to 21 m/s with a 2 m/s step.

By we define an upwind-crosswind ratio that can be calculated for independentlong and shortwave developments. comfrom all symmetricand noncentrosymmetric spreadingfunc- bining (51) and (52), we obtain tions alreadydevelopedin the past and that transformsthose A3t(k)= tanh{3.98(c/Uo) 2'5} (53) functions obey(47): to
This dependencewas later confirmed and improved by Has-

selmann al. [1980],who foundthat a w/tOp et dependency

A(k) = (48)

0)+
This A ratio parameteris recognizable the coefficientof as the secondharmonic when truncating the Fourier seriesexpansionof the angularfunction;hence
1

describes better their pitch-rollbuoydata.Donelanet al. [1985] foundlater on that a hyperbolic secant functionwouldfit the observed data even better. Consequently, A ratio of their the
spreadingfunction reads

1 - sech2-h
i AD(k)(xr)2 (54) = + sech2-h
where istop/to h dependent. thesake simplicity, will For of we
neither further develop (54) nor give the expression h. of
However, a numerical evaluation of this A ratio is shown in Figure 9.

(I)(k, 2--- + A(k)cos )= [1 (2)]

(49)

In the followingsection,we demonstratethe utility of this upwind-crosswind ratio.

6.2. Existing SpreadingFunctions

The mostpopularcosine-shape parametricspreading function wasfirst suggested Longuet-Higgins al. [1963] by et

(I)LU(k, = G(s) cos(92/2) 92) 2s

(50)

where the spreading parameters is, in general,a functionof wavenumber (k), wind speed(Uo), and inverse waveageD c. The A ratio of thisfunction simply is obtained applying by (48)
as

Apel [1994]proposed alternative an expression the "sech" to function by utilizing Banner's[1990] formulation.He found that a Gaussianspreadingfunction reproduces the observed Donelan-Banner function within modeling errors. We only give here its corresponding ratio: A

A'4(k)=tanh{() 2}
= tanh 0.173 + 6.168 (55) where tksis givenby (23). We wouldlike to stress that all A ratio functions, presented

A(k)= 2+ = tanh -2--s

(51)

Mitsuyasu al. [1975] proposedfirst comprehensive et estimates of s using measurements from a cloverleafbuoy. We

reproduce their expression in wavenumber k > kp, only for

sofar,have hyperbolic a tangent formanda tOp/tO dependency.

dispersive waves. Unfortunately, monotonic this decreasing be-

with increasing wavenumalthough originallygivenin frequency the wholefrequency Accordingly,the A ratio decreases for ber. It goesdownfrom 1 for longwavesto almostzero for short range,

s = 11.5(c/Uo) 2's

k ) kp

(52)

havior is not satisfactory a full wavenumberdescriptionof for

15,792

ELFOUHAILY

ET AL.: UNIFIED

DIRECTIONAL

SPECTRUM

FOR LONG AND SHORT WAVES

the spreadingfunction. Radar and in situ measurements have AmSSclea (1.24U0- 3) x 10-3 n= suggesteddistinct directionality for short gravity-capillary waves.We actuallybelievethat short-wave directionality could be emphasizedbecauseof the hydrodynamic modulation of 5 A(k)S(k)k 2dk U10 3 m/s (58) > short wavesby longer ones. Small-scale waveswould be less directionalif they did not ride on longer directionalwaves.In where Amss means the difference between mss for a clean order to reproduceradar azimuthalanisotropy, Fung and Lee surfacefrom upwind and crosswind directions. We then write [1982] suggested increasing ratio across wholewave- these functions as an A the number range: In (2)

AFL(k) a211 e-(k/kb)2] = -

(56)

a= 4

ap= 4

(59) where kt, is the cutoffwavenumber the high-pass of filter (Xt, - 8 cm) and a 2 is wind speeddependentdeterminedfrom am = 0.13 Cm= = 0.23 m/s Cm upwind/crosswind mean-squareslope asymmetry. This model gave satisfactory resultswhen utilized in microwavemodeling. The wind speedat a height of 10 m was convertedto friction Unfortunately,(56) is not realisticfor describing long-wave velocityunder stableconditions usingthe neutral drag coby directionality.It predicts isotropic long waves regardlessof efficientformula givenby Garratt [1977] or by Wu [1982]for wind speed wave and development,AFL(kp) 0. Forthe closeto fully developed conditions. i.e., = sea Figure 10acompares in same purpose,i.e., electromagnetic calculations, Nickolaevet polar coordinatethisunified spreading functionat the spectral al. [1992]gavea similarhigh-pass filter form exceptthat their kp at gravity-capillary kmwiththe peak exponentinvolves insteadof k-squaredand the cutoffwave- peak and thesecondary k Longuet-Higginsal. [1963]spreading et function(50) for s = 2. length is almost 5 times higher. In essence,this spreading function is a rather complicated hybrid model between Longuet-Higgins al.'s [1963] cosine form and exponential et form of Fung and Lee. For the sakeof simplicity, will not 7. Consistencyin the Interaction we give here the corresponding ratio formula but a numerical Between Wind and Waves A realization shown our Figure9a (crosses). is in Figure9a shows We have developedthe unified spectralmodel to be consisa comparison between A ratios of existingspreading functions tent with in situwind and waveobservations both long and for for a 10 m/s wind speed and close to fully developedwave shortwaves. further fundamental A test of the spectrum be can system. date, the shapeof the spreading To functionhasbeen made by examiningits consistency within a boundary layer a controversial issue,and no standardform has been given to model.Suchapplication entailsintegration our waveroughof correctly unify the independent long waves and short-wave ness spectrumto derive the basic near-surfaceaerodynamic developments. Hence a A ratio model for the full wavenumber roughness length z o. This roughness term carries the fundarange is yet to be developed. mental relationshipbetweenwind speedand friction velocity throughthe well-known"the law of the wall" equation: 6.3. Unified Spreading Function

u *

For this model, we assume that long wind wavesare aligned with the mean wind direction in steadyconditionsand the

U(z) = -- In

z>>

z>>h

(60)

couplinggoverned thekp/k (C/Cp) is by 2wavenumber factor. Shorterwaves,however,are more dispersive, and a few of them may travel perpendicularto the wind direction.Donelan et al. [1985]havearguedthat someshortwaves evenpropagate against wind (seealsoCrombie al. [1978]for wave-wave the et interactionexplanation this phenomenon). of Radar observations have shownthat short-gravity waveslosetheir directionality while gravity-capillary waves become more directional. Shemdinet al. [1988] have ended up with same conclusions when observingcentimeter waves with stereophotography. Owing to the natural involvementof the hyperbolictangent function and the phasespeedratio in all presentedspreading expressions, proposea unified full wavenumberapproach we
that can be written

Further,(60) is oftenrewritten(assuming neutralstability a assumption) as

u* = x/Cdov Uo
10 m above the sea level.

(61)

whereCd ovis termedthe neutralstabilitydragcoefficient at

The implicationof the precedingcomments that applicais tion of our spectrum, with its wind and wave age dependence,

will leadto some relationship between windspeed wind and

stress a givenwave age.This derivationof the drag coeffifor cient can then be comparedwith observations. Kitaigorodskii [1973]provideda basicsurfacelayer theorydetailingtwo primarylengthscales the wind-roughening in processes, thickness of the viscoussublayer(15v) adjoiningan aerodynamically
smooth surface,

A(k) = tanh{a0+ ap(/p) am(ernie) (57) 2'5 q2'5}

where is constant ao whileap andam arefunctions Uo/Cp of

Sv v/u* = (62) and U*/Cm, respectively; is taken to be the minimumvalue ao for whichthe s parameterof Longuet-Higgins al. [1963]in wherev = 14 x 10-6 m2/s et and"mean height theroughof (51) equals When lookingto long-wave 0.5. direction measure- nessprotuberances" an aerodynamically of roughmovingsurmentsfrom Mitsuyasu al. [1975],Donelanet al. [1985],and face, et

Banner [1990], turns thatapisa constant it out whose value lies

between4 and 6. For high-frequency waves,the a m parameter is a function of U*/Cm and was deducedfrom mean-square slopeasymmetry measured Cox and Munk [1954]' as by

hs=

S(k) exp (-2Kc(k)/u*)

dk

(63)

ELFOUHAILY

ET AL.: UNIFIED

DIRECTIONAL

SPECTRUM

FOR LONG AND SHORT WAVES

15,793

9Oo. 7

180

0 10 -2
',
10 -3

240
270

300

107_a -2 10 10 -1

10

101 102 10 a

wavenumberk (rd/m)

Figure 10. (a) Comparison, polar coordinate in (upwindq = 0), of our unifiedspreading functionat the

spectral peakkv (solidcurve)and at the secondary gravity-capillary km (dashed peak curve)with the
Longuet-Higgins al. [1963] cosine-shape et spreading functionfor a spreading parameterof s = 2 (dotted curve).Note that the dashedand dotted curvesare almostsuperimposed over must of the angles.(b) A comparison between spectrum our (solidcurve)andmodified DonelanandPierson [1987](dashed curve)for
a 10 m/s wind speed.

A total aerodynamicroughness parameter Zo can be simply which is compatible with the observations Geernaert al. of et taken as the sum of "smooth" and "rough" lengths [Smith, [1986]. 1988] reproducedhere in Kitaigorodskii's notation: When using our unified spectrum(30 and its subsequent equations)in the total roughness model (64), we found that Zo= A + Ash s (64) frequencies well above the spectralpeak of the equilibrium Kitaigorodskii [1973]reportedthatA , is a universal constant of range are responsiblefor almost all the stressunder steady 0.11. While A s has valuesbetween 0.2 and 0.02. A s is most state conditions.Figure 11a illustratesthat when the omnidi[1973] likelya function the seastate. simply of We takeAs - u */Cp rectional spectrumis multiplied by the Kitaigorodskii
2

10 o
1

10 -2
E

X 0
8
o
o

'

10 -4

,.1 .6
10 -6
10 -8
..... /

//

0.4

.....

:.!.!.:

..:...

. ..

:/:

x
0,2

10 -lo

'i'i'i;i'
t

"'

:':Tii'i'

iTiT"

:":':':':':':

10 -12 10 -2

....

t....i I
10 -1

........

I
10

.......
101 10 2 03

0 0

10 12
U10 (m/s)

14 16 18 20

Wavenumberk (rm/m)

Figure 11. (a) An example our omnidirectional of unifiedspectrum S(k) (solidcurve)andS(k) multiplied byKitaigorodskii's [1973]exponential term (dashed curve)asin (63). Numericalrealization thisexample of is onlyperformed windspeedUo - 10 m/sandfrictionvelocity = 0.38 m/sandinverse for u* waveage(f -

Uo/C = 0.84). (b) Windfriction p velocity versus windspeed inverse and waveage; model our (64) (solid
curve),HEXOS results (65) (crosses), Donelanet al. [1993]expression (66) (circles),Garratt[1977]model (stars).Note that for f = 0.84 all modelsare similar(bottomsetof curves). While for f = 3.0 our prediction lies betweenDonelan'sand HEXOS's (top set of curves).These chosen valuesof the inversewave age correspond fully developedand youngseas,respectively. to

15,794

ELFOUHAILY

ET AL.: UNIFIED

DIRECTIONAL

SPECTRUM

FOR LONG AND SHORT WAVES

exponential term in (63), only short-gravity and gravitycapillary waves support the total integral term. Geernaert [1990] came to the sameconclusion when reviewingrelevant roughness models.Makin et al. [1995] by developinga wave boundarymodel based on Miles' [1957, 1959] and Janssen's [1989]theories,concluded that short-gravity wavesare responsible for almost all the downward momentum flux.

improvesmsspredictionsas reported in Figure 7a (dashed curve).With this modification, the curvaturesecondary peak moves overto 1.7 cmwavelength (Figure7b). New parameters that improve on the Donelan and Piersonspectrumare suggestedhere to be, n + 1 = 3 from Phillips[1985] and In c =

n{ (k/km - 1)2 + 4.4} fromthe current development.

The main feature of our spectrumis the equilibriumrange dependence the generalized on waveage (u/c) for whichu is the wind speed at a height of 10 m from the water surface waveageparameter (u*/Cp). Their HEXOS results be (U1o) for the long-wavespectral domain [Kahma, 1981; can Donelan et al., 1985; Dobson et al., 1989] and the friction summarized (includingrms uncertainty the fit to data) as of velocity(u*) for the short-gravity and gravity-capillary wave gZ0 * spectral domain [Toba, 1973; Kitaigorodskii, 1983; Phillips, 1985].Short-gravity gravity-capillary and wavesare responsible for most of the wave-inducedstress.When using our unified This formulation indicates that youngseas(low Cp) are rougher thanmature ones (high Cp).Similar results wereob- spectrumin the boundarylayer model proposedby Kitaigorwith HEXOS camtained recentlyby Donelanet al. [1993].Basedon in situ mea- odskii[1973],the inferredform dragagrees paignmeasurements [Smith al., 1992].Thereforeour unified et surements, Donelan et al. [1993] proposedhowevera slightly spectrumis consistent with wind stressmeasurements. different model for z o, The only remote-sensing data usedin our development are opticaldata. Our approachis very flexible and can be usedin conjunction with future in situ data to refine theseinitial findings. Figure 11a shows friction velocityfunctionof wind speedand wave age as inferred from our unified spectrumby utilizing iterative scheme basedon Kitaigorodskii's [1973] model (64) Appendix: Spectral Definitions and a u*-U1o relationship (61) alongwith in situresults. OverBy definition, the elevationspectrumis the Fourier transall agreementcan easilybe seenwith both in situ modelsand form of the autocovariance function of the surfacedisplaceGarratt's [1977] model for mature seas. These results ments. strengthen idea that our unified spectrum consistent the is with wind stress measurements. (k) = FT {(r(ro)r(ro+ r))} (A1)

Maat et al. [1991] and Smith et al. [1992] proposed relaa tionshipbetweenthe roughness parameterZo and the related

U, (0.450.05) 2: q- Cp

(65)

Zo x10U21 =3.7 -s (Wlt '9 g Cp ?

(66)

FT being the Fourier transformoperator,anglebracketare the ensemble averageoperator,r is the surfaceelevationwith zero mean, and r is horizontal lag over the surface. In this paper we have attempted to derive from several In our analysis, only spatialvariability is considered. Temrecent experimental results a relatively simple closed-form of model for the surface wave directionalspectrum. The latter has poral or frequencydependence wave spectrais outsidethe of is been developedsolelyfrom in situor tank measurements. Thus scope this study.The directionalspectrum normalizedas no radar data have been includedin elaboratingthis model. Our directionalwave spectrumsatisfactorily modelssurface waves from near the main spectral peak up to the gravitycapillarypeak. Nondeveloped seas were alsomodeledby using the modified JONSWAP formulation for long wavestogether with a new fetch versuswave age relationshipthat extendsits = (k, )k dk d = S(k) dk (A2) validity to large fetch values in open ocean. The secondary gravity-capillary peak increases with the wind frictionvelocity deviation surface of elevations and as a two-regime logarithmicfunction as derived from Jahne whereo-,is the standard (kx, ky) and (k, ) aredirectional spectrum Cartesian in and Riemer [1990] and Hara et al. [1994] tank data. The omand polar respectively. to nidirectional model spectral reproduces significant height blowingincoordinates, x axis.The The wind is assumed be wave the positive omnidirectionalspectrum for developing andmeasured seas meansquare slopes (mss) for both cleanand oil-slickcovered water surfaces (Figure7b). S(k) is
8. Conclusion

tr2= f_ky) (2) xIr(kx' = I dkxdky

Moreover,when combined with our simplespreading function, upwind-crosswind asymmetry alsoverifiesfor both clean and slick mss to within experimental errors. By combining all former equations,our improvedunified directionalspectrum
can then be written
1

S(k) =

(k,

(q)k drq

(A3)

as

The mean squareslopein the upwind directionis

tit(k, = k-4[BiBh][1 A(k) (2T)] () + + cos

(67)

WhereB, Bh, and A are from (31), (40), and (57) andtheir subsequent formulas.If we use (17) insteadof (40) for the
omnidirectionalcurvature spectrum of short waves, one obtains a modified Donelan and Pierson[1987] spectrumthat

mSSx=f_f_kx2(kx, ky) dkxdky

-k2 cos (k, 2 qv)k dqv dk
(A4)

ELFOUHAILY

ET AL.: UNIFIED

DIRECTIONAL

SPECTRUM

FOR LONG AND SHORT WAVES

15,795

Table A1. SpectralDefinition and Dimensions

Spectral Name Form and Symbol Units Dimension

Cox, C. S., and W. H. Munk, Statisticsof the sea surface derived from

Elevation Slope Saturation or

curvature

S(k) P(k) = k2S(k) B(k) = k3S(k)

m3/rad m x rad rad 2

1-D 1-D 1-D

Sun glitter, J. Mar. Res.,13, 198-227, 1954. Crombie, D. D., K. Hasselmann, and W. Sell, High-frequency radar observations sea waves traveling in opposition to the wind, of Boundary LayerMeteorol.,13, 45-54, 1978. Dobson,F., W. Perrie, and B. Toulany,On the deep-waterfetch laws for wind-generated surface gravity waves, Atmos.Ocean, 27(1), 210236, 1989.

Elevation
Upwind slope
saturation

(kx, ky)
Px = kx 2

m4/rad 2
m2

2-D
2-D

Crosswind slope Py - ky2 Curvature or X(kx, my) k4xI -t

m 2 rad 2

2-D 2-D

Donelan, M. A., and W. J.P. Pierson,Radar scattering and equilibrium rangesin wind-generated waves with application scatteromto etry, J. Geophys. Res.,92, 4971-5029, 1987. Donelan, M. A., J. Hamilton, and W. H. Hui, Directional spectraof wind generatedwaves,Philos. Trans.R. Soc.London, Ser.A, 315,
509-562, 1985. Donelan, M. A., F. W. Dobson, S. D. Smith, and R. J. Anderson, On

and in the crosswind

direction

is

the dependence sea surfaceroughness wave development, of on J. Phys.Oceanogr., 2143-2149, 1993. 23, Fung, A. K., and K. K. Lee, A semi-empirical sea-spectrum model for scattering coefficientestimation,IEEE J. OceanicEng., 0E-7(4),
166-176, 1982.

Garratt, J. R., Review of drag coefficients over oceans and continents,

mssy=f_fky2qt(kx, ky) dkxdky

= k 2 sin (k, q>)k 2 dk
(A5)
The total mean squareslope in omnidirectionalcontextis,
therefore,

Mon. WeatherRev., 105, 915-929, 1977.

Geernaert,G. L., Bulk parameterization the wind stress for and heat fluxes,in SurfaceWaves and Fluxes,edited by G. L. Geernaert and W. J. Plant, pp. 91-172, Kluwer Acad., Norwell, Mass., 1990.
Geernaert, G. L., K. B. Katsaros, and K. Richter, Variations of the dragcoefficient and its dependence seastate,J. Geophys. on Res.,91, 7667-7679, 1986. Guissard,A., Directional spectrumof the sea surfaceand wind scat-

mss mSsy=ky2)qt(kx, = + f_ + ky) mssx f(kx2 dkxdky

= k2(k, )k dk d = k2S(k) dk
(A6)

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Thefactor thefinalintegral in (k2S(k)) is called omnidithe

rectionalslopespectrum. The saturationspectrumis defined in order to remove the

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k-3 behavior omnidirectional in spectrum thek -4 depenand

dencefor directionalspectralaccording Phillips'[1977] theto 1990. ory. The saturationspectrum commonly is calledthe curvature P. and spectrum. Table A1 summarizes previousdefinitionsand Janssen, A. E. M., Wave inducedstress the dragof air flow over the sea waves,J. Phys.Oceanogr., 745-754, 1989. 19, givestheir respective dimensionand units. Kahma, K., A studyof the growthof the wave spectrum with fetch,J.
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Jer6me Gourrion, and Vincent Kerbaol.
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Jfihne,B., and K. S. Riemer, Two-dimensional wave number spectraof small-scale water surface waves, Geophys. J. Res.,95, 11,531-11,546,

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(ReceivedApril 9, 1996;revisedSeptember 1996; 20, accepted January 1997.) 3,