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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2005

Neural-Network-Based Sensorless Maximum Wind Energy Capture With Compensated Power Coefcient
Hui Li, Senior Member, IEEE, K. L. Shi, and P. G. McLaren, Fellow, IEEE
AbstractThis paper describes a small wind generation system where neural network principles are applied for wind speed estimation and robust control of maximum wind power extraction against potential drift of wind turbine power coefcient curve. The new control system will deliver maximum electric power to a customer with light weight, high efciency, and high reliability without mechanical sensors. The concept has been developed and analyzed using a turbine directly driven permanent-magnet synchronous generator (PMSG). In addition, the proposed method is applied to a 15-kW variable-speed cage induction machine wind generation (CIWG) system. The simulation studies of a PMSG small wind generation system and experimental results of a CIWG are provided to verify the validity of the method. Index TermsNeural networks, permanent-magnet generators, wind turbine.

I. I NTRODUCTION HE CAPITAL cost of small wind turbine (less than 15 kW) electrical generation systems is very competitive with other known nonpolluting and renewable energy sources in the world. The most important application of small wind turbines is to provide electricity in remote places that do not have access to a power grid or where low-cost access to the power grid is impractical. The design requirements of these applications stress high efciency, high reliability, light weight, simplicity, low cost, and little or no maintenance for the wind turbine system. The peak power tracking control can have the wind turbine system achieve optimum wind energy utilization and maintain the maximal aerodynamic efciency; it is therefore a popular methodology [1][8] especially benecial to small wind systems. In order to implement maximum wind power extraction, the wind turbine generator must be operated in variable-speed variable-frequency mode. Most controller designs employ anemometers to measure wind velocity in order to derive the

Paper MSDAD-05-31, presented at the 2004 Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA, October 37, and approved for publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Industrial Automation and Control Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society. Manuscript submitted for review October 15, 2005 and released for publication September 2, 2005. H. Li is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, Florida A&M University-Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32310 USA (e-mail: hli@caps.fsu.edu). K. L. Shi and P. G. McLaren are with the Center for Advanced Power Systems, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32310 USA (e-mail: shikeli@ hotmail.com; maclaren@caps.fsu.edu). Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TIA.2005.858282

desired shaft speed to vary the generator speed [7]. In most cases, a number of anemometers at some distance away from and surrounding the wind turbine are required to provide adequate information. These mechanical sensors increase the cost and reduce the reliability of the overall system [3]. Recently, the mechanical sensorless peak power tracking control method has been reported in the literature and can be summarized into two approaches. The rst one is proposed by Bhowmik et al. [6] to use a power coefcient polynomial to estimate wind velocity. The second method has been reported by Tan and Islam [3] and Simoes et al. [2] by applying a two-dimensional (2-D) lookup table of power coefcient and power-mapping method to estimate the wind velocity directly or indirectly. In the rst method, an iterative algorithm is employed to determine the polynomial roots of the power coefcient online. Since the polynomial of power coefcient may be seventh order [1], real-time calculation of the polynomial roots will result in complex and time-consuming calculation, hence, reducing system performance. The power-mapping technique may occupy a lot of memory space. If memory space is saved by reducing the size of lookup table, the control accuracy will be affected. Another issue with the power-mapping method is that only the suboptimum solution can be achieved due to the control delay caused by the inherent slow searching mechanism. Articial neural networks (ANNs) are particularly useful to implement nonlinear time-varying inputoutput mapping. In the past, ANN has been applied for various control, identication, and estimation schemes in power electronics and drives. For example, feedforward ANNs were selected for implementation of pulsewidth-modulation (PWM) techniques [9][11]. The ANN-based PWM has advantages of fast parallel computation, learning capability, and fault tolerance, which are not possible by standard PWM implementation methods. In addition, ANN provides an alternative method of observing the inputoutput relationships of alternating current (ac) induction machines (IMs) whose parameters vary with time and operating conditions [12]. For this kind of application, ANN shows high promise for simplication of feedback signal processing. ANN can also be trained off-line and/or on-line to emulate existing controllers [13], [14]. Once well trained, the ANN controller could replace the conventional controller with the advantage of increased speed of execution and fault tolerance. The hardware implementations of ANN will be based on the different requirements of applications. One such attempt has been made to implement the feedforward ANN and its backpropagation algorithm in software on single- or multiple-processor arrays [15].

0093-9994/$20.00 2005 IEEE


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LI et al.: NEURAL-NETWORK-BASED WIND ENERGY CAPTURE WITH COMPENSATED POWER COEFFICIENT

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Fig. 2. Power coefcient versus tip speed ratio.

The proposed theoretical concept can be applied to other wind generation systems as well, which is validated by the experimental results of a variable-speed cage induction machine wind generation (CIWG) system. II. A NALYSIS OF W IND T URBINE G ENERATION S YSTEM A. Torque of Wind Turbine Both horizontal and vertical axis wind turbines are used in wind generation systems. In this paper, the vertical turbine is selected, and its aerodynamic torque Tt is expressed by (1) Tt = 1 2 rm CT ()Vw 2 (1)

Fig. 1. Torque coefcient and turbine torque. (a) Torque coefcient versus tip speed ratio. (b) Torque versus rotor speed and wind velocity.

The cost may be acceptable, but the speed is slow for complicated real-time applications. Another alternative is the use of an ANN application-specied integrated circuit (ASIC). Although the speed requirement is met, the cost is very high for most applications. In this paper, ANN principles are applied to implement a novel mechanical sensorless peak power extraction. The ANN has two applications in the proposed control system: 1) ANN-based wind velocity estimator and 2) ANN-based pseudo-power curves to compensate the potential drift of wind turbine power coefcient. By employing the proposed ANN, the traditional control algorithms involving the time-consuming calculation [2], [3], [6] are achieved in a simple and economic way without losing accuracy. The turbine directly driven permanent-magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) has emerged as one of the most promising congurations for small wind systems. In this paper, a complete simulation study for a PMSG wind generation system is presented. All the control algorithms have been veried by simulation results and system performance has been evaluated in detail.

where CT () is torque coefcient, is air density, is wind turbine rotor swept area, Vw is wind speed, rm is turbine radius, and is tip speed ratio. Examples of torque coefcient and the turbine torque curve used in this paper are shown in Fig. 1. In the full-load region, the turbine runs at a tip speed ratio ( > B ). If the generator load increases, will decrease until the turbine torque equals the load torque. When both torques are balanced, the turbine will run at a constant but smaller tip speed ratio. However, if the load torque exceeds the breakdown torque, the turbine rotor speed may quickly drop to zero. One of the control objectives is to avoid this uncontrollable situation. B. Power of Wind Turbine The maximum power and the corresponding rotor speed of the wind turbines are derived in (2) from (1)
3 Pt_ max = K1 Vw , K1 = 0.5CP _ max r = K2 V w , K2 = ropt m

(2)

where Pt_ max is the turbine maximum power at a certain wind velocity, Cp is the power coefcient (which is different from CT ), and r is the desired rotor speed when the turbine

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2005

Fig. 3. Simulation block diagram of the proposed small wind turbine driven PMSG and controller using Matlab/Simulink.

operates at maximum power point. As an example, Cp_ max and opt are displayed in Fig. 2. Equation (2) indicates that the maximum turbine power is proportional to wind velocity with the scaling constant K1 , and the corresponding turbine rotor speed is proportional to wind velocity with the scaling constant K2 . This means that if the wind velocity is available, the wind turbine generator can be controlled to vary the rotor speed proportional to wind speed to extract optimum power. When the steady states of optimum operating points are reached, the wind turbine will always run at a constant tip speed ratio opt regardless of wind speed. The wind velocity is therefore playing an important role in the peak power tracking control algorithm.

C. Turbine Power and Generator Power Most of the current peak power tracking control is based on the steady state lossless system where the turbine power equals the generated electrical power. However, the wind speed is always varying with time and the above assumption is not valid in practical situations. The dynamics of turbine power and generator power can be described by dPe dPm dr Jr = J dr dr dt
d2 r dt2 dr dt

Fig. 4. Turbine power curves (point A: to estimate a wind velocity from measured rotor speed and turbine power; point B: to nd maximum point at the maximum power line and rotor speed reference).

III. P ROPOSED W IND G ENERATION S YSTEM AND C ONTROL P RINCIPLE Fig. 3 presents the block diagram of the simulation of the proposed small wind generation system. It consists of a PMSG driven directly by a xed pitch wind turbine, a diode six-pulse rectier, a PWM inverter, and a digital signal processor (DSP) controller. wr is fed back to the turbine for simulation purposes to calculate the wind turbine torque. By using a direct-drive generator, a heavy gearbox will be eliminated to reduce noise and maintenance efforts. The DSP controller implements an ANN-based control algorithm. Firstly, it estimates the actual wind speed. Secondly, based on the derived wind speed, the optimum rotor speed prole will be generated. The PI controller then controls the actual rotor speed to be the desired value by

(3)

where r is turbine rotor speed, J is system inertia, Pm is turbine power, and Pe is generator power. In this paper, a more accurate control method is developed to extract maximum wind energy not only in the steady state but also during transients. The system losses are not taken into account for the proposed approach.

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LI et al.: NEURAL-NETWORK-BASED WIND ENERGY CAPTURE WITH COMPENSATED POWER COEFFICIENT

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Fig. 5.

Proposed training scheme for ANN-based wind velocity estimation.

Fig. 6. Wind velocity estimation ANN with ve tan-sigmoid neurons and one linear neuron.

Fig. 8. Example of pseudo-power curves: point A is to estimate a wind velocity from measured rotor speed and turbine power; point B is to nd maximum point on the maximum power line and rotor speed reference. Fig. 7. ANN-based control module of turbine rotor speed.

varying the switching ratio of the PWM inverter. Therefore, the load line of the PMSG matches very closely the maximum power line of the wind turbine machine. The control target of the inverter is the output power delivered to the load instead of the desired frequency and voltage. By varying the switching ratio of the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) inverter, the desired output power is thereby achieved. For small wind energy conversion systems, the proposed control and the circuit conguration without anemometer will give a low cost, light weight, and the same solid performance over many years. Fig. 4 shows the control approach presented in this paper. Assuming that the wind turbine is initially at operating point A, a neural network will be employed to estimate the wind velocity of point A from measured rotor speed and turbine power. The corresponding optimum operating point, point B, is thereby derived, giving the desired rotor speed reference. The generator speed will then be controlled until it reaches the speed r where the turbine power has the maximum value.

Fig. 9.

ANN-based control module of rotor speed with compensated function.

IV. A LGORITHMS I MPLEMENTATION A. Wind Velocity Estimation by ANN The estimating algorithm of wind speed proposed in the paper is based on a 2-D nonlinear inverse function, which is described in Fig. 5. Implementing the inverse function by a 2-D lookup table will result in complex and time-consuming calculation, thereby reducing system performance. ANN becomes an ideal technique to solve this problem. A supervised ANN is used to implement the high-precision wind velocity estimation. The proposed training scheme of

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Fig. 10. Simulation results of wind velocity and estimation error. (a) Wind speed prole 1. (b) Wind speed prole 2.

the neural network to estimate wind velocity Vw is shown in Fig. 5. In this scheme, sample data Pm is produced from the turbine power equation with preselected rotor speed and wind velocity samples. The rotor speed and power samples are then recombined as 10 000 data pairs (r (i), Pm (i, j)|i = 1, . . . 100, j = 1, . . . 100), which are employed as the input matrix of the neural network. On the other hand, the wind velocity samples are used as target to train a three-layer network as shown in Fig. 6, with two linear neurons in the input layer, ve tan-sigmoid neurons in the hidden layer, and one linear neuron in the output layer. The inputs of the ANN, such as the turbine power Pm and generator speed r , can be generated from the generator power Pe and synchronous electrical frequency as r = 2 P dr + Pe . dt (4) (5)

implemented here. With wind velocity estimated by the ANN, the rotor speed reference will be generated from (1) with a gain K2 = opt /rm . Merging the gain into the ANN estimator, the block diagram of the ANN-based control module is shown in Fig. 7. The power coefcient may have a drift error with time and varied environment. In order to compensate this drift, a new method is proposed in the paper. The key feature of this method is to generate the pseudopower curves of Fig. 8. These curves are then used to determine the corresponding rotor speed command r . In the example of Fig. 9, the derived rotor speed at maximum power point (point B) is a nonlinear discrete function of the wind velocity. In order to nd a continuous function from the discrete data of Fig. 8, curve tting or ANN methods may be used. In this paper, the ANN method has been employed. The pseudopower curves are generated by the following steps. 1) Regulate the rotor speed to a constant r (i). 2) Estimate wind velocity Vw (j) based on the typical turbine power curves of Fig. 4 and measure the corresponding turbine power Pm (i, j). 3) Update the rotor speed to the next constant r (i + 1). 4) Repeat 2) and 3) until data of most operation points has been collected. With the collected data, a pseudo-power curve is plotted in Fig. 8. Since Fig. 8 is already based on the measured rotor speed, turbine power, and estimated wind speed, it has the capability to attenuate the potential variation of the power coefcient

Pm = Jr

The derivative operation is implemented by an approximate derivative to avoid the noise sensitivity. The generator output power Pe can be derived from generator stator currents and stator voltages. B. Power Tracking Control With Compensation of Power Coefcient Drift The maximum power extraction control concept with a xed power coefcient curve is illustrated clearly in Fig. 4 and

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Fig. 11. Simulation results of rotor speed and power coefcient. (a) Wind speed prole 1. (b) Wind speed prole 2.

Fig. 12. Simulation results of turbine power and generator power. (a) Wind speed prole 1. (b) Wind speed prole 2.
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2005

curve. The rotor speed command found in Fig. 8 thereby will be closer to the real value to achieve the compensation objective. The proposed compensation approach can be further illustrated by an example. When the actual rotor speed is 53 rad/s and turbine power is 815 W, the corresponding operating point will be sought in Fig. 8 and located at point A with the estimated wind velocity of 12 m/s. Then the maximum power point B can be found accordingly to derive the rotor speed reference of 80 rad/s. The maximum tracking control with compensation algorithm is shown in Fig. 9, while the function r = f (Vw ) can be derived from the collected data as shown in Fig. 8 using ANN techniques. V. S IMULATION S TUDY The wind turbine driven generator system used for the simulation has the following parameters: 1) wind turbine parameters: a) rating: Pm = 1.4 kW at Vw = 8 m/s, turbine radius rm = 1 m, and opt = 6.7; Cp () is shown in Fig. 2(a); 2) generator parameters: a) three-phase 2-kW PMSG; b) phase resistance Rs = 0.35 ; c) phase inductance Ls = 0.66 mH; d) ux linkage = 1.05 V s; e) number of poles P = 18; f) total inertia of turbine and generator: J = 2 kg m2 . Fig. 10 is the simulation verication of wind speed estimation. Two wind speed proles are selected to evaluate the performance of the ANN algorithm thoroughly. The rst is a slowly varying sinusoidal signal as shown in Fig. 10(a). The other is a randomly varying wind signal with a time constant of 1. It is not necessary to investigate faster wind speeds because of the inertia of the actual wind turbine. The simulation results show that wind velocity is well estimated with small errors in both cases. Fig. 11 is the simulation verication of maximum power tracking control. Firstly, the rotor speed (solid line) is well controlled toward the rotor command (dotted line). Secondly, the wind turbine is operated at a constant tip speed ratio of 6.6, which is very close to opt = 6.7. With the controlled rotor speed, the actual turbine power Pm can track the desired Pm closely. Fig. 12 also shows the dynamic difference between the mechanical power Pm and the electrical power Pe due to the system inertia. By applying the new control strategy, the transient turbine mechanical power tracks the maximum power closely with a minor error. Hence, the whole wind energy conversion system has achieved maximum utilization of wind energy without making the assumption that the wind turbine system is always operated in the lossless steady state, which is not the true case proven in Fig. 12. When the power coefcient Cp () has the limited drift shown in Fig. 13(a), the comparison of control performance with and without the compensation algorithms is illustrated in Fig. 13(b). The wind speed prole is selected to have the same pattern as that of Fig. 13(b) since both steady state and transients, including the acceleration and deceleration of the wind

Fig. 13. Simulation results. (a) Power coefcient with drift error. (b) Turbine output power without compensation (average error = 10.7738) and with compensation (average error = 4.2426).

turbine, are covered and demonstrated more clearly than the other two wind speed proles. The simulation results conrmed that the maximum power tracking with the compensation algorithm is more robust against the wind turbine parameter variation. In this example, the systems performance may not be improved signicantly with the compensation. However, the main idea here is to provide a method that can compensate the drift of the power coefcient. VI. E XPERIMENTAL E VALUATION The proposed control algorithm can be applied to other wind generation systems. In this paper, a variable speed cage machine wind generation system is also considered. Fig. 14 is the control system block diagram. The system consists of a vertical wind turbine, a gearbox (not shown), a squirrel cage induction generator, and back-to-back PWM converters. The control of the machine-side PWM rectier will vary the generator speed to extract power from the wind. The lineside inverter can be controlled in both stand-alone and gridconnection modes, which has not been shown in the gure. All the control schemes are implemented by using a real-time digital simulator (RTDS) except the ANN-based algorithm, which is ofine trained by Matlab/Simulink and implemented by dSPACE. The dSPACE is then interfaced to the RTDS to make a complete control system. The detailed experimental implementation of this system in the laboratory is given in [16].

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Fig. 14. Simulation block diagram of the proposed small wind turbine driven CIWG and controller.

The system parameters are listed as follows: 1) wind turbine parameters: a) rating: 5.8 kW at Vw = 13 m/s, turbine radius rm = 2 m, and opt = 6.7; 2) generator parameters: a) three-phase 20-hp cage induction generator; b) stator resistance Rs = 0.1778 ; c) rotor resistance Rr = 0.238 ; d) stator leakage inductance Lls = 0.00338 H; e) rotor leakage inductance Llr = 0.00353 H; f) magnetizing inductance Lm = 0.0440 H; g) base frequency Fb = 60 Hz; h) number of poles P = 8; i) moment of inertia J = 13.20 ft lb2 . The experimental verication of wind speed estimation is shown in Fig. 15. Compared to the simulation studies, the extra error in the experimental results is caused by the implementation delay. However, this error will not affect the control performance much, which is shown in Fig. 16. The experimentally derived generator power is plotted in Fig. 16 as well as the turbine power. When wind speed reaches 11 m/s, the turbine power is measured as 3.5 kW, which is quite close to the rated maximum power of 3.7 kW at 11 m/s. In addition, the tip speed ratio is around 7. The measurement of turbine power is less accurate at smaller values, which affects the control performance as well as the tip speed ratio at wind speeds of 6 m/s or lower. The difference between generator electrical power and turbine power is also shown in Fig. 16. Based on (5), the generator power should be equal to turbine power during steady state when the system is lossless. Therefore, the experimental results of generator power will be less than those of turbine

Fig. 15. Experimental ANN wind speed estimation.

power due to the system losses. However, during transients where the rotor speed is varying with the changing wind speed, the generator power can be greater than the turbine power when the rotor speed is decreasing. VII. C ONCLUSION In this paper, a neural-network-based control is presented for both a small wind turbine directly driven PMSG system and a CIWG system with gearbox. Compared to the traditional control strategies, the new method has the following features: 1) a maximum mechanical power of the wind turbine can be well tracked at both dynamic and steady states; 2) a neuralnetwork-based wind velocity estimator is developed to provide

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Fig. 16. Experimental power and tip speed ratio.

fast and accurate velocity information to avoid using anemometers; and 3) a neural-network-based scheme is presented to compensate the potential drift of wind turbine power coefcient without extra sensors. In addition, the tan-sigmoid neurons of the proposed ANN algorithms can be implemented by a lookup table using a microprocessor or a DSP. Therefore, the hardware implementation of the proposed ANN algorithms can be achieved using an existing digital controller without adding extra cost. The theoretical concept of the control system has been veried by the simulation study of the PMSG system and the experimental results of the CIWG system. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors thank the Center for Advanced Power Systems of Florida State University for providing experimental facilities to verify the control algorithms. Special thanks go to Dr. M. Steurer, Dr. S. Woodruff, and Mr. D. Zhang who helped to obtain the experimental data of Figs. 15 and 16. R EFERENCES
[1] A. M. De Broe, S. Drouilhet, and V. Gevorgian, A peak power tracker for small wind turbines in battery charging applications, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 16301635, Dec. 1999. [2] M. G. Simoes, B. K. Bose, and R. J. Spiegel, Fuzzy logic based intelligent control of a variable speed cage machine wind generation system, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 8795, Jan. 1997. [3] K. Tan and S. Islam, Optimal control strategies in energy conversion of PMSG wind turbine system without mechanical sensors, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 392399, Jun. 2004. [4] A. Miller, E. Muljadi, and D. S. Zinger, A variable speed wind turbine power control, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 181186, Jun. 1997. [5] R. Datta and V. T. Ranganathan, A method of tracking the peak power points for a variable speed wind energy conversion system, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 163168, Mar. 1999. [6] S. Bhowmik, R. Spee, and J. H. R. Enslin, Performance optimization for doubly fed wind power generation systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 949958, Jul./Aug. 1999. [7] L. L. Freris, Wind Energy Conversion System. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990. [8] T. Hartkopf, M. Hoffmann, and S. Jockel, Direct-drive generators for megawatt wind turbines, in Proc. Eur. Wind Energy Conf. (EWEC), Dublin, Ireland, 1997, p. 668.

[9] M. P. Kazmierkowski, D. L. Sobczuk, and M. A. Dzieniakowski, Neural network current control of VS-PWM inverters, in Proc. Eur. Power Electronics (EPE) Conf., Seville, Spain, 1995, pp. 14151420. [10] A. Bakhshai, J. Espinoza, G. Joos, and H. Jin, A combined articial neural network and DSP approach to the implementation of spave vector modulation techniques, in Conf. Rec. IEEE Industry Applications Society (IAS) Annu. Meeting, San Diego, CA, 1996, pp. 934940. [11] J. O. Pinto, B. K. Bose, L. E. B. da Silva, and M. P. Kazmierkowski, A neural-network-based space-vector PWM controller for voltage-fed inverter induction motor drive, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 36, no. 6, pp. 16281695, Nov./Dec. 2000. [12] M. G. Simoes and B. K. Bose, Neural network based estimation of feedback signals for a vector controlled induction motor drive, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 620629, May/Jun. 1995. [13] M. R. Buhl and R. D. Lorenz, Design and implementation of neural networks for digital current regulation of inverter drives, in Conf. Rec. IEEE Industry Applications Society (IAS) Annu. Meeting, Dearborn, MI, 1991, pp. 415421. [14] F. Kamran, R. G. Harley, B. Burton, T. G. Habetler, and M. A. Brooke, A fast on-line neural-network training algorithm for a rectier regulator, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 366371, Mar. 1998. [15] B. Burton, R. G. Harley, G. Diana, and J. L. Rodgerson, Implementation of a neural network to adaptively identify and control VSI-Fed induction motor stator currents, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 580588, May/Jun. 1998. [16] M. Steurer, H. Li, S. Woodruff, K. Shi, and D. Zhang, Development of a unied design, test, and research platform for wind energy systems based on hardware-in-the-loop real time simulation, in Conf. Rec. IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conf. (PESC), Aachen, Germany, 2004, pp. 36043608.

Hui Li (S97M01SM01) received the B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical engineering from the Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China, in 1992 and 1995, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, in 2000. Currently, she is an Assistant Professor in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Florida State University, Tallahassee. Her research interests include renewable energy conversion systems, soft-switching converters, and motor drive control.

K. L. Shi received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from the Chengdu University of Science and Technology, Chengdu, China, the M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from the Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, in 1983, 1989, and 2001, respectively. He is currently a Post-Doctoral Fellow at the Center for Advanced Power Systems, Florida State University, Tallahassee. His current research interests are ac motor drives and wind generation.

P. G. McLaren (M78SM89F98) received the B.Sc. degree in engineering from the University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, U.K., in 1958, the M.A. degree in engineering from the University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K., in 1968, and the Ph.D. degree in power systems from the University of Dundee, Dundee, U.K., in 1971. He spent ve years in industry before becoming a Fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge, U.K., for 20 years. He then became the NSERC Industrial Research Chair in Power Systems at the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada, for ten years. He is now the Director of the Florida Advanced Power Research Institute, Florida State University, Tallahassee. Dr. McLaren is a Fellow of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, U.K. and a Chartered Engineer in the U.K. and Europe (C.Eng., Eur. Eng.).

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