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Fellowship Final Report

UNESCO Fellowship Program in Support of Program Priorities (2010-2011) Research on Design from a Cultural Heritage Management Perspective Supervisor: Gregory P. J. Most, Chief, Department of Image Collections, National Gallery of Art Research Fellow:
November 2011

Raeut E. Stern

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the UNESCO Fellowship Programme Section for their generous support of this research. Special gratitude goes to Gregory P. J. Most, the National Gallery of Art and Peggy Pearlstein, the Library of Congress, for hosting my research and providing useful guidance and advice. Additional supporters I would like to acknowledge include: Daniel Bar-Elli, Secretary-General, Israel National Commission for UNESCO Ann Brener, Hebraic Section at the Library of Congress Elaine J. Rigas Boaz Shilo Ben, Elia and Yaniv Stern

For their kind contribution to the research, I would like to express my gratitude to the individuals who agreed to share their time and thoughts. Each and every interview provided interesting and useful information. Arden Alexander Katherine Arrington Julie Blake Sandy Bostian Karen Cassedy Elizabeth Concha Verna Curtis Peter Dueker Susan Finkel Kenneth N.Fleisher Nahid Gerstein John Gordy Cory Grace Nancy Hartman Yasmeen Kahn Erik Landsberg Michael Levy Library of Congress Library of Congress National Gallery of Art World Digital Library National Gallery of Art National Gallery of Art Library of Congress National Gallery of Art National Gallery of Art National Gallery of Art Library of Congress National Gallery of Art Smithsonian Institution United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Library of Congress Museum of Modern Art United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Vince Rossi Gail Shirazi Jason Steinhauer John Tsantes Stephen Van Dyk John Van Oudenaren Mary Westly John Mahar Adam Metallo Michael Neubert Ford Peatross Michelle Rago Herb Rosenbleeth Library of Congress Smithsonian Institution Library of Congress Library of Congress World Digital Library National Museum of American Jewish Military History Smithsonian Institution Library of Congress Library of Congress Smithsonian Institution Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum World Digital Library National Museum of American Jewish Military History United States Holocaust Memorial Museum World Digital Library

Lindsay Zarwell Alison Zhang

Contents
P r e f a c e ...................................................................................................................................................... 3 R e s e a r c h O b j e c t i v e s ................................................................................................................ 4 R e s e a r c h A c t i v i t i e s .............................................................................................................................. 4 F i n d i n g s ..................................................................................................................................................... 7 Project Design & Management ................................................................................................................ 8 Establishing Project Mission, Goals and Boundaries ............................................................................ 8 Setting the Pace .................................................................................................................................. 10 Building Alliances ................................................................................................................................ 12 Striving to Offer Value......................................................................................................................... 20 Curatorial Processes ............................................................................................................................... 22 Technical Recommendations ................................................................................................................. 31 Digitization .......................................................................................................................................... 31
Photography ...................................................................................................................................................33 Scanning .........................................................................................................................................................36 Colour Management .......................................................................................................................................38 Three-Dimensional Digitization ........................................................................................................... 40

Digitization Workflow and Digital Asset Management ....................................................................... 47 Cataloguing Digital Content ................................................................................................................ 49 Digital Rights Management................................................................................................................. 54 Information Preservation and Migration ............................................................................................ 57 Work Force Development ................................................................................................................... 60 Public Outreach and Audience Engagement ......................................................................................... 63 Unidirectional Information Dissemination ......................................................................................... 65 Bidirectional Communication and Participatory Interaction ............................................................. 67 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................. 72 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................ 74 List of Website references .......................................................................................................................... 78 Appendix A .................................................................................................................................................. 85 Appendix B .................................................................................................................................................. 88 2 Cover: Detail of Sjoerd Hofstra, All Meadows, 2005 Presented at the Rare books and special collections Reading Room, Library of Congress

Preface

In January 2011 I embarked on a four month fellowship, generously provided by the UNESCO Program in Support of Program Priorities (2010-2011). The purpose of the fellowship was intended as supplementary to the research activities of the Memory of the World Initiative at Bezalel Academy of Art and Design, aimed at establishing a digital library for design, art and architecture in Israel. For that reason, the fellowship took place in Washington D.C., at the National Gallery of Art (NGA) and Library of Congress (LC). The fellowship has proven to be an intense and unique professional experience. This is due to the ongoing efforts of Gregory P. J. Most, Chief of the Department of Image Collection at the National Gallery of Art, and Peggy Pearlstein, Head of the Hebraic Section at the Library of Congress. Both provided continual, attentive and insightful support of my research. They also introduced me to experts and enabled me to witness activities that I would not have had access to otherwise. The opportunity of meeting some of the leading experts in the field of cultural heritage preservation provided me with both valuable information and with important contacts for future consultation and knowledge exchange. Each and every encounter provided relevant information and interesting recommendations. True to its reputation, Washington D.C is a cultural hub offering continual opportunities to observe how cultural heritage is presented to different audiences, and experienced by them. In addition, the citys large museum community offered me events and educational meetings I could not have attended without the fellowship. All of the above have contributed to the success of my fellowship research. The information accumulated during the fellowship was vast, varied and could not have been attained otherwise. In the months that have passed since my return to Israel, I witness daily how the fellowship has contributed to my knowledge and understanding of the challenges posed by digital libraries of visual content. My ability to plan and promote the establishment of the digital library has increased considerably with the ability to analyze and foresee the implications of various decisions within a larger, international perspective. This document is a final report of the fellowship. As the purpose of the fellowship research was to acquire applicable knowledge about the actual elements of building a digital library, the fellowship was not designed as a rigid procedure but rather as an ongoing opportunity to acquire firsthand advice and examples in lieu with the research objectives. Accordingly,
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the purpose of this document is not to offer a revision of the available literature but rather compile the experience, knowledge and insights that were shared by the experts interviewed, alongside specific examples collected from the observations and literature.

1. Research Objectives

The goals set for fellowship research were derived from the conclusions of the first stage of the Bezalel research and focused on learning from the vast experience of leading institutions in the field. Specifically, Washington DC was chosen as it is home to some of the largest and most comprehensive cultural heritage institutions in the world. The field of study was defined as Research on Design from a Cultural Heritage Management Perspective. The particular areas in which knowledge was to be gained included two different perspectives: The role of the digital library as a cultural resource, corresponding with current and future research needs. The technical aspects of establishing and managing a digital library as a form of cultural heritage management. This includes process management in digital libraries and the strategic aspects of creating a useful and active premium data base.

2. R e s e a r c h A c t i v i t i e s In order to make the best use of the limited time and available resources, several research methods were implemented with the guidance of the supervisors at both institutes. These methods were chosen for their potential in serving the applied nature of the research and due to their ability to ensure exposure to many aspects of the research objectives. The research methods were as follows: 2.1. Interviews An initial list of 23 subject-matter experts was compiled according to supervisors recommendations. The experts were contacted to request a meeting and interview and all but five responded positively. A follow-up meeting was scheduled with several of the experts to discuss additional topics or gain a deeper understanding of a certain topic. During the interviews additional recommendations were collected and all together 48 meetings were conducted with 36 experts during the fellowship.
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Interview duration ranged between 45 minutes to 3 hours, and averaged 2 hours. Notes of the interviews were taken in writing to maintain a flowing and comfortable rapport. A list of the subject matter experts interviewed can be found in appendix A. 2.2. Observations To gain a better understanding of the context in which each of the experts performs their work, contextual information was collected prior to each meeting. This included both a review of the web resource or website the expert was connected to, and, when applicable, a visit to the space in which the content was originally or physically encountered (e.g., museum exhibitions). Fifteen physical observation sessions were conducted, ranging between 3 to 6 hours. Of these observations, six sessions took place in institutions in which no expert was interviewed. These included the Textile Museum, the National Portrait Gallery, the Museum of Art and Design (NY), the Tenement Museum, the National Geographic Society, and the Phillips Collection. Session findings were documented in writing and photographed (when possible). 2.3. Conference Participation In addition to a field trip to NYC, the fellowship enabled participation in the joint conference of the Visual Resources Association (VRA) and the Art Libraries Society of North America (ARLIS/NA) in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The five day conference organized by two of the leading associations of visual resource management and art librarianship was a comprehensive and useful learning opportunity. The large variety of sessions dealt with topics such as visual resource digitization, art and design research tools, online resources, mobile access to cultural heritage, etc. The conference also provided an excellent opportunity to make new acquaintances and inquire about products and services presented by relevant vendors. The list of lectures and sessions attended can be found in appendix B. 2.4. Review of Online Resources During the various research activities, many online websites and resources were encountered. The useful and relevant links were added to a list compiled during the first stage of the MOW research at Bezalel Academy. The list includes hundreds of links to various online resources, tagged with keywords. The new resources (over 375) added
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during the fellowship are tagged fellowship-report and with other keywords and are available online1.

Joseph Mallord William Turner, Keelmen Heaving in Coals by Moonlight, 1835 Inspiring Work in progress by unknown artist at the National Gallery of Art, May 2011

See at http://delicious.com/mow_pilot

3. F i n d i n g s Corresponding with the initial research objectives, the information gathered and analyzed addressed the meeting points of Design History, Anthropology, Museum Studies, and Information Science as they take form in the creation and use of digital collections of design and decorative arts. Having interviewed different experts in a variety of fields, it was necessary to present the findings clearly. The two objectives initially described in the research objectives2 were both addressed in the research. However, since the fellowship was focused on practice rather than theory, these were not found to be the most efficient categories through which to present the findings. During the fellowship a few dominant themes were identified as prevalent. These themes reflect thoughts that were expressed repetitively in many of the interviews and often were discussed from the perspective of each field of expertise. In order for this document to serve as a valuable supplementary resource for the team working on the Memory of The World initiative at Bezalel Academy, these themes were grouped as four major categories. Each category is divided into several topics to enable quick access to relevant information when needed: Project Design & Management Curatorial Processes Technical Requirements Outreach and Audience Engagement

The four themes are hereby presented with relevant examples. Although scholarly resources were reviewed for this paper, creating a practical resource required leaving the theoretical discussion aside. Given that this is not an academic exercise, reference is given to specific resources that were used directly or to interviewees who provided unique insight. In many cases an idea was mentioned by several interviewees and therefore specific reference is not provided.

See item 1.

3.1. Project Design & Management Several of the interviews took place with current or past initiators of digitization projects. Whether these were projects initiated within a large organization or as independent initiatives, common challenges were often mentioned during the interviews. While describing the challenges they had faced, and often still do, both junior and senior management offered me a set of recommendations. These recommendations were derived from their unique overlook and experience in establishing, designing and managing a digital resource. 3.1.1. Establishing Project Mission, Goals and Boundaries One of the most difficult stages of digitization projects is the initial steps towards establishment of the project. The seemingly endless possibilities offered by technology in the digital age often create an illusion that everything is possible and worthwhile. Before long, this misconception shatters in the face of budget constraints and other limitations such as unavailable technology or inability to predict technological advancement. Nevertheless, these limitations are actually an important catalyst in the process of establishing the project goals and boundaries. Not all of the digitization projects or departments visited during the fellowship had officially established the project goals and boundaries. In many cases, the goals were established ad hoc, derived from an immediate need that later on evolved in to a larger project. However, several of the managers interviewed regarded a written Mission Statement or Vision as useful tools to which they repeatedly referred to during the first stages of establishment. Useful Mission and Vision Statements usually result from careful analysis of the circumstances in which a digitization project is created and the purpose it aims to fulfil. The process in which these statements are created can assist in developing the communication between all parties involved and should ensure a clear and agreed upon base for action. According to Jason Steinhauer, Liaison Specialist at Library of Congress Veterans History Project, the basic statements can become even more useful when used not only as general guidance but as an instrument for decisive and consistent decision making. By initially eliminating certain courses of action, the attention that would have gone to considering
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them is now spared. An example of a clear and useful Mission Statement for a digital library was created by the World Digital Library (WDL), a project initiated by the Library of Congress and developed with UNESCO. The WDL mission includes a concise definition and lists the principle objectives3. A more elaborate example, well-crafted and serving a large scale initiative, can be found in the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) ten year strategic plan4. Similar to the WDL Mission Statement, other Mission and Vision Statements of digital libraries usually address three important aspects. These include the assumed responsibilities towards documentation and access, the scope and depth of the content, and the definition of the target audience. The assumed responsibilities are usually based on those of the establishing parties and reflect the cultural role of the organizations to which the project is affiliated. This issue will not be further discussed at this stage. The definition of the scope and depth of the content are in fact the first steps in the curatorial process which will be further discussed in item 3.2. The third aspect, the definition of the target audience, impacts many of the core decisions and requires attention right at the beginning of the establishment of project goals and boundaries. Several project managers pointed out that the desire to create free digital resources that provide information for all often results in a mistaken definition of the target audience. A digital resource can be free for all yet still require a clearer definition of the target audience. According to Stephen H. Van Dyk, Head of the Art Department at the Smithsonian Institution Libraries, the users of the Cooper-Hewitt National Museum of Design library comprise mostly scholarly researchers, art and design curators, designers, art appraisers, design collectors and authors. Understanding the needs of these users, both in the library and in any digital service provided by it, enables focusing the efforts of information dissemination effectively. Two different informal definitions of a target audience were presented during the interviews. The first definition perceived the target audience as the group of

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See at http://www.wdl.org/en/about/ "Part II What Do We Want To Achieve?." In Preserving the past to protect the future the strategic plan of the National Archives and Records Administration, 2006-2016.. Revised ed. Washington, D.C.: United States National Archives and Records Administration, 2009. 3-4. http://www.archives.gov/about/plans-reports/strategicplan/2009/nara-strategic-plan-2006-2016-final.pdf

people who are to make the best use of the information to promote human knowledge in that field (such as scholars, researchers and educators). The second definition included the groups or individuals who will make any sort of significant use of the resource (such as practitioners, private collectors, etc.). Using either definition or both together improves the ability of the digital library to serve the exact needs of its most dominant users, and perhaps its most effective knowledge agents as well. By learning whom those users are, the services provided can be based on suitable curatorial decisions, efficient technology choices and valuable research tools. Using the endless definition of the target audience as everyone or the general public deflates that ability. Practical goals can be determined once the scope, mission and boundaries are set. However, since all of these are established in specific circumstances, changes and re-evaluation may be necessary at times. It is difficult to make accurate predictions and therefore missions can change and evolve. 3.1.2. Setting the Pace Once an agreed upon outline has been set, a work plan can be designed and executed. Each project has its own natural evolution, pace and circumstances. However, most of the digitization projects reviewed had an initial short stage dedicated to strategic planning. In this stage, a small team or a manager took the official or unofficial mission and drew a more detailed, practical plan, including short and long term action items. 3.1.2.1. Project Planning and Deliverables

Michael Neubert, Supervisory Digital Projects Specialist at the Library of Congress, stressed the importance of careful planning of a digitization project. From his experience with many digitization initiatives, the planning stage of a medium scale digitization project can take approximately a year. However, during this time he recommended creating deliverables that complement the strategic plan. The deliverables should answer two essential objectives. The first objective is to create the plan based on concrete experience within the specific environment of the current project. The experience gained will improve the understanding of the challenges ahead and may also shed light on problems that were difficult to anticipate.
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The second objective is to develop a small pilot product. This product does not have to be a full and running system but rather an instrument to illustrate the direction the project is heading. Furthermore, such a product demonstrates the progress made during the planning stage to the stakeholders supporting the project. Being a pilot product, changes and corrections may be required later as the entire project progresses and therefore the pilot product should be flexible enough to evolve. In certain cases it may even be scrapped after its conclusion, having been used solely to demonstrate the direction and tools of the main project. Michelle Rago , Technical Director for the World Digital Library at the Library of Congress, supported this approach and provided an example for such a pilot product. During the initial stages of building the World Digital Library, a short promotional video5 was produced. The video illustrated the vision for the upcoming digital library in a way that was easy for external partners to understand and relate to. The ambitious goals were appealing and inspired them to respond and support the initiative. In addition, the process of creating the video evoked ideas that would later become building blocks of the information architecture and user interface. John Gordy, Web Manager at the National Gallery of Art, provided another suggestion for a pilot project. In order to understand and apply best practice, a case study of a few dozen objects arranged as a database can serve as a quick yet detailed draft for the project structure. As a draft, the case study can be built without extensive programming, using widely available and low budget online tools6. 3.1.2.2. Incorporating Technology

Another aspect of setting the pace for the project is making decisions about technology. Specifically, questions regarding predictions of future technology often surface at this stage. In the Digital Age, as the pace of technological change accelerates, it becomes unclear whether closely following technological evolution should become a goal in its own. The question is no

See at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xhBYGI6Tfzo . The video was edited by Joon Yi and soundtrack produced by Fred Simonton. 6 For example at www.squarespace.com

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longer What technology should we use? But rather- How can we keep up with technological change? Many of the project managers spoke of this dilemma and advised to keep in mind the declared mission of the project. If the Mission Statement does not relate to this issue, the across-the-board recommendation is to maintain a delicate balance between the content and the platform in which it is delivered. Content may be the core of a digital library but the technology with which it is documented and delivered influences the digital librarys present relevance and future existence. Vince Rossi and Adam Metallo of the Smithsonian Institution point out technology often moves faster than bureaucracy and therefore proper timing becomes even more challenging. Planning ahead is advisable but alternative routes should be created as well to enable prompt response when necessary. For example, following Googles footsteps and releasing beta versions is increasingly more prevalent and can serve as a time saver. A beta version also allows continual changes and encourages the users to send in their feedback. 3.1.2.3. Maintaining a Balanced approach

Summarizing the process of setting the pace for the project, Alison Zhang, Metadata Specialist for the World digital Library at the Library of Congress, suggested asking two important questions: What do we want to do? and How do we make it simple? . 3.1.3. Building Alliances Aside from partners within the organization to which a digital library is affiliated, fruitful alliances can be developed with external partners as well. Four types of partners can be identified: content contributors (or suppliers), content aggregators, knowledge exchange partners, and commercial partners. Alliances forged with each of these groups can greatly contribute to the project in different ways. 3.1.3.1. Content contributors

Alliances with content contributors are the most direct way to enrich the database content and widen the scope of a digital library. The motivation of

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such partners is usually to be able to gain online exposure to their content or widen its reach. An example for such cooperation on a national level can be found at the United Kingdom Visual Arts Data Service (VADS)7. Based at the Farnham Campus of the University College for the Creative Arts, the service has built up a large database of visual art collections from external collections grouped together. Each collection has its own introductory page and search is available within a collection or across collections. By collaborating with the various content contributors across the UK, VADS not only provides a central entry point to these collections, but has also accumulated knowledge in all aspects of digital resource management that it may share with partners and entire visual arts research, teaching and learning communities. The World Digital Library (WDL) is a fascinating example for collaboration on an international level. Initiated by the Library of Congress and endorsed by UNESCO, the WDL offers online access, free of charge to significant primary materials from around the world, in multilingual format. To do so, the WDL builds alliances with content contributors from different countries and cultures. John Van Oudenaren, Director of the World Digital Library, sees great importance in developing and maintaining fruitful relationships with all content contributors. These efforts have resulted in measures taken to ensure efficiency and positive outcomes for all parties involved. During the first few years, the agreements between the WDL and the contributing partners were created individually for each content contributor. As the number of alliances grew, the agreements were replaced with the World Digital Library Charter8, accepted by all contributing partners. The charter states clearly the legal rights, responsibilities and obligations of all parties, and regulates the ways in which decisions are made. The charter also ratifies the contributors ability to influence and direct the work of the WDL through the Executive Council, advisory committees and working groups.

7 8

See at: http://www.vads.ac.uk/index.php See at: http://project.wdl.org/about/org.html

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Due to the large number of content contributors9 the WDL works with, one of the biggest challenges is aggregating the varied content into one consistent and usable database. This requires standardization in both the digital imagery and the descriptive metadata. For the digital imagery a set of minimums standards10 is communicated to the partners alongside file naming guidelines11 . Adherence to these guidelines enables efficient content transfer and maintenance. Not without humour, Sandy Bostian, Content Manager for the World Digital Library at the Library of Congress, referred to this process as file herding. Intervention in the images themselves is usually not done at the WDL. Specific requirements were created for the descriptive metadata as well. For all objects a fixed set of metadata elements12 is used to enhance discovery, simplify maintenance, and improve search and browse possibilities. The set is mapable to MARC, Dublin Core and MODS formats. Alison Zhang, Metadata Specialist for the World digital Library at the Library of Congress explained that requiring the partners to provide the data within an acceptable standard enables focusing the efforts on improving the content of the metadata itself. In many cases, information received from partners includes spelling mistakes, mixed terminology and other inconsistencies. These demand attention from the metadata team aiming to provide a seamless search experience across many items. Altogether, much communication is required in maintaining a positive relationship with the content providers. Michelle Rago, Technical Director for the World Digital Library at the Library of Congress, recommended regulating the continuous communication with the partners via a listserv. Much of the information required by one partner is later useful for another and often questions can be answered by other partners. Ms. Ragu also pointed out that when projects are built with plans to expand, it is important to establish the alliances according to what they are to become

Standing at 119 partners according to http://www.wdl.org/en/partners/ reviewed during October 2011 See at http://project.wdl.org/standards/imagestandards.html 11 See at http://project.wdl.org/standards/filenaming.html 12 See at http://project.wdl.org/standards/metadata.html
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down the line. Promises made to partners at an early stage may be possible to maintain with ten or twenty partners but might become impossible when the number grows to a hundred partners or more. 3.1.3.2. Content Aggregators

Striving to improve worldwide access to digital treasures and promote digitization in the last few years, mega digitization initiatives have emerged around the world. These large scale international initiatives serve as either access points to a large number of collections (on both the collection and item levels) or actually aggregate collections. Europeana13, for example, enables exploring the digital resources of Europe's museums, libraries, archives and audio-visual collections in a multilingual setting. More than 15 million items can be found using Europeana, including images (paintings, drawings, maps, photos and pictures of museum objects), text (books, newspapers, letters, diaries and archival papers), sound (music and spoken word from cylinders, tapes, discs and radio broadcasts) and video (films, newsreels and TV broadcasts). The item listings are aggregated to Europeana from nearly 1500 cultural heritage institution across Europe and viewed using a link directing to their original location in the appropriate institution website. The ARTstor Digital Library14 is a nonprofit resource that includes more than one million digital images in the arts, architecture, humanities, and sciences with supporting tools, and meant for teaching and research. The communitybuilt collections comprise contributions from museums, libraries, photo archives and private collections. The resource is available by institutional subscription fees that fund the continual maintenance and development of the collections and software. Alliances with mega digital libraries such as ARTstor or Europeana can offer greater exposure to target audiences and promote knowledge transfer. The possibility of becoming a contributing partner to a mega digital library should

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See at http://www.europeana.eu/portal/ See at http://www.artstor.org/index.shtml

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even be considered during the early stages of creating a digital library, since it may affect the choice of an acceptable metadata schema. Beyond their social value, alliances with mega digital libraries may open new financing possibilities. As recognized and large initiatives, funding is frequently available in support of research, scholarship or specific digitization projects. Also, as highly complex projects, tools and software are often custom built for the project, available to the partners at a low cost or even as open-source software. Artstor, for example, is developing Shared Shelf15, a web-based image cataloging and management software service. The service is designed to offer seamless integration of image collections with the ARTstor Digital Library, however can be used as a standalone system as well. Shared Shelf service provides remote hosting of digital assets, cataloging tools, vocabulary tools, digital asset management options, as well as web publishing and export tools. 3.1.3.3. Knowledge Exchange Partners

An additional type of alliance can grow between two or more organizations that can benefit from content or knowledge exchange. Content exchange takes place when separate collections can benefit from including content derived from the other collection. This way, each collection can offer a larger database to its users and Increase the public exposure of the other collection by providing proper reference or a direct link. Content exchange cooperation in some cases can also become cost effective when the cost of future digitization projects is shared by the organizations interested in presenting the items in their digital collections. As always, copy and usage rights must be addressed in these cases and can usually be resolved. Founded in 2006, with support from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the New York Art Resources Consortium (NYARC)16 aims to enhance available resources to research communities through collaboration. The consortium brought together research libraries of three leading art museums in New York City: The Brooklyn Museum, The Frick Collection, and The Museum of Modern

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See at: http://www.artstor.org/shared-shelf/s-html/shared-shelf-home.shtml See at: http://www.nyarc.org/

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Art. As part of the collaboration, joint digitization projects are executed, benefiting all of the content exchange partners, and of course the research community. Knowledge exchange partnerships offer the possibility to promote or initiate new possibilities rather than exchange existing content. The purpose of such alliances is to bring together knowledge or nonmonetary resources held by either partner for a specific goal or project. The knowledge or resources can be for example experimental technology, new research tools, theoretical perspective, etc. Encouraging such alliances, in 2009 the National Endowment for the Humanities joined forces with the National Science Foundation and institutions around the world to create the grant program challenge Digging into Data17. The purpose of this grant program is to address how the large quantities of data can change the research possibilities for the humanities and social sciences using new computationally-based methods. To do so, grants were awarded to eight international, multi-institutional and multi-disciplinary research teams, out of nearly ninety that competed. An interesting example for the potential of such research in the field of visual culture digitization appeared in the research Digging into Image Data to Answer Authorship Related Questions (DID-ARQ)18. Proposed by a team of researchers from different research fields at the University of Sheffield, UK, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA and Michigan State University, USA. The group collaboration aimed to discover what salient characteristics make an artist different from others, and how this information can first be extracted and then enable statistical learning about individual and collective authorship. The research focused on three datasets of visual works: fifteenth century manuscripts, seventeenth and eighteenth century maps, and twentieth-century quilts. The Strategic Content Alliance19 was set up by the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC), in collaboration with the British Library, the British

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See at http://www.diggingintodata.org/ See at http://isda.ncsa.illinois.edu/DID/ 19 See at: http://www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/contentalliance.aspx

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Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), the British Education Communications and Technologies Agency (BECTA), the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council (MLA) and the NHS National Library for Health (NLH). The alliance promotes the ability of any public sector organization involved in the creation or management of digital content to share expertise, leverage the most from the public funding and avoid duplication of effort. 3.1.3.4. Commercial Partners

For digital libraries in the public realm, cooperation with commercial partners poses legal and ethical dilemmas. Extraneous agendas or conflicting pressures may arise and interfere with the responsibilities of a public institution. Nevertheless, with proper consideration, alliances with commercial partners can enhance the possibilities of a digital library to provide better services or increase its revenues. A straight-forward example was discussed during an interview with Susan Finkel, Collection Information Systems Coordinator, and Elizabeth Concha, Collection Information Systems Assistant, Office of the Registrar. The National Gallery of Art began in 2005 a mutually beneficial cooperation with the company Gallery Systems. By assisting Gallery Systems to improve their offthe-shelf collection management system, The Museum System (TMS), a reduced cost was negotiable. Furthermore, the product was upgraded and adjusted according to the specific and long-term needs of the National Gallery of Art and thus suited many other museums that comply with NGA standards. The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is engaged in several creative collaborations with commercial partners20. One of the interesting alliances was made with the Generations Network (TGN), parent company of Ancestry.com. This agreement supports NARAs mission to maintain and make available to the public certain historical records and other documentary materials of the US government by allowing Ancestry.com to digitize materials at the National Archives for online access. Access to the materials on Ancestry.com is available via subscription. However, to ensure continual free public access, the digitized materials are also available in National Archives research rooms nationwide. In addition, a copy of all

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For additional examples see http://www.archives.gov/digitization/partnerships.html.

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digitized content and metadata is donated to the National Archives. Other limitations appear in the signed agreement, protecting NARA and limiting the rights of TGN21. Debuting in 2011, the Google Art Project22 has received high profile public exposure. Led by Google, a dominant force in the world of digitization, the project enables users around the world to take a virtual tour through some of the leading art museums and view high resolution imagery of treasured works of art. The Freer Gallery of Art23 at the Smithsonian Institution24 participated in the project by providing Google with access and a limited amount of staff hours. Cory Grace, Digital Asset Manager, Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, recalled the process of working with Google as an interesting professional collaboration. The project promoted virtual access for users around the world to imagery of chosen works of art from the gallery collection also using the "gigapixel" process, which stitches together multiple high-resolution images. Alongside the obvious advantages and public interest, evident drawbacks surfaced during the collaboration, as in any learning experience. One weakness was the use of street view technology which was still not suitable for the space and light conditions of the gallery. Furthermore, the use of street view did not portray the changing nature of an art gallery. Another weakness may be viewed in long-term project management. Sustaining continual public interest requires continual expansion in either depth or breadth. Perhaps due to the start-up nature of the project, in this case the future and scope of the project remained unclear during the collaboration stages, not enabling long term planning. Commercial partners as exemplified above are often large-scale privatesector entities. When considering partnerships, it may be useful to look into

21 22

The full digitization agreement is available at http://www.archives.gov/digitization/pdf/tgn-agreement.pdf See at: http://www.googleartproject.com/ 23 See at: http://www.asia.si.edu/ 24 See at: http://www.si.edu/

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other sectors as well. In January 2011 the VIP Art Fair25, an online international contemporary art fair, took place for the very first time. Nearly one hundred and thirty prominent contemporary art galleries took part in the event, showcasing their available works to both collectors and other art traders. The success of the event amplified the growing need of galleries to expose their work to international buyers online. Galleries seek this exposure but can also offer valuable digital documentation and metadata regarding contemporary art in their possession. On these grounds, collaboration can assist a large digital library with documentation of contemporary art in return for exposure to target audiences. 3.1.4. Striving to Offer Value Perhaps the most important aspect of project management is the ability to understand the greater perspective in which the digital library operates and provides added value beyond basic digitization and online access services. Although this opinion was voiced repeatedly in interviews, creating a project that offers profound added value is not an easy task. One way of defining added value is considering it as an additional factor justifying the investment. Digital libraries require large investments of funds and effort over time. There are many reasons for making this investment such as promoting research, advancing education and providing inspiration, to name a few. However, even if the purpose is of the highest moral value, investments usually demand measurable justification or proof. Measurable justification can be, for example, increased web traffic, new research uses, new audiences or even public discussion. The added value offered by a digital library ensures that the information is not only available but also accessed and used in ways that justify the investment. The Dorothy and Herbert Vogel Collection: Fifty Works for Fifty States (Vogel 50X50)26 is an inspiring example for a digital collection that offers unique added value based on the inherent circumstances of the physical collection. Beginning

25 26

See at: http://www.vipartfair.com See at: http://vogel5050.org/

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in 1992, The National Gallery of Art, gained stewardship of part of the large art collection gathered by Dorothy and Herbert Vogel. In 2008, the collection, encompassing nearly four thousand paintings, objects, drawings, photographs, prints, and illustrated books, could not be placed in any one institution. Thus came to life the Vogel 50x50 project in which the treasures of their collection were shared with museum patrons nationwide. The project has support from the National Endowment for the Arts and the Institute of Museum and Library Services, and in 2009 the project website and its digital collection were launched. Although the 2500 works were distributed to museums nationwide, museum patrons at the various locations could not view the collection as a whole entity. The project website and digital collection provided unique added value to its users by solving this problem and overcoming the geographical barrier. The digital collection enables viewing the virtual collection as a unified entity in spite of its fragmented physical reality. Added value is not an intermittent goal but rather a continual aspiration. As technological realities change rapidly, the possibility to offer valuable services changes as well, along with user expectations. Therefore, the search for added value should not focus only on the inherent circumstances of the digital content but also review the constant developments in the field of digital information. Expanding the horizons can be done by participation in the many professional organizations that try to improve their understanding of the future of cultural heritage digitization through continual discussion and research. For instance, the Museum Computer Network27 encourages exploration, discussion and dissemination of new technology and best practices for the non-profit organization. Museum3 is a social network dedicated to the future of museums, galleries, libraries, archives and science centres28.

27 28

See at: http://www.mcn.edu/ See at: http://museum3.org/

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3.2. Curatorial Processes A common misconception outside the professional circles is that digital libraries can and should include everything. Whether or not this should be an aspiration remains debatable. However, not many digital libraries attempt to do so, understanding the costs, labour and time required. This constraints demand prioritization which can be developed and implemented as curatorial process29. Not many curators responded to the request to meet. However, from the interviews that took place with curators, cataloguers and project managers, it became apparent that the complex curatorial process should be addressed after answering the following set of seemingly simple questions: What are we? What do we decide to collect? What do we collect within a collection? What do we say about an item? Who Is We? 3.2.1. What Are We ? Digital libraries that evolved from physical collections owned by libraries, archives or museums often resemble the mission and functions of the organization to which they are affiliated. Arguably, differences between different digital libraries can be identified due to the different purposes their parent organizations fulfil. For example, digital libraries of library collections often emphasize the responsibility of a library to organize the information in meticulous order with thorough consideration of the assigned metadata. Digital libraries of museum collections often emphasize user engagement and visual appeal. These differences are becoming more indefinite, yet remain perceptible. John Gordy, Web Manager at the National Gallery of Art, explained that the answer to the question Who are we? directly influences the fundamental curatorial approach. For example, the answer museum may require limiting the digital collection to mostly wall-worthy objects whereas answering library may require creating a digital collection that provides a wider view on matters. These differences influence basic curatorial decisions. A comprehensive understanding of the mission of the project prevents it from failing as a result from unsuitable decisions.

29

Not to be confused with the phrase Digital Curation which is further discussed in item 3.2.

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Even if the digital initiative is not affiliated to a distinct type of collection, the mission statement should provide an answer to the question Who are we?. The answer does not have to be one type or the other, but may present a combination of several types such as assuming the responsibilities of an archive with the services of a library and the actions of a museum. 3.2.2. What Do We Decide to Collect? A common tool used by museums and libraries alike is the Collection Policy Statement30 for administering the collection development and related acquisitions, while providing the curatorial process with a general framework. The policy outlines the scope of the collection, the level of collecting extent and goals to be achieved. A detailed and useful booklet providing guidance on writing a Collection Development Policy from a library perspective31 was published in 2001 by the Section on Acquisition and Collection Development at the international Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA)32. In order to create the Collection Policy Statement, a philosophical discussion may be required to clarify the fundamental concepts, assumptions and interpretation that construct the worldview on which the collection is based. Stephen H. Van Dyk, Head of the Art Department at the Smithsonian Institution Libraries, recommended attending to the philosophical questions as part of the establishment of the curatorial process. Mr. Van Dyk explained that in the field of Design, collection policies can greatly vary due to the multifaceted nature of the field. In New York two of the leading cultural institutes offer viewers fascinating, yet dissimilar collections of design objects. The Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) holds a collection of design objects that are included as modern and contemporary art 33. Two miles away, the Cooper Hewitt National Design Museum is the single museum in the United

30 31

Also titled Collection Selection Criteria, Collection Development Policy. The booklet uses the Conspectus methodology. The Conspectus level indicator is an alpha-numeric code used per subject to indicate both the existing collection strength (ECS) of what a library already holds, and the current collecting intensity (CCI) in terms of collection-building goals. The Numbers range from 0 Out of scope to 5 Comprehensive level. 32 Guidelines for a collection development policy using the Conspectus model. The Hague: IFLA, Section on Acquisition and Collection Development, 2001. http://www.loc.gov/acq/devpol/cpc.html 33 See the MOMA collections management policy at www.moma.org/docs/explore/CollectionsMgmtPolicyMoMA_Oct10.pdf

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States devoted entirely to historic and contemporary design. Due to the difference in philosophical standpoints, parts of the collections are mutually exclusive. One collection may ask What are the greatest designs? and the other may ask What great change can design promote? This is not to say that one collection is superior to the other, but rather point out the different perspectives the collections offer. The Collection Policy Statement attempts to project the philosophical standing on the actual decisions. Other influences may, in fact, impact curatorial decisions and should be acknowledged as well. Michael R. Levy, Director of the Digital Collections at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM), regarded the effect of trends in research and in public interest as a positive yet challenging requirement. A trend can promote public interest and new findings. It may, however, draw the attention and efforts from other important topics that are not as appealing. Since the USHAMM collections aspire to provide a rich, wide and accurate historical account, a balanced approach is maintained. This challenge receives great consideration not only in the curatorial process but in the construction of the digital platform and metadata as well. Finding the equilibrium between research trends and a balanced representation is important for future uses as well. The ways in which materials will be used in the future are hard to predict, but leaving leeway for unanticipated future interests requires a wider rather than narrower curatorial approach. In an interview to the New York Times34 the director of the Papers of Abraham Lincoln, Daniel W. Stowell, recollected that when the collected published works of Abraham Lincoln were posted online a few years ago, he expected historians to be the most frequent visitors to his projects site. But he was surprised to discover that the heaviest users were connected to Oxford University Press; editors of the Oxford English Dictionary had been searching the papers to track down the first appearance of particular words. An additional influence on a curatorial process may result from the difficulty to anticipate the readiness of content for acquisition. The availability of new content is not always made in accordance with desired priorities, or

34

Cohen, Patricia. "Digital Keys for Unlocking the Humanities Riches" . New York Times (NY), November 16, 2010, NY edition. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/17/arts/17digital.html?pagewanted=1

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philosophical standpoints. Ford C. Peatross, Director of the Center for Architecture, Design and Engineering, Prints and Photographs Division at the Library Of Congress, recalled a long list of situations that encourage contribution of a private collection, many of which are tragic circumstances or the threat of a natural disaster. Due to the discrepancy between the available private collections and the collection policy statement, Mr. Peatross suggested developing a supporting instrument in the form of a decision tree. The decision tree can be used for uniform evaluation in support of the curatorial process. The details of the comparison should enable the curator specialist to assess the value of the new content, the established importance, the present and future impact, the resources required to handle the content (e.g. space, metadata and conservation), the legal rights and the financial value vs. cost. Implementing a decision tree enables a smooth translation of the collection policy statement into a well thought-out decision about a specific collection 3.2.3. What Do We Collect Within a Collection ? Even the most interesting collection acquired by a museum, archive, library or digital repository may still include items which are of little or no value. Cases in which a curator must sift through a collection to make Individual decisions about thousands of objects may require more time and effort than the investment in digitization of those items. For that reason, Mr. Peatross recommended favouring global over individual decisions per collection. This requires attaining a basic acquaintance with the collection from which a set of priorities and digitization rules can be generated. The specific nature of the collection dictates the forms of treatment different types of content receive. Naturally, a collection from an engineering firm would require a slightly different set of decisions than would an architecture firm. The Issue of leeway is relevant for the selection within a collection as between collections and relates again to the identity of the digital library. A digital library that assumes the role of a library or archive would require a more flexible selection than would a museum. The Archives of American Art (AAA)35 at the Smithsonian Institution are a remarkable example of value that can be found

35

See at: http://www.aaa.si.edu/

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when grouping information that may have been lost otherwise. The unique possibility to look in to the peripheral information about art and artists lives exposes not only new information about specific cases but also enables new interpretations and cross sectional analysis. Other disciplines of visual culture could also gain from a more holistic approach. Mr. Peatross stated that in many architecture collections, the historical tendency was to exclude the technical specifications. Valuable information about elevation, electricity, plumbing and structural construction was lost. And yet, as tempting as the idea of digitizing everything may be, the fine line between potential value and no value must be maintained in accordance with the mission of the digital library. A surprising perspective on the question of inclusion was offered by Susan Finkel, Collection Information Systems Coordinator, and Elizabeth Concha, Collection Information Systems Assistant, Office of the Registrar. On occasion, a video art instalment includes a device (e.g. television) on which the work is to be shown. Technically, the video and device can be updated as technology evolves, according to the digital preservation strategies of the institution. However, in some cases the device itself is considered an integral part of the work and requires preservation. Kirschenbaum (2008)36 discusses the importance of understanding the attributes of technological objects when analysing new media. His suggestion that a similarity can be drawn between research of books as physical objects and computer forensics raises a question that is relevant for any attempt to separate content from medium. Physical archives have been dealing with this question for several decades. Digital collections are increasingly facing similar questions as the speed of technological change accelerates. When dealing within a digital collection with the above example of a video shown on a specific television the digital surrogate may require additional documentation. One part would be the video itself and the other is a video of the operating television instalment. As technology evolves at an increasing speed, more complex problems may arise.

36

Kirschenbaum, Matthew G.. Mechanisms: new media and the forensic imagination. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2008.

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3.2.4. What Do We Say About An Item ? Not to be confused with the curatorial process discussed in this document, the phrase Digital Curation refers to the long-term management and preservation of digital data including managing data from its creation, through digitization and documentation, discovery and re-use (Abbott, 2008). Part of this process is the assignment of metadata to digital objects. Descriptive metadata is the data which assists users to locate resources, to distinguish one resource from another, and to discover further information about the subject or content 37. The descriptive metadata requires curatorial involvement regarding accuracy of information, subject headings and providence of accompanying information. The World Digital Library team highly values accurate, precise and viable metadata, which they provide in seven different languages. John Van Oudenaren, Director of the World Digital Library, asserted this to be both the responsibility and the privilege of the WDL as a joint initiative of the Library of Congress and UNESCO. The metadata is received from the WDL partners and the WDL team works with the help of subject matter consultants and translators to guarantee that the information added to the database matches the high standards that were set. The quality assurance process at the WDL is costly in terms of time and expertise. The database includes significant content from about every UNESCO member country and currently includes over 4000 items. As opposed to the work done by the WDL, other digital collections that deal with larger volumes use different strategies to create metadata. In large, fast growing collection, rapid digitization methods have evolved for certain types of works such as books, fine art prints and photographic materials (e.g. slides, negatives and prints). Such strategies include, for example, rapid cataloguing of entire collections by providing large groups of items within a collection with only basic descriptive metadata or using crowd sourcing for information tagging. From the curatorial perspective, the decision to use rapid cataloguing strategies for descriptive metadata contradicts the aspiration to provide valuable viable

37

A framework of guidance for building good digital collections a NISO recommended practice. 3rd ed. Baltimore, MD: National Information Standards Organization (NISO), 2007. http://www.niso.org/publications/rp/framework3.pdf

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information. The rapid cataloguing is criticized as allowing partial, inaccurate or misleading information. Critics also claim rapid cataloguing does not exert the curators responsibility to share the knowledge and research with the public. Contrary approaches view rapid cataloguing to be a useful tool for making raw materials available to the public. To prevent misleading the public with any inaccuracy, several digital collections add a note to the public regarding the status of the provided information. The Harvard Art Museums website, for example, adds the following pink coloured statement alongside some of the objects: This record was created from historic documentation and may not have been
reviewed by a curator; it may be inaccurate or incomplete. Our records are frequently revised and enhanced. Please contact the curatorial department listed above for more information.38

Beyond the dilemma of saying a lot on a little, or a little on a lot, the dominance of text in the descriptive metadata can also be questioned. John Gordy, Web Manager at the National Gallery of Art suggested rethinking text as the dominant way to describe an object or inform users of information. Mr. Gordy explained that textual representation remains important for the access and discovery environments, and yet users can benefit from other forms of information delivery such as video, sound or information visualization techniques. If an item deserves the curatorial attention in terms of knowledge sharing or interpretation, the various possibilities of providing rich and valuable information about it should be explored. An historical account of an artists biography, a recorded interview or a video of the artist at work all shed a light on different aspects of the artists creations. By committing only to textual communication about that artist, supplementary information is left out and users who prefer to consume information in other ways are alienated. 3.2.5. Who Is We? The decisions made in the curatorial process are intertwined with the complex and specific circumstances of each digital library. As the preceding set of questions demonstrated, the curatorial process requires a deep understanding of both the subject matter and the technical aspects of managing a digital database. These requirements bring many inexperienced project managers to

38

See for example: http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/collection/detail.dot?id=M9346

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make misguided decisions when recruiting staff, according to Ford C. Peatross, Director of the Center for Architecture, Design and Engineering, Prints and Photographs Division at the Library Of Congress. Mr. Peatross explained that project managers often assume that if knowledge in both fields is required, the most efficient action would be to hire one person that understands both aspects. These people do exist; however, being a cataloguer and curator are two distinct professions that require specialized training, experience, and the proper amount of time to perform their duties. Therefore, hiring one person to tackle both tasks is not an efficient way to manage the curatorial process. Also, the tasks involved in either profession are quite dissimilar and as a result, prioritizing and dividing the time usually eliminates important tasks. To ensure a balanced management of the curatorial process, Mr. Peatross recommended setting up the curatorial process as a team effort. For the more general questions, such as Who are we? and What do we decide to collect?, the dialogue should take place between the project leadership, curators, web managers and other appropriate stakeholders such as a curatorial committee. The more detailed questions involved in the continuous work can be regulated as a team process. For a new collection that has been acquired, the curator investigates the collection content and background to create a document that provides users with an introduction to the collection, including a historical account, highlights and appropriate references. Then, in a joint effort with the cataloguer, they create a detailed list of cataloguing guidelines for the specific collection (e.g. appropriate subject headings, terms, dates and further details). After the collection is catalogued according to the guidelines, it can be reviewed again by the curator for any minor corrections necessary. The role of the curator can be filled by an individual expert or a committee. In large and fast growing digital initiatives, one expert is usually not enough and a team of experts, each in a different field, are required to provide attention to the possible acquisitions and the content flowing into the collection. John Van Oudenaren, Director of the World Digital Library divides the curatorial process at the WDL into two stages. In the first stage, the collections are chosen in a bidirectional process with each of the partners. Mr. Van Oudenaren reviews the collections that the partners are considering sharing and assists them with appropriate choice. Once the collections have been chosen and transferred, additional curatorial work is often required to adjust or create the accompanying
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descriptive metadata. Due to large variety of material received at the WDL, it is not possible to hire a full-time content expert for each topic. Instead, the WDL works with project-based consultants. Mr. Van Oudenaren also pointed out the yet-to-be-fulfilled potential of the academic world to contribute knowledge through digital libraries. Academic knowledge is most often shared in the formats, such as journal and book publications, that promote their creators. Since sharing the knowledge in a digital library does not offer academic recognition, not as many researchers use these platforms for knowledge sharing. However, digital libraries are in need of expert knowledge and lack the funding to fully support it. Therefore, by providing academic recognition via proper procedures (e.g. peer review) research in support of digital libraries can be encouraged. The answer to Who is We? seems to already head beyond the professional world and academia. New-media advocates see the users become increasingly involved, and claim user participation can actually increase the value of curatorial judgment (Wright, 2010)39. How exactly this will affect the curatorial process will unfold in the years to come, however, embracing user participation while maintaining the objective of providing viable information will ensure a smooth transition.

New Acquisitions presented at the Rare Books and Special Collections Reading Room. Library of Congress

39

Wright, Alex. "Online, Its the Mouse That Runs the Museum." . New York Times (NY), January 19, 2010, New York edition. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/20/arts/design/20museum.html?pagewanted=1

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3.3. Technical Recommendations The many aspects of creating a digital collection include digitization of objects, cataloguing, asset management, information preservation and many other tasks. The international professional community has created many useful best-practice resources and guidelines that provide standardized recommendations from leading experts. These have been partially reviewed in the final report of the first stage of the Memory of the World (MOW) research at Bezalel Academy40. Therefore, in this document only the prevailing resources recommended by the interviewees are listed. In addition, specific titbits of advice are listed as detached items. Many of these recommendations are part of the accumulated yet undocumented knowledge from the personal experience of the experts interviewed. To the experienced reader, they may seem to be stating the obvious. However, these reflect answers to questions that came up during the first stage of the MOW research at Bezalel. 3.3.1. Digitization McKenna and De Loof (2009[a] p.6)41 define "Digitisation" as the process of transformation of original material into digital form. In this context, reproduction is digitisation aimed at reproducing the original material in digital form, as accurately as possible. Many digital forms exist, this report will discuss digitization in to 2D and 3D imagery alone. General information and guidelines about Digitization can be found in the following resources: Federal Agencies Digitization Guidelines Initiative (FADGI)42 Is a joint effort of federal agencies to provide agreed upon methods, guidelines and practices. The initiative was created in 2007 and since then focuses on digitization of historical content in still images and audio visual materials. The FADGI website offers guidelines and resources update by the working groups that have created them.

40

Stern, Rae'ut E.. Preparatory Research for the Establishment of a National Digital Library of Art, Architecture and Design. Final Report, phase I. Jerusalem: Bezalel Academy of Art and Design, 2010. http://www.bezalel.ac.il/res/about/Bezalel_Final_Report_July_2010.pdf 41 McKenna, Gordon, and De Loof Chris. ATHENA Report on existing standards applied by European museums . eContentplus, 2009. www.athenaeurope.org/getFile.php?id=396 42 See at: http://www.digitizationguidelines.gov

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The Institute for Museum and Library Services (IMLS)43 - The Institute is the primary source of federal support for 123,000 libraries and 17,500 museums in the United States. The Institute works at the national level and in coordination with state and local organizations to preserve heritage, culture, and knowledge by enhancing learning and innovation, and supporting professional development. Art Librarians Society of North America (ARLIS/NA)44 - is an organization of individuals devoted to fostering excellence in art and design librarianship and image management. Founded in 1972, the group aims to foster excellence in art and design librarianship and image management by providing a forum for ideas, projects, and programs. Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC)45 Is a United Kingdom based resource on information and digital technologies for education and research. The JISC has expanded its scope of projects and publications to a wide variety of topics including digitization, digital repositories, and digital preservation amongst others46. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA)47 Was founded in 1927 and has developed in to a global force in the library and information profession, while empowering libraries to enable their users to have equitable access to information. Through activities and groups such as the Art Libraries Section48, publications are provided. The Visual Resources Association (VRA)49 - Is a multi-disciplinary organization devoted to advancing research and education in the field of image management within the educational, cultural heritage, and commercial environments. The Association develops standards and offers educational tools, publication programs and educational activities for knowledge advancement and best practice. The Association promotes discussion of vital concern to the field,

43 44

See at: http://www.imls.gov/ See at: http://www.arlisna.org/index.html 45 See at: http://www.jisc.ac.uk/ 46 See at: http://www.jisc.ac.uk/publications.aspx 47 See at: http://www.ifla.org/ 48 See at: http://www.ifla.org/en/art-libraries 49 See at: http://www.vraweb.org/

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including: preservation of and access to images of visual culture, cataloguing and classification standards and practices, and intellectual property policy. Online Computer Library Centre (OCLC)50 - is an international library cooperative and computer network that enables libraries to share library resources, services and expertise in order to reduce costs and improve visibility and viability. The OCLC publishes reports from collaborative research and international conferences.51 The above resources and others provide a useful starting point for inquires about digitization. Resources on specific issues are list below along with the advice provided by interviewees. 3.3.1.1. Photography Visiting the National Gallery of Art provided a unique opportunity to observe the outstanding image reproduction facilities in which some of the worlds finest art is documented. Peter Dueker, Digital Asset Management Solutions and Kenneth N. Fleisher, Colour Scientist from the Division of Imaging and Visual Services, provided a review of the detailed and careful steps taken at the National Gallery of Art to ensure continual implementation of best practice in image creation and management. This review was reiterated in the visit to the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA), NY, where Erik Landsberg, Head of Collections Imaging Department of Imaging Services, introduced the photographic work done at the MOMA from the perspective of engagement with the curatorial process. An unplanned meeting with John Tsantes, Head of Imaging and Photographic Services at Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, proved insightful in terms of adjusting equipment and imaging process to budget constraints. The scope of this report naturally cannot detail all of the useful information shared in these meetings. However, excellent resources for further reference and specific recommendations are listed below.

50 51

See at: http://www.oclc.org/middleeast/en/global/default.htm See at: http://www.oclc.org/research/publications/default.htm

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Digital Photography Resources Many of the general resources provide a basic review of photography recommendations referring mostly to Image resolution and file types. However, for institutions who digitize visual culture objects such as fine art, design and architecture and require updated and detailed advice three resources were recommended: Digital Photography Best Practices and Workflow (DPBestflow)52 is an initiative of the American Society of Media Photographers (ASMP) funded by the Library of Congress. The initiative website provides guidelines for refined production workflows, archiving methods, and best practices for professional digital photography based on a variety of capture methods and intended image use. A useful Glossary is included as well53. Universal Photographic Digital Imaging guidelines (UPDIG)54 were created by the UPDIG Coalition UPDIG Coalition, dedicated to promoting standards for photographic digital imaging. The guidelines were last updated in 2008 and aim to clarify issues affecting accurate reproduction and management of digital images. These issues include establishing photographic standards and practices for the entire image production process including the photography technicalities and workflow, digital asset management, colour profiling, and associated metadata. ImageMuse55 is a group of museum imaging and publishing professionals, dedicated to defining guidelines for the creation and use of digital files for reproduction. ImageMuse participants have worked together to write shared guidelines for preparing and handling digital files for fine art reproduction. The group also holds a

52 53

See at http://www.dpbestflow.org/ See at http://www.dpbestflow.org/resources/glossary 54 See at: http://www.updig.org/index.html 55 See at: http://www.imagemuse.org/index.html

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discussion group56 that offers members the possibility to share and discuss pressing issues and dilemmas. Content Considerations: o To ensure consistence, at the MOMA, all 3D objects (statues, furniture, etc.) are photographed with a grey backdrop along with either a black or white backdrop which is chosen with the respective curator. o At all the departments visited the graphic intervention is minimized as much as possible. The only cases in which a slight intervention is necessary are, for example, when a highly detailed image is required and therefore patched together from several smaller images of section, using appropriate software. Or, when an object cannot be documented properly due to its reflective features. o When photographing architecture, photographer John Margolies57 made a special effort not to include cars or other distractions. To do so, he would arrive early in the morning at the site or ask the car owners to move their vehicle away. Studio and Equipment: o The average assessment of a fully operational studio ranges between $80,000-$100,000 dollars. This includes the camera and related equipment (at certain cases two cameras are recommended), camera stand, studio lighting gear, railing systems, backdrops, pc, professional grade screens, editing software, daylight stand, printing equipment etc. With noticeable concessions in quality, the list can be reduced to basic gear ranging at $20,000-$30,000. In both cases the equipment would require maintenance and some of the items require replacement every three to five years.

56 57

See at: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ImageMuse/ Margolies, John. "Content and Process: 36 Years on the Road Taking Photographs of American Commercial Architecture and Design." Lecture, Symposium Exploring Main Street and Roadside Photographs of John Margolies from Prints and Photographs Division at the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, March 9, 2011

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o If a large part of the documentation is to take place on site or in field conditions, suitable gear is to be purchased. The field gear should be stored separately and not used for the daily inhouse studio work. The justification for separating the equipment is to save the time unpacking and repacking the equipment every time. Also, the long list of gear will increase the chance of forgetting to take an item that may hinder a shooting session and waste valuable time. Field conditions put the gear at a higher risk of damage and therefore the studio work should not rely on the availability of the field gear. 3.3.1.2. Scanning Primary visual documentation equipment can be grouped into contact (flatbed scanners, transparency scanners) and no-contact equipment (cameras, book scanners and overhead scanners). The decision which type of equipment to use relies heavily on the type of object, desired quality of documentation, dimensions and physical condition of object, and of course, the available budget. According to DPBestflow Camera Scanning Guide58, high grade digital cameras can be used to create high-quality scans of negatives, slides or print originals as a Rapid Capture Process (RCP). Designating a camera for this process and purchasing supporting hardware may increase the budget required in comparison to a scanner. However, using camera scanning offers certain advantages such as increased quality of documentation, increased ability to control technical parameters, and the ability to handle objects varying in size. In spite of these advantages many of the imaging departments visited used high quality flatbed desktop scanners for a large part of their collection when suitable dimensions. Such scanners are easy to operate and offered a good quality-to-cost ratio. At the United States Holocaust Memorial Museums Photographic Reference Collection, a flatbed

58

See at: http://www.dpbestflow.org/camera/camera-scanning

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desktop scanner is sufficient for many of the collection requirements. According to Nancy Hartman, Photo Archivist at the Photographic Reference Collection of the Curatorial Affairs Division, the large collection is frequented by many types of users and researchers. However, not every item in the collection requires digitization beyond the quality provided by the scanner. Flatbed scanners cannot properly scan large or bound materials. Therefore, collections that deal with oversized flat materials such as maps and architectural plans often use planetary scanners or digital cameras as described above. For small objects such as negatives and slides, a wide range of scanners at different costs are available. Beyond the varying quality of these devices, Ford C. Peatross, Director of the Center for Architecture, Design and Engineering, Prints and Photographs Division at the Library Of Congress pointed out that in many of the private slide collections, information regarding the content of the slide was commonly written on the slides mounting by the photographer or

Tavatimsa. Eighteenth century accordion-style paper manuscript. Burma. Southern Asian Section, Asian Division, Library of Congress

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owner. This often offers valuable information regarding dates, locations and other bits of information that can shed light on the content of the slide and therefore should be scanned as well. Led by the success of book digitization, advances in the field of rapid capture process (RCP) in recent years have progressed both in new technology and new uses of existing technology. Erway (2011)59 reviewed nine case studies in which RCP was used in libraries, archives and museums and offers different examples in which different content required different strategies. Peter Dueker, Digital Asset Management Solutions at the National Gallery of Art anticipates RCP to become more prevalent as the technology advances. Book scanning cradles that enable half or full automation of scanning can already be purchased at reasonable cost and RCP solutions for art prints are following closely. 3.3.1.3. Colour Management The attempt to create digital surrogates for visual culture artefacts is in a constant conflict between the desire to provide a perfect substitute and the inherent inability to do so. While digital surrogates of physical artefacts may not be able to replace the experience of viewing and interacting with the artefacts in real life, there are many reasons for aspiring to do so. A digital surrogate is used not only to enable online access but also in order to document change over time, illustrate the effect of restoration, enlarge a detail, uncover unique perspectives etc. In some cases the digital surrogate is the documentation of an object before its destruction. For all these reasons, the ImageMuse experts60 assert that creating and preparing digital reproductions of artworks entails careful attention to details and workflow. According to the Image muse contribution to the UPDIG guidelines, the colours within digital surrogates of artwork should not be subject to interpretation or individual preference. The

59

Erway, Ricky. Rapid capture faster throughput in digitization of special collections. Dublin, Ohio: OCLC Research, 2011. http://www.oclc.org/research/publications/library/2011/2011-04.pdf 60 See at: http://www.imagemuse.org/2.html

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reproduction process should aim to produce the same perceived colour (within physical limitations) as in the original artwork. The National Gallery of Art puts great effort in achieving this goal by applying best practices in every step of the digitization and assets management. Kenneth N. Fleisher, Colour Scientist from the Division of Imaging and Visual Services at the National Gallery of Art explained the importance of colour management in digital collections as a means of ensuring reliable and independent documentation. For that reason, understanding colour management is a crucial requirement for any member of the staff handling digital files. A useful and detailed introductory guide on colour management can be found at the DPBestflow website61. Colour management requires not only general awareness, but also supervision of a colour specialist62 and procedure regulation. Some of the procedures call for specific devices for the calibration and profiling of equipment. This is done at fixed intervals and before important projects. Some of the useful hardware devices include, for example, a colour rendition chart63 and rulers that are photographed along with all objects to ensure persistent points of reference for camera profiling. Colorimeter or Spectrophotometer64 use the parameters set in the monitor calibration to create a profile for correcting the monitor imperfections. A lightbooth is a high quality reference light source for examining prints, indicating the quality of the calibration and profiling. An additional aspect Mr. Fleisher recommended attending to is the design of the working environment. To minimize visual distraction a dim, unchanging light level is suggested. This illumination can originate from daylight-balanced D50 (or 5,000 Kelvin) fluorescent or filtered halogen lamps rather than actual day light which shifts and changes throughout

61 62

See at: http://www.dpbestflow.org/links/31 A Color specialist can either be part of the staff or on consultation contract according to the size of the operation. 63 By its name Macbeth ColorChecker. 64 Commonly referred to as a puck.

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the day. The rooms furniture, walls and ceiling should use neutral colours such as a neutral light grey of low reflectance. Finally, if proper colour management cannot be guaranteed, the digital image metadata should include a comment stating that the image cannot be verified to be colour managed correctly. This will limit the viewer expectations from accuracy of the included information.

3.3.1.4.

Three-Dimensional Digitization Cultural heritage digitization efforts are mostly invested in creating twodimensional surrogates of artefacts, along with audio and video conversions. In recent years three-dimensional (3D) technology, prevalently used in commercial settings, started to infiltrate the field of cultural heritage. Typically, these efforts are conducted as experimental projects within large collections or as academic collaborations. Such projects include, for example, the Rome Reborn65 3D digital models

Students exploring works by Alexander Calder , 1898 -1976 at the National Gallery of Art

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See at: http://www.romereborn.virginia.edu/

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illustrating the urban development of ancient Rome, and the Scanning Monticello66 project aiming to create an accurate 3D digital model of Thomas Jefferson's Virginia home. Less common are larger initiatives such as CyArk67 that aims to document with 3D technology cultural heritage sites at risk due to environmental or human threats. 3D digital content can contain either computer generated 3D graphics of an entity that does not yet exist in a physical form, or detailed geometry measurements of an actual physical environment or object. In some cases, digital content contains 3D measurements to which layers of computer generated 3D graphic are added. Computer generated 3D graphics are commonly created with commercial Computer Aided Design (CAD) programs that are widespread in different fields and for different purposes, such as AutoCAD (Architecture), SolidWorks, Creo Elements/Pro (Engineering and Design), Rhino, 3DsMax, Maya (Design and Animation) or the many other available tools. Free Software such as SketchUp, Blender, Shapeshop, FreeCAD are also available, yet often do not offer the full range of possibilities of the commercial products. Creation of 3D digital documentation of actual physical environments or objects can be achieved with several types of scanning technology. Currently the use of these technologies requires two stages and at times, two sets of software. The first stage is the actual scan in which data is collected and represented graphically (usually in a form of a point cloud). The second stage requires transformation of the data collected into a manageable 3D geometry file. Currently, 3D digital scanning used by museums is achieved with four dominant technologies (Metallo & Rossi, 2011)68 : Laser Scanning, White Light Scanning, Computer Tomography Scanning and Photogrammetry.

66 67

See at: http://www.cs.virginia.edu/Monticello/ See at: http://archive.cyark.org 68 Metallo, Adam , and Vincent Rossi. "The Future of Three-Dimensional Imaging and Museum Applications." Curator: The Museum Journal 54, no. 1 (2011): 63-69. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.21516952.2010.00067.x/abstract

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Laser Scanning is an optical remote sensing technology that can measure the distance to, or other properties of a target by using pulses from a laser beam. Its capture size ranges from details of several millimetres to larger architectural proportions when using together a few devices. Significant limitations are the inability to measure reflective surfaces and collect information about colour. The cost of equipment ranges from $3,000 to $200,000 White Light Scanning projects a pattern of light, rather than a laser beam pulse, and references the variations with a digital camera to capture surface geometry. Its capture size ranges according to the ability to properly project the pattern. A significant limitation is the inability to measure reflective surfaces. However, colour can be captured to a certain extent. The cost of equipment ranges from $15,000 to $250,000 Computer tomography (CT) Scanning uses X-ray equipment rotating around an axis to produce 3D representations of internal and external components (shape, volume and density). Its capture size can range from one micron to human scale objects. $200,000 to $2,000,000 Photogrammetry extracts 3D data from 2D photography. Equipment ranges from point-and-shoot pocket camera to large format digitals but requires numerous images to collect detailed information. Its capture size depends on the ability of the camera. The cost of photography equipment ranges from $200 $50,000. All of the above technologies require additional software for processing and using the information collected. The cost of software ranges from free to $40,000. The output of these efforts can remain digital or be turned in to an actual product using a variety of technologies such as Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) milling or 3D printing of polymer or metal, depending on the desired result. The use of 3D digital scans offers more than mere documentation of existing objects. Creative application of 3D digitization of cultural heritage artefacts has resulted in new research possibilities and findings. For example, an international collaboration has enabled the 3D digital documentation of the Buddhist cave temples of Xiangtangshan that were once home to an array of sculptures. During the 20 th century the
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limestone caves were severely damaged and their contents were chiselled away and sold. The ability to create 3D imagery of the caves, statues and broken objects currently located around the world has provided the opportunity to research the digital surrogates and even place them back together, virtually69.

Cory Grace, Digital Asset Manager at the Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery at the Smithsonian Institution, presenting 3D representation of Buddha Hand on a touch screen at the Echoes of the Past: The Buddhist Cave Temples of Xiangtangshan at the Sackler Gallery

Another useful application of 3D digitization of cultural heritage artefacts is currently being developed at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory at the University of California. Lead by the physicists Carl Haber, have developed IRENE/3D (Image, Reconstruct, Erase Noise, Etc.) a machine which uses 3D imaging of the grooves on old lacquer records and wax to reproduce the sound they contain.70 Amongst the leaders of 3D application in the Museum environment is the Smithsonian Institution with the experimental work done by Vince Rossi and Adam Metallo from the Digitization Program Office. A visit to the 3D digitization studio at a Smithsonian facility provided a special insight into the many ways 3D digitization can contribute to digital efforts in the field of visual culture.

69 70

See at: http://xts.uchicago.edu/ See at: http://irene.lbl.gov/

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The variety of 3D digitization experiments and projects conducted at the Smithsonian Institution71 is constantly growing and much affected by the diverse assortment of materials the Smithsonian museums and research centres deal with. According to Mr. Rossi and Ms. Metallo the primary use of 3D digitization is for preservation purposes. This, for example, is achieved by collecting 3D measurements to create an identical model of a statue using 3D laser printers, or by scanning objects such as mummies to gain information about their interior parts, without damaging the exterior72. The impending opportunities for visual culture projects is exciting and in its very early stages of development. Architecture history research for example could greatly benefit from some of the technologies already applied in archaeology, and new implementations such as scans of asbuilt structures or 3D scans of cardboard models could be added as information for analysis. Mr. Rossi and Ms. Metallo regarded the required resources and technical expertise as preventing accelerated adoption of 3D technology in museums and cultural heritage institutions. The cost of applying 3D digitization on a regular basis requires not only funds for hardware and software but also many staff hours, since of the processes require complicated set up and post production. In addition, no single technology is suitable for all types of projects and therefore creating a digitization department necessitates considerable funds for purchasing a variety of tools. In terms of technical expertise, most projects require a team effort of technology experts and content experts (art historian, physician, anthropologist, etc.). These types of corporations are not difficult to create, however the problem of interdisciplinary cooperation has deeper roots. Many of the researchers have not received in depth training in regard to the possibilities offered by 3D digitization and therefore do not seek out ways to apply it in their research. The high cost of 3D processing

71 72

See at: http://www.si.edu/ For additional examples and samples of the ongoing work at the Smithsonian's Digitization Program Office See http://www.facebook.com/3d.si.edu?sk=wall

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and analysis programs, also prevents researchers from learning to use those programs for their needs. In spite of these considerable challenges, Mr. Rossi and Ms. Metallo pointed out that many of the opensource or low cost 3D digitization tools offer the opportunity to experiment with 3D digitization technologies as a learning process prior to obligating to a costly purchase. Shoestring budgets can make use of the many available tools for 3D measurements, data processing and even printing. For 3D measurements, basic laser scanners are available for small scale objects, such as the NextEngine73 3D desktop scanner offered at approximately $3000. Alternative low budget options to laser scanning are constantly explored around the world. The Microsoft product X-Box 360 Kinect includes advanced gesture-sensitive sensor system. Since its launch in November 2010, numerous developers around the world have started to create applications of Kinect that go beyond the initial intended purpose of a gaming console. These include using Kinect as a portable, 3D digitization device74.
Adam Metallo (left) and Vince Rossi at the Smithsonian Institution 3D Studio

Since Photogrammetry extracts 3D data from 2D photography, the equipment requirements can be limited to a mid-range digital camera for most small scale objects. For large scale documentation of buildings or sites, crowd sourcing can be implemented. Photocity75 is a game-like platform encouraging users to take pictures of building exteriors for reconstructing the world in 3D.

73 74

See at: http://www.nextengine.com/ Eaton, Kit. "Zoolander Meets Dr. Evil: Kinect Hack Prints Out a Model Mini-You." Fast Company, April 1, 2011. http://www.fastcompany.com/1744069/forget-passport-photos-kinect-hack-lets-you-print-out-a-little-model-you 75 See at: http://photocitygame.com/

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The clear advantage of using crowd sourcing for photogrammetry is the ability to collect large quantities of information in a short period of time. It also can support outreach efforts as discussed in item 3.4. If choosing to pursue one of the low budget projects, Mr. Rossi and Ms. Metallo recommended attending to details such as unchanging lighting to prevent patchwork appearance. An additional resource on 3D digitization for cultural heritage is provide by Cultural Heritage Imaging (CHI)76, a California based non-profit organization promoting development and adoption of tools and methodologies for creation of interactive, 3D digitization by cultural heritage institutions. CHI offers online resources, demonstration videos and real-life training opportunities. For further updates about technological innovation and new uses and equipment, Mr. Rossi and Ms. Metallo recommended following websites that discuss 3D use in other fields such as the movie and gaming industry or medical and archaeology research. Processing the collected data can also be done with freely available tools. Photosynth77 is a Microsoft website that offers users the ability to upload images from which 3D data is extracted using photogrammetry and like tools. Meshlab78 is an open-source software for processing and editing of unstructured 3D triangular meshes. Digital libraries may not require printing 3D object as part of their services but should earnestly consider a future demand by users to receive information that can be used and manipulated as 3D. RepRap79 and Makerbot80 are opensource desktop 3D printers capable of printing polymer, metal and ceramic objects and also parts for constructing additional printers as self-replicating machines. Shapeways81 and Ponoko82 are companies that provide 3D printing and CNC milling

76 77

See at: http://www.c-h-i.org/index.html See at: http://photosynth.net/default.aspx 78 See at: http://meshlab.sourceforge.net/ 79 See at: http://reprap.org/wiki/Main_Page 80 See at: http://www.makerbot.com/ 81 See at: http://www.shapeways.com/ 82 See at: http://www.ponoko.com/

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services. The impact of these technological developments is yet to be foretold, however it will surly effect issues such as digital rights management and information preservation and migration, as discussed in items 3.3.4 and 3.3.5 respectively. 3.3.2. Digitization Workflow and Digital Asset Management (DAM) A digital library that digitizes content on a regular basis often has a complex behind-the-scene database. According to Peter Dueker, Digital Asset Management Solutions at the National Gallery of Art, the assets managed in the collection include a variety of files for nearly every object documented. The files were created for different purposes and include, for example, original raw files, colour editing files, publicity files, scans, etc. Many of the objects have been documented several times throughout the years, adding to the volume of the database. Ensuring sustainability of file creation, storage, search and retrieve strategies requires an administrative tool that allows users organizational control and management of various file types and their associated metadata. A properly employed digital asset management system is supervised by system administrators and interacts with other systems used by the institution. (Newman & Dueker, 2006)83 Peter Krogh (2009)84 offers a comprehensive guide to Digital Asset Management for professional photographers. Krogh explains that the system administrator has a crucial role in ensuring that the system is used properly. Proper use of the DAM system aims to protect and enable access to images. This includes preventing information from getting lost, enabling swift and intuitive discovery, making sure images look right, and ensuring future compatibility regardless of software. In addition to the common DAM requirements, digital libraries that aggregate items from content contributors face additional challenges. Sandy Bostian,

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Newman, Alan, and Peter Dueker. "Digital Image Asset Management at the National Gallery of Art (US)." RLG DigiNews 10, no. 6 (2006) http://worldcat.org/arcviewer/1/OCC/2007/08/08/0000070519/viewer/file1650.html#article2 84 Krogh, Peter. The DAM book: digital asset management for photographers. 2nd ed. Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly, 2009.

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Content Manager for the World Digital Library at the Library of Congress, identified two types of DAM related challenges that arise from the vast amount of content contributors the World Digital Library partnered with. One type of problem is the inherent inconsistencies between collections. Collections were often created and catalogued without consideration of an international varied audience. For these cases, specific requirements85 were created for Image file formats and descriptive metadata. Another type of challenge relates to the actual transfer of information, and the need to confirm that it was not altered during transfer. For this purpose, the Library of Congress uses software tools such as Bagger86 for validation and transfer of data that conforms to BagIt specifications. Due to the scope of this document, DAM will only be further addressed through the other topics it involves, such as colour management discussed in item 3.3.1.3, digital rights management discussed in item 3.3.4, and metadata and information migration discussed in item 3.3.5.

African and Middle Eastern Division Reading Room at the Library of Congress

85 86

See at: http://project.wdl.org/standards/content.html Available at: http://sourceforge.net/projects/loc-xferutils/files/loc-bagger/

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3.3.3. Cataloguing Digital Content Consistency is perhaps the most important demand when creating metadata for a digital library. In interviews with both cataloguers and project managers, consistency was the most common recommendation, as a vital condition for the resources sustainability and interoperability over time. The second most important demand was compliance with international standards. Both metadata schemas (data structure standards) and controlled vocabularies (data content standards) have been formally dealt with by international organizations, offering tools and regulations. Even if the available standards may not seem like the perfect solution for a specific database, choosing a standard and adhering to it as much as possible can enable interoperability with other databases and continual upgrade to new data management systems. The importance of consistency influences the information architecture from the very early stages of its design. Michelle Rago , Technical Director and Alison Zhang, Metadata Specialist, for the World digital Library at the Library of Congress highly recommended designing the metadata according to the planned user interface. The user interface is the gate in to the database and should reflect the user needs and expectations87. According to the anticipated information the user interface is planned to detail, a standard schema can be chosen and perhaps slightly altered or added. Murtha Baca (2008)88 points out that there is no single metadata scheme perfect for all databases and therefore Institutions must carefully choose the appropriate suite of metadata schemas and controlled vocabularies. Different metadata schemes have been developed over the years for different purposes: MARC (Machine Readable Cataloguing)89 for bibliographic items, CDWA (Categories for the Description of Works of Art)90 for art objects, VRA Core (Visual Resources Association Core)91 for visual surrogates of works of art and

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These user needs may include being exposed to new information that was not searched for, however this can be defined as a need and dealt with accordingly. 88 Baca, Murtha, and Tony Gill. Introduction to metadata. Online ed. Los Angeles, Calif.: Getty Research Institute, 2008. http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/standards/intrometadata/index.html 89 See at: http://www.loc.gov/marc/ 90 See at: http://www.getty.edu/research/publications/electronic_publications/cdwa/ 91 See at: http://www.loc.gov/standards/vracore/

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architecture, and Dublin Core92 for Web resources. At times, collections choose to work with Dublin core as a default choice for mapping diverse information resources. However, selecting an inappropriate metadata scheme can cause much confusion and misrepresentation. An interesting example of overcoming the differences in metadata schema can be seen in Metadata for Architectural Contents in Europe (MACE)93 is a European initiative aimed at integrating and connecting vast amounts of content from diverse repositories that use different technologies, different metadata structure and values. MACE attempts to solve this problem by becoming a central store to which metadata is aggregated and enriched, pointing the users to the different collection. As part of the metadata collection and enrichment, the cataloguing of architecture was revised, offering as a focal point the Real World Object (RWO) which is a building, object, architect or other item not stored in the database but rather an empty placeholder to which related items can be related to. Different data from different resources about RWOs can be stored as metadata, such as names, designer/architect, location or other information. People and buildings can be related to locations (geo-positions) and to particular dates (timestamps) to gain a better understanding and analysis capabilities (Boeykens,2009)94. Another large initiative, Visual Arts Data Service (VADS)95, is an online resource for visual arts in the United Kingdom, previously mentioned in item 3.1.3.1. VADS created a national scale database of visual art collections. The database includes over 100,000 freely available images that are copyright cleared for use in learning, teaching and research in the UK. A large portion of the digitization is managed by the VADS eliminating much of the need in mapping metadata schemas. Due to the variety of visual arts content from different partners, the metadata schema chosen by VADS was VRA Core. The choice of VRA Core over Dublin Core enables using together discipline-specific data elements such as separate fields for artist, printer and publisher for graphic design or manufacturer for industrial design.

92 93

See at: http://dublincore.org/ See at http://portal.mace-project.eu/ and http://www.mace-project.eu/index.php 94 Boeykens, Stefan. "Connecting digital architectural archives with MACE." Lecture, Hybrid Architectural Archives Conference from Netherlands Architecture Institute, Rotterdam, June 11, 2009. http://conference.nai.nl/papers_and_presentations 95 See at: http://www.vads.ac.uk/

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Regardless of which standard is chosen, when applying the chosen metadata schema, Karen Cassedy, Library Systems Manager at the National Gallery of Art, recommended limiting the amount of data elements to a manageable number. The ability to provide a detailed description using data elements is tempting and in theory it enables quick discovery and interesting data mining options. However, increasing the number of data elements requires more effort on behalf of the cataloguer and complicates the ability to provide consistent content. John Gordy, Web Manager at the National Gallery of Art, supported this approach and drew attention to cases in which resources for cataloguing are scarce or not prioritized. In those cases, Mr. Gordy recommended to make sure the most basic data elements for the name of the object, the date it was created, the collection it belongs to and the internal identifier (especially important for physical collections) are included and fed manually or even automatically. Paying close attention to early decisions on metadata schema and consistency may save much effort in the years to come. At the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum a collection management system for the photo reference collection has been in use for many years. Nancy Hartman, Photo Archivist at the Photographic Reference Collection of the Curatorial Affairs Division explained that the system was tailor-made for the collection needs, and the choice of MARC element set was appropriate for their content and users all along. Only recently changes have been considered since the technology used was becoming obsolete and could no longer suit their needs. This was an opportunity to reassess the use of MARC and perhaps consider mapping the database to a different element set. Beyond Data structure standards, the consistency and quality of cataloguing can be greatly improved by using data content standards that provide guidelines for the format and syntax of the data values. Peter Dueker, Digital Asset Management Solutions at the National Gallery of Art recommended as a broad guideline the Cataloguing Cultural Objects (CCO)96 standard. The CCO book97, which is now freely available online, is a useful and popular manual for describing, documenting and cataloguing cultural heritage works and their digital

96 97

See at: http://cco.vrafoundation.org/ Baca, Murtha. Cataloging cultural objects: a guide to describing cultural works and their images. Online Edition ed. Chicago: American Library Association, 2006. http://cco.vrafoundation.org/index.php/toolkit/cco_pdf_version/

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surrogates. The focus of CCO is art and architecture, including but not limited to paintings, prints, sculpture, installations, manuscripts, photographs, built works and other functional objects. Nahid Gerstein, Acting Team Leader for the Israel/Judaica catalogers at the Library of Congress, emphasized the importance of data value tools such as controlled vocabularies. Dealing with a multi-lingual cataloguing challenge, maintaining consistency cannot rely on memorized rules but rather use of Name Authorities that assist with the Romanization of Hebrew letters. The Library of Congress offers a subscription service to a useful compilation of documentation resources in an integrated, online system named Catalogers Desktop. The long resource list includes resources such as; Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules (AACR2), All Movie Guide, American Antiquarian Society Catalog, Art & Architecture Thesaurus (Getty Institute), Cataloging Cultural Objects (Visual Resources Association), Hebraica Cataloging: A Guide to ALA/LC Romanization and Descriptive Cataloging, Hebrew Cataloging (Princeton University) and many more useful tools. Another useful online tool is the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF). VIAF is supported by the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC), as a joint project of several national libraries to increase the utility of library authority files by matching and linking widely-used authority files and making the result available online. At the World Digital Library a seven language thesaurus was provided by the Library of congress and is used to make the information available at those languages, saving considerable time in terms of translation. Meticulously maintained content can enable not only long term benefits but also certain styles of user interface design. The Yale University Office of Digital Asset and Infrastructure has created Cross Collection Discovery (CCD)98 to enable searching across the many Yale collections that include 1,500,000 records of 250,000 digital assets. Searching for a keyword brings up both the results and a side menu that enables refining the search according to specific data elements that are fed using controlled vocabularies. Not having used a controlled vocabulary, the rate of cataloguing error would have risen, not enabling applying

98

See at: http://discover.odai.yale.edu/ydc/

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this option. This user interface style has been prevalent in commercial websites for many years; however, few cultural heritage digital libraries apply this option. Not contradicting this approach, Alison Zhang, Metadata Specialist, for the World digital Library at the Library of Congress suggested including in any chosen metadata schema a content description data element. Such elements are often neglected or disregarded as unnecessary because the image can speak for itself. However, a free style description data element enables a certain amount of cataloguing flexibility, and more important, it assists in making content accessible for people with visual disabilities. Another recurring topic when discussing cataloguing was the issue of using crowd sourcing for cataloguing purposes, also known as collaborative tagging, social tagging, and social indexing. This issue will be further discussed in item 3.4.2 due to the current perception of social tagging as a means of engaging audiences rather than substantial cataloguing assistance.

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Wheelchairs avialable for use by patrons visiting the National Gallery of Art

3.3.4. Digital Rights Management (DRM) Learning about the legal aspects of managing a digital library of art architecture and design was not the goal of the fellowship. However, the issue of digital rights management affects much of the work within a digital library and hence requires attention at all times. Therefore, the purpose of this section is to provide useful resources for further research. This section does not aim to deal with details of complying with specific legislation in the USA as Israeli law is a mixed legal system resembling the laws of the former British Mandate. At the very beginning of the first interview with John Gordy, Web Manager at the National Gallery of Art he stated clearly that although difficult at times, digital projects must be undertaken with a full understanding of ownership rights and with full recognition that permissions are necessary for converting materials that are not in the public domain. Establishing the legal status of a collection is essential to digitization work as it cannot begin without clarifying the related issues. In the United States, the Artist Right Society (ARS)99 represents the intellectual property rights interests of visual artists and estates of visual artists from around the world in the United States. The society provides information and negotiates on the behalf of artists with clients in a variety of issues of copyright (publishing, merchandise, advertising, etc.). The active role the society has taken since its establishment in 1987, has effectively caused all visual culture institutes and firms to rigorously and properly manage the copyright issue. Other issues of concern are situations in which copyright holders cannot be traced, and the creations are considered orphaned works. Also, in certain cases a collection is purchased with limited rights that changed along the years. Michael Levy, Director, Digital Collections at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum pointed out that in many cases the USHMM receives digital content from collections of partners around the world in which copyright issues are difficult to define. At times the organizations that contributed the information

99

See at: http://www.arsny.com/index.html

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are unaware of the copyright holder or even of the importance of determining ownership. David Green (2010)100 provides a detailed guide to DRM best practice, focusing on the four major steps in the DRM workflow: IP audit: clarifying the rights and restrictions status of all works in a collection Recording and managing object and image rights information Licensing: managing the licensing of the images of objects to third parties Rights enforcement: tracking, protecting and policing those images.

Additional useful information can be found at the Copyright Advisory Office at Colombia University Libraries Information Services101, Lawyers' Committee for Cultural Heritage Preservation102 and in the report by Brown & Crews (2009)103 titled Control of Museum Art Images: The Reach and Limits of Copyright and Licensing. Taking these precautions as a regulated part of the digital asset management workflow can prevent many confusions and mistakes. And yet, the field is very dynamic as visual culture institutes constantly attempt to find balance between the rights of copyright holders and the duty to make works available for visitors and on-line users. To do so, several actions are commonly used in the various institutes. In the past, watermarks were used as a deterrent in low budget collections. More common are pan and zooming tools such Openzoom104 and Zoomify105 that enable inspecting details without releasing a high resolution image. Inserting a statement about copyrights that requires an acknowledgment before viewing a high resolution image ensures exposure to the information. In

100

Green, David. A Museum Guide to Digital Rights Management. Canadian Heritage Information Network, 2010. http://www.pro.rcip-chin.gc.ca/gestion_collections-collections_management/GNDDRM/gestion_numerique_droits-digital_rights_management-eng.jsp 101 See at: http://copyright.columbia.edu/copyright/2011/06/27/copyright-museums-and-licensing-of-art-images/ 102 See at: http://www.culturalheritagelaw.org/ 103 Brown, Melissa A. and Crews, Kenneth D. "Control of Museum Art Images: The Reach and Limits of Copyright and Licensing." Lecture, Annual Congress of the International Association for the Advancement of Teaching and Research in Intellectual Property (ATRIP), Vilnius: Lithuania, December 13, 2009. 104 See at: http://www.openzoom.org 105 See at: http://www.zoomify.com

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these cases the copyright information should be added to the metadata of the item in a way that enables automatic update. In cases in which all attempts made to identify and contact a copyright holder were in vain, adding a comment that status is unclear is also helpful. The comment should include contact information in case a copyright holder would like to claim ownership. This can help create a trusting relationship with copyright holders and ensure that immediate actions are taken to satisfy all parties. In spite of the seemingly clear steps a visual culture institute should take to guard copyrights, Brown & Crews (2009) detail cases in which a museum protecting copyrights was argued to be acting in ways that betray its public service mission by preventing access and use of the images. At the same time, initiatives such as the Flickr Commons106 encourage institutions to share images from their collections with the usage rights attribution No Known Copyright Restrictions, in order to promote free access and use. The difficulties with DRM will most probably not be solved in the near future. With the addition of 3D digitization new problems will arise. The available technology enables visual culture consumers to easily document and replicate images and objects in ways that were not possible in the past. Currently, some misuse occurs in academic settings by visual arts student, who in the future will require protection as artists. Their lack of understanding of the copyright meaning leads to mistakes otherwise preventable. Investing efforts in educating users at the beginning of their career can assists in maintaining a balanced approach.

106

See at: http://www.flickr.com/commons/

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3.3.5. Information Preservation and Migration In spite of the long history of computation, the seemingly short history of computers can be traced to the end of the 18th century with rapid development beginning only during the 20th century following WWII107. Since WWII, everincreasing technological development is under constant change and improvement. The fast pace of this evolution has cast away many technologies that were used for a short period of time before being replaced and becoming obsolete. Much of the information that was associated with the obsolete technologies was lost as well. During the 1990s, organizations such as the Coalition for Networked Information (CNI)108, the Australian Preserving Access to Digital Information (PADI)109 and The Internet Archive110 were established. Since then, many other organization have joined the effort of raising the awareness to short lifecycle of digital information and acting upon the need to vigorously implement preservation as an on-going process. Peter Dueker, Digital Asset Management Solutions at the National Gallery of Art recalled that in the past, digitization was perceived as a preservation strategy on its own. Digitization using photography was expected to be a single project, done once and for ever. This perception has changed as technology offers continually improving possibilities, demanded by stakeholders. Also, the cost of digital preservation often exceeds that of conservation. For institutes that hold in their possession the original artefact, creating a digital surrogate every few years relies on the condition of the original item and the available funds to re-digitize it. In many cases however, the original artefact is not available. Michael Levy, Director, Digital Collections at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, has come across several cases in which information was provided to the USHMM stored in obsolete software with no possibility to locate the original artefacts or migrate to new software. In addition to the concern of digital obsolescence, physical deterioration of digital storage hardware, threats of natural disaster and

107

Kelly, Martin, and William Aspray. Computer a history of the information machine. 2nd ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2004. 108 See at: http://www.cni.org/ 109 See at: http://www.nla.gov.au/padi/ 110 See at: http://www.archive.org/

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human aggression pose a budding concern when attempting to preserve the digital content and its availability. Thorough resources about digital preservation and migration are easily available online and constantly updating. Generally, recommendations for creating a preventive digital preservation and migration policy include: assessing the needs and risk of the collection, assessing the technical possibilities of long term preservation and developing a workflow and preservation tactics accordingly. Detailed resources about creating a preventive digital preservation and migration policy can be found at the National Digital Information Infrastructure & Preservation Program111 led by the Library of Congress; the British Library Digital Preservation program112; the Archives and Library Information Centre at the National Archives113: the Digital Curation Centre (UK)114; and at the above PADI and CNI. Katherine Arrington, Digital Conversion Specialist for the Prints and Photographs Division at the Library of Congress pointed out that in spite of the general awareness and actions taken by institutions to ensure digital preservation and migration, some challenges have yet to be met. Specifically relevant to visual culture documentation, 3D vector graphic files have yet to receive proper attention. Most apparent is the growing gap in documentation of architectural firms. In the past, firms would preserve at least a few printed documents such as sketches, blue prints and facade illustrations for the customer. The growing use of CAD software has decreased the preservation of printed documentation. As part of the market forces, CAD software is commonly updated making the old versions obsolete, at times not enabling even viewing the old files. Due to this documentation gap, the Prints and Photographs Division at the Library of Congress currently does not rely on digitally born documentation and accepts only printed matter. This does not enable them to make the most of the viewing possibilities in 3D; however, as long as the architectural firms do not

111 112

See at: http://www.digitalpreservation.gov/ See at: http://www.bl.uk/aboutus/stratpolprog/ccare/introduction/digital/index.html 113 See at: http://www.archives.gov/research/alic/reference/virtual-library.html 114 See at: http://www.dcc.ac.uk/

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demand from software companies the possibility to preserve information, those companies do not have the incentive to do so. Recognizing this problem, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Libraries along with the School of Architecture and Planning initiated the research project Future-proofing Architectural Computer-Aided Design (FACADE)115 in attempt to promote the preservation of CAD architectural models over archival timeframes. The project promoted the awareness to the problem among the professional circles and also provided tools for curatorial work within archives. The complexity of reliance on privet companies was not solved in the research but it provided ground for continual work. Vince Rossi and Adam Metallo of the Smithsonian Institution regarded the use of point-cloud representation as an easily maintained form of 3D representation. The basic information in point-cloud documentation is presented as a Cartesian coordinate system for a three-dimensional space and can be described in a text document that includes the x, y, and z coordinates for each point. Text documents are already manageable and therefore information in the manner can be preserved. Yasmeen Kahn, Sr. Rare Book Conservator at the Library of Congress, emphasized the importance of backing up information in more than one way. Regions that are at risk of natural disasters or human aggression require specific attention to these matters. Electricity generators, fire extinguishers and flooding prevention are all important as well. In certain cases, organizations that cannot afford or support such efforts can use external services. The Hathi Trust is a partnership of major research institutions and libraries around the world that preserves content and provides access to public domain works to participating institutions. Hathi Trust was planned to provide efficient and effective storage for the digital materials contributed by partnering libraries and to provide secure, reliable, long-term preservation for deposited materials. The work done in this aspect has certified Hathi Trust as a trustworthy digital repository by the

115

See at: http://facade.mit.edu/

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Centre for Research Libraries (CRL) as part of the Trustworthy Repositories Audit and Certification (TRAC) assessment program116 Whether the high cost of digital preservation is supported by the institution itself or some other institution, the cost to society is high. The Final report of the Blue Ribbon Task Force on Sustainable Digital Preservation and Access (BRTF-SDPA)117 stressed the importance of taking a critical stand prior to engaging in digital preservation efforts and asking What is to be preserved?, By whom?, How is it to be sustained continually?, How can the return on investment be measured? Based on the answers to these questions and others, the report recommends deciding in favour of content expected to be used the most for the longest time. Since digitization without preservation is of little value, these are questions that are to be addressed in any digitization process, involving content experts. Finally, according to the BRTF-SDPA report, executing a preventive digital preservation and migration policy should include four levels of operation. In the first level are the organizational actions that ensure knowledge, economic and organization support from within the organization and from partners. The second level is the technical actions required to executing the plan with the lowest acceptable cost and curatorial support. The third level is the public policy action creating legal and financial support for the preservation efforts. The fourth level is the education and public outreach to encourage public use and support of the resource and awareness of the urgency to take action. 3.3.6. Work Force Development A different perspective on managing technical aspects of digital library was the influence of building and developing a professional workforce. Evolution of digital libraries tends to resemble other start-up initiatives. In that sense, the initial stages in the digital library is often formed by a small group of individuals that attends to many different tasks. At that stage, Michelle Rago , Technical Director for the World Digital Library at the Library of Congress, recommended building a team from multitalented staff that are not only capable of learning

116

See at: http://www.crl.edu/archiving-preservation/digital-archives/certification-and-assessment-digitalrepositories 117 Sustainable economics for a digital planet: ensuring long-term access to digital information; final report of the Blue Ribbon Task Force on Sustainable Digital Preservation and Access.. La Jolla, CA: Blue Ribbon Task Force on Sustainable Digital Preservation and Access, 2010. http://brtf.sdsc.edu/biblio/BRTF_Final_Report.pdf

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new things quickly, but also have a positive approach to tackling problems. As the project evolves, the team evolves as well and includes in addition to project administrators also experts in metadata, documentation, content, information technology, as well as developers. The role of developers is often understaffed in smaller initiatives; however Ms. Rago reminded that developers enable continual growth and active response to user requirements. Yasmeen Kahn, Sr. Rare Book Conservator at the Library of Congress pointed out that in digitization projects the important objective to minimize the intervention of the camera should also include minimizing the unintended intervention of the photographer. The photographer in cultural heritage initiatives fills an important role that can highly affect the quality of the content created. Pursuing this role requires comprehensive technical understanding, acquaintance with information science along with personal diligence. Since many photographers enjoy using photography as an expressive art form, it is important to make sure the photographer on staff can draw clear lines between artistic and documentary photography. In order to accelerate photo-shoots Ms. Kahn also recommended including an on-sight assistant that can help with carrying and moving delicate items in addition to any other needs. Planning photo-shoots in advance can improve the understanding of the preservation concerns and necessary equipment. Also discussing the importance of team work, John Tsantes, Head of Imaging and Photographic Services at Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery recommended creating a work process in which decisions are made as a team, preferably with the curator as well. If 3D digitization is to be included in the work of the documentation team, techsavvy staff, committed to finding the right workflow for digitizing specific objects or collections should be sought after (Metallo & Rossi, 2011)118. Experience with vector graphics and a general interest in 3D digitization can perhaps shorten the learning curve for each new technology.

118

Metallo, Adam , and Vincent Rossi. "The Future of Three-Dimensional Imaging and Museum Applications." Curator: The Museum Journal 54, no. 1 (2011): 63-69. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.21516952.2010.00067.x/abstract

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Metadata in digital libraries must be managed by staff with proper training. In the United States and Canada a Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS) is the master's degree required for most professional librarian positions, slowly replacing the Master of Library Science (MLS(. Admission to MLIS programs normally requires holding a bachelor's degree in any academic discipline. These degrees are accredited by the American Library Association (ALA)119 and can have specializations within fields such as archiving, records management, information architecture, public librarianship, academic librarianship, or a specific field of librarianship (e.g. law, medicine, art history). The MLIS degrees also encourage their applicants and students to pursue an additional masters degree in the field in which they would like to work. This is recommended not only due to the competitive nature of these positions but also due to the information science requirements in many of the digitization projects, libraries are now leading. According to Alison Zhang, Metadata Specialist for the World digital Library at the Library of Congress, a digital library team requires a metadata specialist from the very beginning of planning the information architecture. The daily work also requires the metadata specialist to maintain the compliance of the cataloguing with the set parameters and architecture. In order to deal with low budgeted projects or understaffing, Ms. Zhang recommends hiring additional staff as Copy Cataloguers. Explicit cataloguing instructions can be provided regarding the purpose of each data element, spelling and thesauri tools. The cataloguing work is supervised by the certified cataloguer who also adds the appropriate subject headings. An additional important aspect of work force development is the continual need to be updated with current technological changes and future trends. In each field, professional organization provides year-long learning opportunities and annual conferences. A well informed team member can prevent costly mistakes, make appropriate choices and use a professional network for consultation. Therefore, planning a project budget should take in to account annual participation in conferences and encourage making use of the yearlong learning opportunities. Beyond conferences, project management can do so by creating various learning opportunities. These, for example can be monthly gatherings for

119

See at: http://www.ala.org/

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all to share general professional updates or encouraging or occasional group participation in of the many online learning opportunities.

3.4. Public Outreach and Audience Engagement Creating a digital library requires a great deal of thought, effort and resources. After having planned the project, arranged the settings, created alliances, built a database, documented and catalogued items and uploaded them to provide online access, the project seems to be complete. And yet, with the proliferation of digital databases, the simple possibility of accessing information online is no longer a novelty. The abundance of available resources and information requires visual culture digital libraries to actively promote their content, appeal to new audience and perhaps revise their entire role as now active knowledge agents rather than passive resources. This understanding was predominant in most all of the interviews and presented as a great opportunity to provide added value, as previously discussed in item 3.1.4. For Museums, the transition from the maintaining a relationship with museum patrons to maintaining a relationship with website users was a natural evolution. However, for libraries the transition often requires changing a mind-set and at times, breaking old traditions. John Van Oudenaren, Director of the World Digital Library, views this transition as emphasizing a user driven approach, based on the assumption that people are tired of seeking but not tired of finding. Especially in the field of visual culture, the idea of a collection of (digital surrogates of) art and design artefacts can easily be associated with the concept of a museum. Therefore, digital libraries that are not affiliated to a museum can still adopt some of the strategies and concepts used in museums and museum websites to create and maintain a relationship with the digital library. This does not have to contradict with the original mission of the digital library, whether affiliated to an academic library, to an archive or to any other form of institution. For a digital platform, actively providing added value can be achieved in many creative ways. The ever progressing possibilities of information consumption promoted by new applications and hardware can enable inspiring interaction, as will be further discussed below. However, although tempting, technology requires moderate use. While

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discussing the use of technology in exhibition design in museums, Wyman et al. (2011)120 make a suggestion that can be more generally applied, proposing to use a little technology well rather than a lot of technology poorly. Jason Steinhauer, Liaison Specialist at Library of Congress Veterans History Project added to this, asserting that creating added value does not always require bells and whistles. A well curated exhibition, a unique event or well-conveyed information can do great service to museum patrons and website users alike, whereas in certain cases bells and whistles can actually alienate users that do not possess the required skills. Another limitation of technology was pointed out by John Gordy, Web Manager at the National Gallery of Art. The desire to produce an identical surrogate is often mistaken for a desire to replace the experience of encountering the original object. This exaggerated expectation from digital collections does not take in to account the limitations of the medium. Expecting to provide added value by offering replacement of reality is therefore futile. As with any medium, the aspiration should be to make the most of the advantages in spite of existing downsides. The Internet excels at collecting large quantities of information and promoting communication. Cultural heritage representation can greatly benefit from these qualities that enable arranging information about reality, providing context and advancing the understanding of them. In spite of the limitations of the Internet, technological innovation can be applied in many ways and offer a variety of opportunities for a digital library to collect and disseminate information, to advance human knowledge and to remain valuable for a long time. Putting together the examples collected in interviews, in observations and in website reviews helped identify two levels of public outreach, implemented by digital libraries: unidirectional information dissemination, bidirectional communication and participatory interaction.

120

Wyman, Bruce, Scott Smith, Daniel Meyers, and Michael Godfrey. "Digital Storytelling in Museums: Observations and Best Practices." Curator: The Museum Journal 54, no. 4 (2011): 461-468.

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3.4.1. Unidirectional Information Dissemination From the moment a collection offers access to its content it can be described as engaged in unidirectional information dissemination. The most basic stages start as unidirectional because the user can receive information but not engage in any further communication with the digital library. Even in this stage a digital library can use technology to reach out to the public and offer added value. Beyond offering online access to all users, the user experience provided by the information architecture and user interface can offer added value. Varied in their needs, users can be offered different access styles to information described by John Gordy, Web Manager at the National Gallery of Art as skim, swim and dive. These can be offered either by creating different platforms or by designing the interface to include different types of retrieval tools and results. To provide useful options, a good acquaintance with the different users is required. For this purpose, Mr. Gordy recommended using both qualitative and quantitative research to gain better understanding of the variety of users, the dominant groups within them and their specific needs. After realizing who the users are, along with which additional users are desired, straight forward tactics can be implemented in a visual culture digital library. Content wise, offering additional representation of the artefacts and related information, using video 3D documentation and other tools can enrich the content provided. An interview with the artist, documentation of the studio and other such resources offer different insights, even if produced within constraints of a low budget. For example, at the University of Manitoba Fort Garry Campus, the architecture and fine arts library linked the outdoor art collection of the university to a Google earth map and an online catalogue listing using signs presenting QR codes121. Translating descriptive metadata can also add value to new audiences that can now overcome the language barrier. Wyman et al. (2011)122 discuss the rising demand from museums to apply engaging interaction installations. To answer this demand, the authors recommend maintaining a focus on storytelling by framing content and making it

121 122

See at: http://valmesta.wordpress.com/ Wyman, Bruce, Scott Smith, Daniel Meyers, and Michael Godfrey. "Digital Storytelling in Museums: Observations and Best Practices." Curator: The Museum Journal 54, no. 4 (2011): 461-468.

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desirable. This approach is also relevant to outreach efforts in digital libraries. The European Library for example, created digital exhibitions123 in which highlighted content from the collections can be viewed. The exhibitions are not curated as fine art but borrow the traditional concept of an exhibition to function as a preface to the available content. In recent years, the proliferation of smartphones in affluent societies has opened a new possibility for museums to enrich the exploration experience of the collections. By combining digital content and a portable communication device, a variety of applications (apps) are offered at little or no cost. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, released a free app named MetGuitars, dedicated to one of its exhibitions, Guitar Heroes124, which examined the history and craftsmanship of Guitars. The app provided not only textual information but also enabled watching short videos of a known musician playing on the instrument exhibited and listening to interviews125. In many cases, such apps offered by large institutions provide additional information that was already available prior to the app launch. However, the new platform reduced the demand from the user to actively seek and access the information. The added value is entailed in providing the information exactly when desired or when it can make the best impact. For academic visual culture digital libraries, advancing information dissemination can make use of apps, but in any case requires dealing with a more pressing issue. Anna Simon (2011)126 of Indiana University explored the information literacy and seeking strategies among studio students. Her findings suggest that many students do not feel comfortable in a library setting and therefore avoid making use of it and of the digital resources it provides. Students that are not required to develop information literacy skills do not make use of such resources later as professionals and perpetuate the problem when becoming instructors.

123 124

See at: http://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/exhibition/ See at: http://blog.metmuseum.org/guitarheroes/ 125 Grobart, Sam. "Multimedia Tour Guides on Your Smartphone." New York Times (NY), March 16, 2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/17/arts/design/apps-give-museum-visitors-multimedia-access.html?_r=2 126 Simon, Anna. "Studio Students and The Art Library: Demystifying Information Seeking and Supporting Artistic Practice." Lecture, VRA + ARLIS/NA 2nd Joint Conference, Minneapolis, MN, March 25, 2011. http://www.arlisna.org/news/conferences/2011/ses_inside_simon.pdf

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In this context apps could perhaps assist in enabling creative ways to consume information. However, this tactic should not replace the importance of providing students with information literacy skills. 3.4.2. Bidirectional Communication and Participatory Interaction The second level of public outreach resulted from accumulative changes that occurred in the uses of the Internet and rise of Web 2.0 and social media. Whether a result of public demand or an independent initiative, many institutions develop or experiment with a new type of communication with users127. Changing from the previous unidirectional monologue to a dialogue, digital collections are now required not only to provide information but also respond to questions, comments and requests. Furthermore, this dialogue is encouraging users to become collaborators as well. The initial awkwardness of communicating with users perhaps resulted from the questions Why should there be communication? and How should it be done? John Gordy, Web Manager at the National Gallery of Art, explained that without a specific purpose beyond the simple act of communication, engaging in communication will not be beneficial to anyone. Offering users the ability to engage in discussion does not always offer value and therefore the cases in which communication is enabled should be chosen carefully as they require attention and resources. At the Smithsonian Institution the aspiration to provide a valuable lifelong learning environment is combined with attempts to create an active social environment. The Smithsonian Commons128 prototype complies with the objective of the Smithsonian Web and New Media Strategy to offer an updated digital experience and a new learning model. The plans for the commons environment will allow greater use and interaction with the information provided by the Smithsonian. Yet, being adjacent to the Smithsonian Web site rather than replace it, draws a line between the social interaction and the official authority.

127

See at Peters, Isabella, and Paul Becker. Folksonomies indexing and retrieval in Web 2.0. Berlin: De Gruyter/Saur, 2009. 128 See at: http://www.si.edu/commons/prototype/

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Archives are facing the demand to interaction as well. Archive users have come to expect that to interact with that content and obtain research help if necessary, while they are engaged with the content. Understanding that Archivists need to actively experiment with Web 2.0, the Society of American Archivists (SAA)129 has developed a resource including case studies and examples of Web 2.0 implementations named The Interactive Archivist130. With the fast pace of interaction supported by available technology, the ability to communicate soon evolved in to institution-user collaboration. Out of the variety of interesting examples of participatory Interaction as a form of outreach, an outstandingly successful example is the Flickr Commons131. The Flickr commons is a designated zone within the commercial photo sharing service Flickr where cultural heritage institutions such as the Library of Congress (LC) can share photographs that have no known copyright. The now international zone started in 2007 as a joint collaboration between the Office of Strategic Initiatives and the Prints and Photographs Division, both at the Library of Congress. Looking to create a pilot project that would explore the potential of social networks in providing exposure to collections and enabling crowd sourcing, the Library of Congress approached Flicker and established a framework for cooperation. While choosing a suitable partner for this initiative, the LC set forth certain demands that were to be met. These demands were aimed to ensure free access, exclude commercial content, set a non-exclusive liaison, provide LC the ability to moderate content and state clearly the copyright status and source of content. The choice to engage with Flickr was also affected by the large image focused community that already existed within the network (Springer et al.)132. Since the establishment of the Flickr commons, many institutions around the world have joined the initiative. Arden Alexander, Cataloguer Specialist for Pictorial Collection, Prints and Photographs Division shared the thoughtful

129 130

See at: http://www2.archivists.org/ See at: http://interactivearchivist.archivists.org/ 131 See at: http://www.flickr.com/commons?GXHC_gx_session_id_=6afecb2055a3c52c 132 Springer, Michelle, Beth Dulabahn, Phil Michel, Barbara Natanson, David W. Reser, Nicole B. Ellison, Helena Zinkham, and David Woodward. For the common good the Library of Congress Flickr pilot project. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, 2008. http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/flickr_report_final.pdf

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details that make the Flickr commons a continual success. Rather than share sporadic images from different collections, two target collections in the public domain were selected, offering appealing historical content in both colour and black and white photography. Ms. Alexander recalled that although the collections had been digitized and available long before the Flickr pilot, many of the users were unaware of the large digitization efforts by the LC and regarded this as novelty. As the project continued, additional collections were added, often in connection with public interest and annual themes. The content management required establishing a workflow in which content is supervised and communication is reciprocated. A team of LC cataloguers provides these services by rotation, in addition to their daily responsibilities, using a comments browser designated to assist in quick management of comments. Many of the user comments express appreciation or interest, however some of the comments offer information or an inquiry that cataloguers respond to. In spite of the concern that many of the comments will be considered inappropriate, the overall experience in this matter has been positive. Ms. Alexander explained that as a community, Flickr users apply self and group discipline. Also, a comment and posting policy133 is available at hand. Along with the added visibility, collaboration with Flickr users provided at times new information about the photographs. Any new information provided by users is accepted and updated in the LC database only after the users provide evidence supporting their claim which is then examined by the LC staff. This process has resulted in successful updates, diminishing some concerns about the erosion of authoritative status of crowd sourcing initiatives in other organization pilot projects. Developing a dialogue with clear boundaries prevented any erosion of the LC status. Ms. Alexander summed the collaboration in the Flickr project as having generated exciting results and new possibilities. The weekly image upload on Fridays has become an anticipated event by a large group of users who enjoy the collaboration, offer their knowledge in return and continue to disseminate the photographs in other venues such as Wikipedia. The collaboration has also

133

See at: http://www.loc.gov/homepage/commentspolicy.html

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increased traffic to the LC website and furthered awareness of the available treasures there. Another interesting institution-user collaboration that focused on social tagging can be seen for example in the New York Public Library Whats on the menu?134 project, in which documentation of historical restaurant menus is transcribed by users. This concept could perhaps be applied to architectural plans that currently hold valuable information transcribed on them but are not suitable for optical character reading (OCR). A problem that seems to arise with tagging projects is the ability to create accurate and useful metadata. Some of the criticism directed at the use of social tagging discusses the lack of a standard set of conditions, the structure which does not organize tags hierarchically and the prevalence of spelling errors. Different social tagging projects deal with this problem. Flickr automatically normalizes tag spelling when it aggregates a tag, allowing the user to maintain his unique spelling for his personal use. Capitalization of tags is ignored and special characters are also changed to the closest English equivalent135. In many projects, multiple classifications are used to assess the reliable they are. The Galaxy Zoo136 project and the British Your Paintings Tagger137 are examples in which users undergo a short tagging training process to improve the quality and accuracy of metadata. Galaxy Zoo requests users to classify galaxy images drawn from NASA's Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) according to their shapes. The classification uses human perception qualities that currently irreplaceable by computational processes. The Your Paintings Tagger provides a highly structured tagging process in which tags are created with the guided process. Prior to entering tags to the database, users are requested to undergo a short training process in which the tags are not collected. The Your Painting Tagger, however, may suffer from another problem that occurs in social tagging initiatives. The successful tagging projects, such as Flickr, Ravelry138, and Delicious139, often accumulate tags as a bi-product of the service

134 135

See at: http://menus.nypl.org/ Peters, Isabella, and Paul Becker. Folksonomies indexing and retrieval in Web 2.0. Berlin: De Gruyter/Saur, 2009. 136 See at: http://www.galaxyzoo.org/ 137 See at: http://tagger.thepcf.org.uk/ 138 See at: http://www.ravelry.com

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provided. In Flickr the service is photo sharing, in Ravelry knitting patterns are shared and in Delicious webpage bookmarks are stored. Your Painting Tagger however, offers users the joy of viewing fine art but this can be argued as a pastime that few can afford. Unlike Galaxy zoo that offers the opportunity to be the first to discover astronomic phenomena, the Your Paintings Tagger requires selfless initiative on behalf of taggers. The potential of participatory interaction has yet to be fulfilled, specifically in the world of digital libraries. Future applications can assist with translation in cases where bilingual thesauruses have not been created or cannot be applied. Documentation could perhaps be assisted as well. Public participation should be considered when creating and managing a visual culture digital library as it offers not only visibility and public relations but also potential for actual involvement. Further involvement can also include participatory design of the services themselves and perhaps certain curatorial decisions.

139

See at: http://www.delicious.com

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4. C o n c l u s i o n s This report aimed to discuss the information gathered during a four month fellowship provided by UNESCO to research design from a cultural heritage management perspective and specifically, the meeting points of Design History, Anthropology, Museum Studies, and Information Science as they take form in the creation and use of digital collections of design and decorative arts. Due to the generous efforts of Gregory P. J. Most, Chief of the Department of Image Collection at the National Gallery of Art, and Peggy Pearlstein, Head of the Hebraic Section at the Library of Congress, the fellowship exceed all expectations and proved to be an incomparable learning experience. Mr. Mosts and Ms. Pearlsteins advice and direction were crucial to the success of the fellowship and without the opportunities they afforded me I could not have had access to the interesting and relevant interviewees. The choice of Washington D.C. enabled expanding the scope of the fellowship to include some of the worlds leading cultural heritage institutions. Spending time at a central cultural metropolis that attracts so many visitors annually demonstrated in the clearest way how important cultural heritage is to mankind and that it should be protected and shared at the same time. Due to the limitations of this report and the purpose it is to serve, I did not detail all of the data collected, including site observations and book reviews. I decided to focus on the core resource that was made available to me during the fellowship. This unique resource was direct access to the individuals who exercise their expertise on a daily basis, promoting cultural heritage preservation and digitization. The knowledge kindly shared with me was attained from their vast experience and I am grateful for their willingness to do so. The different conclusions are detailed in the above items; however, several important conclusions were derived from the entire experience. Creating a visual culture digital resource is remarkably complex. It involves a team effort comprising many different professions in a fast and ever changing technological environment. Four major elements can be identified as involved in the creation and existence of a digital library: the project management, the curatorial process, the technological realization and the public outreach. Each of these important elements can hinder the effort of creating a valuable resource. Effective project management can ensure the success of a project if effort is made to promote the collaboration of all parties involved and the integration of all their efforts.

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Another important aspect in the creation of digital libraries is the establishment of a longterm sustainable plan. The large effort and funds required should be invested in a way that ensures longevity both for the content and the service. Without a steady and continual advancement, a resource can quickly become irrelevant. This again can result from the efforts and initiatives from all the above elements. The curatorial process can ensure relevant content, the technological elements can provide a suitable platform or initiate a new one, and the public outreach can maintain a close relationship with the audience, inviting participation and ensuring best service. I hope to continue applying the knowledge that was shared with me. Since my return to Israel, I have shared my experience in a few lectures and have also passed on the information to members of my team in the Memory of the World initiative at Bezlael Academy of Art and design. The design of this report was created to enable a quick and easy reference for my team when facing new challenges and contemplating how to deal with certain situations. I would like to conclude this report by expressing again my deep gratitude to all that were involved in making this fellowship possible. I could not have been more pleased with this opportunity and am humbled by the knowledge and unique places I was exposed to.

National Gallery of Art, East Building, Main Hall Interior

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5. B i b l i o g r a p h y

A framework of guidance for building good digital collections a NISO recommended practice. 3rd ed. Baltimore, MD: National Information Standards Organization (NISO), 2007. http://www.niso.org/publications/rp/framework3.pdf Abbott, Daisy. What is Digital Curation? Edinburgh, UK: Digital Curation Centre, 2008. http://www.dcc.ac.uk/resources/briefing-papers/introduction-curation/whatdigital-curation Baca, Murtha. Cataloging cultural objects: a guide to describing cultural works and their images. Online Edition ed. Chicago: American Library Association, 2006. http://cco.vrafoundation.org/index.php/toolkit/cco_pdf_version/ Baca, Murtha, and Tony Gill. Introduction to metadata. Online ed. Los Angeles, Calif.: Getty Research Institute, 2008. http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/standards/intrometadata/ind ex.html Bearman, David, and Jennifer Trant. "Do You Know Who Your Users Are? The Role of Research In Redesigning sfmoma.org." In Museums and the Web 2007 proceedings. Toronto, Ont.: Archives & Museum Informatics, 2007. http://www.archimuse.com/mw2007/papers/mitroff/mitroff.html Boeykens, Stefan. "Connecting digital architectural archives with MACE." Lecture, Hybrid Architectural Archives Conference from Netherlands Architecture Institute, Rotterdam, June 11, 2009. Brown, Melissa A. and Crews, Kenneth D. "Control of Museum Art Images: The Reach and Limits of Copyright and Licensing." Lecture, Annual Congress of the International Association for the Advancement of Teaching and Research in Intellectual Property (ATRIP), Vilnius: Lithuania, December 13, 2009. Cohen, Patricia. "Digital Keys for Unlocking the Humanities Riches" . New York Times (NY), November 16, 2010, NY edition. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/17/arts/17digital.html?pagewanted=1

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Eaton, Kit. "Zoolander Meets Dr. Evil: Kinect Hack Prints Out a Model Mini-You." Fast Company, April 1, 2011. http://www.fastcompany.com/1744069/forget-passport-photos-kinect-hack-letsyou-print-out-a-little-model-you Erway, Ricky. Rapid capture faster throughput in digitization of special collections. Dublin, Ohio: OCLC Research, 2011. http://www.oclc.org/research/publications/library/2011/2011-04.pdf Green, David. A Museum Guide to Digital Rights Management. Canadian Heritage Information Network, 2010. http://www.pro.rcip-chin.gc.ca/gestion_collections-collections_management/GNDDRM/gestion_numerique_droits-digital_rights_management-eng.jsp Grobart, Sam. "Multimedia Tour Guides on Your Smartphone." New York Times (NY), March 16, 2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/17/arts/design/apps-give-museum-visitorsmultimedia-access.html?_r=2 Guidelines for a collection development policy using the Conspectus model. The Hague: IFLA, Section on Acquisition and Collection Development, 2001. http://www.loc.gov/acq/devpol/cpc.html Kelly, Martin, and William Aspray. Computer a history of the information machine. 2nd ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2004. Kirschenbaum, Matthew G.. Mechanisms: new media and the forensic imagination. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2008. Krogh, Peter. The DAM book: digital asset management for photographers. 2nd ed. Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly, 2009. Margolies, John. "Content and Process: 36 Years on the Road Taking Photographs of American Commercial Architecture and Design." Lecture, Symposium Exploring Main Street and Roadside Photographs of John Margolies from Prints and Photographs Division at the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, March 9, 2011. Metallo, Adam , and Vincent Rossi. "The Future of Three-Dimensional Imaging and Museum Applications." Curator: The Museum Journal 54, no. 1 (2011): 63-69. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2151-6952.2010.00067.x/abstract
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Metropolitan Museum of Art (MET) Guitar Heroes Exhibition http://blog.metmuseum.org/guitarheroes/ McKenna, Gordon, and De Loof Chris. ATHENA Report on existing standards applied by European museums . eContentplus, 2009. www.athenaeurope.org/getFile.php?id=396 Newman, Alan, and Peter Dueker. "Digital Image Asset Management at the National Gallery of Art (US)." RLG DigiNews 10, no. 6 (2006) http://worldcat.org/arcviewer/1/OCC/2007/08/08/0000070519/viewer/file1650.ht ml#article2 "Part II What Do We Want To Achieve?". In Preserving the past to protect the future the strategic plan of the National Archives and Records Administration, 2006-2016.. Revised ed. Washington, D.C.: United States National Archives and Records Administration, 2009. 3-4. http://www.archives.gov/about/plans-reports/strategic-plan/2009/nara-strategicplan-2006-2016-final.pdf Peters, Isabella, and Paul Becker. Folksonomies indexing and retrieval in Web 2.0. Berlin: De Gruyter/Saur, 2009. Simon, Anna. "Studio Students and The Art Library: Demystifying Information Seeking and Supporting Artistic Practice." Lecture, VRA + ARLIS/NA 2nd Joint Conference, Minneapolis, MN, March 25, 2011. http://www.arlisna.org/news/conferences/2011/ses_inside_simon.pdf Springer, Michelle, Beth Dulabahn, Phil Michel, Barbara Natanson, David W. Reser, Nicole B. Ellison, Helena Zinkham, and David Woodward. For the common good the Library of Congress Flickr pilot project. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, 2008. http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/flickr_report_final.pdf Stern, Rae'ut E.. Preparatory Research for the Establishment of a National Digital Library of Art, Architecture and Design. Final Report, phase I. Jerusalem: Bezalel Academy of Art and Design, 2010. http://www.bezalel.ac.il/res/about/Bezalel_Final_Report_July_2010.pdf Sustainable economics for a digital planet: ensuring long-term access to digital information; final report of the Blue Ribbon Task Force on Sustainable Digital Preservation and
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Access.. La Jolla, CA: Blue Ribbon Task Force on Sustainable Digital Preservation and Access, 2010. http://brtf.sdsc.edu/biblio/BRTF_Final_Report.pdf Wright, Alex. "Online, Its the Mouse That Runs the Museum." . New York Times (NY), January 19, 2010, New York edition. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/20/arts/design/20museum.html?pagewanted=1 Wyman, Bruce, Scott Smith, Daniel Meyers, and Michael Godfrey. "Digital Storytelling in Museums: Observations and Best Practices." Curator: The Museum Journal 54, no. 4 (2011): 461-468.

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6. L i s t o f W e b s i t e r e f e r e n c e s American Library Association (ALA) http://www.ala.org/ American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) http://www.isprs.org/ Archives of American Art http://www.aaa.si.edu/ Artist Rights Society (ARS) http://www.arsny.com/index.html Art Libraries Society of North America (ARLIS/NA) http://www.arlisna.org/index.html Artstore Digital Library http://www.artstor.org/index.shtml Artstor Shared Shelf http://www.artstor.org/shared-shelf/s-html/shared-shelf-home.shtml Blue Ribbon Task Force on Sustainable Digital Preservation and Access (BRTF-SDPA) http://brtf.sdsc.edu/biblio/BRTF_Final_Report.pdf British Library Digital Preservation program http://www.bl.uk/aboutus/stratpolprog/ccare/introduction/digital/index.html Cataloguing Cultural Objects (CCO) http://cco.vrafoundation.org/ Cataloguing Cultural Objects (CCO) A Guide to Describing Cultural Works and Their Images, Online Edition http://cco.vrafoundation.org/index.php/toolkit/cco_pdf_version/ Categories for the Description of Works of Art (CDWA) Centre for Research Libraries Certification and Assessment of Digital Repositories http://www.crl.edu/archiving-preservation/digital-archives/certification-andassessment-digital-repositories Coalition for Networked Information (CNI) http://www.cni.org/
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Copyright Advisory Office at Colombia University Libraries Information Services http://copyright.columbia.edu/copyright/2011/06/27/copyright-museums-andlicensing-of-art-images/ Cultural Heritage Imaging (CHI) http://www.c-h-i.org/index.html CyArk http://archive.cyark.org Delicious http://delicious.com Digging into data http://www.diggingintodata.org/ Digging into Image Data to Answer Authorship-Related Questions (DID-ARQ) http://isda.ncsa.illinois.edu/DID/ Digital Curation Centre http://www.dcc.ac.uk/ Digital Photography Best Practices and Workflow http://www.dpbestflow.org/ Dublin Core http://dublincore.org/ European Library Exhibition Foyer http://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/exhibition/ Future-proofing Architectural Computer-Aided Design (FACADE) http://facade.mit.edu/ Flickr Commons http://www.flickr.com/commons/ Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, The Smithsonian Institution http://www.asia.si.edu/ Galaxy Zoo http://www.galaxyzoo.org/
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Google Art Project http://www.googleartproject.com/ Harvard Art Museums http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/home/ Institute of Museum and Library services (IMLS) http://www.imls.gov/ International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) http://www.ifla.org/ International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) Art Libraries Section http://www.ifla.org/en/art-libraries International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) Guidelines for a Collection Development Policy Using the Conspectus Methodology http://www.ifla.org/en/publications/guidelines-for-a-collection-development-policyusing-the-conspectus-model Internet Archive http://www.archive.org/ IRENE Sound Reproduction http://irene.lbl.gov/ Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) http://www.jisc.ac.uk/ Lawyers' Committee for Cultural Heritage Preservation http://www.culturalheritagelaw.org/ Library of Congress http://www.loc.gov/index.html Library of Congress and RLG Conspectus Collecting Levels http://www.loc.gov/acq/devpol/cpc.html Library of Congress Comment and Posting Policy http://www.loc.gov/homepage/commentspolicy.html

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Machine Readable Cataloguing (MARC) http://www.loc.gov/marc/ Makerbot 3D printer http://www.makerbot.com/ Meshlab http://meshlab.sourceforge.net/ Metadata for Architectural Contents in Europe (MACE) http://portal.mace-project.eu/ http://www.mace-project.eu/index.php Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) Collection Management Policy www.moma.org/docs/explore/CollectionsMgmtPolicyMoMA_Oct10.pdf Museum3 http://museum3.org/ National Archives (NARA) Archives and Library Information Centre http://www.archives.gov/research/alic/reference/virtual-library.html National Archives (NARA) Digitization Partnerships http://www.archives.gov/digitization/partnerships.html National Archives (NARA) Preserving the Past to Protect the Future: The Strategic Plan of the National Archives and Records Administration 2006-2016. http://www.archives.gov/about/plans-reports/strategic-plan/2009/nara-strategicplan-2006-2016-final.pdf National Archives (NARA) The Generations Network (TGN) Agreement http://www.archives.gov/digitization/pdf/tgn-agreement.pdf National Digital Information Infrastructure & Preservation Program http://www.digitalpreservation.gov/ New York Public Library (NYPL( Whats on the Menu? http://menus.nypl.org/ New York Art Resource Consortium (NYARC) http://nyarc.org/
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Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) http://www.oclc.org Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) Rapid Capture: Faster Throughput in Digitization of Special Collections http://www.oclc.org/research/publications/library/2011/2011-04.pdf Openzoom http://www.openzoom.org PhotoCity http://photocitygame.com/ Photosynth by Microsoft http://photosynth.net/default.aspx Ponoko http://www.ponoko.com/ Preserving Access to Digital Information (PADI) http://www.nla.gov.au/padi/ Public Art at the University of Manitoba Fort Garry Campus http://valmesta.wordpress.com/ Ravelry http://www.ravelry.com RepRap 3D Printer http://reprap.org/wiki/Main_Page Rome Reborn http://www.romereborn.virginia.edu/ Scanning Monticello http://www.cs.virginia.edu/Monticello/ Shapeways http://www.shapeways.com/ Smithsonian Institution http://www.si.edu/
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Smithsonian Commons http://www.si.edu/commons/prototype/ Society of American Archivists (SAA) http://www2.archivists.org/ Society of American Archivists (SAA) The Interactive Archivists http://interactivearchivist.archivists.org/ Squarespace http://www.squarespace.com/ Strategic Content Alliance http://www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/contentalliance.aspx VIP Art Fair http://www.vipartfair.com/ Visual Arts Data Service http://www.vads.ac.uk/index.php Visual Resource Association (VRA) http://www.vraweb.org/ Visual Resource Association Core (VRA Core) http://www.loc.gov/standards/vracore/ Vogel 50x50 http://vogel5050.org/ World Digital Library (WDL) http://www.wdl.org/en/ World Digital Library (WDL) Charter http://project.wdl.org/about/org.html World Digital Library (WDL) PR video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xhBYGI6Tfzo Xiangtangshan Cave Project http://xts.uchicago.edu/

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Yale Digital Content http://discover.odai.yale.edu/ydc/ Your Paintings Tagger http://tagger.thepcf.org.uk/ Zoomify http://www.zoomify.com

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Appendix A

Subject Matter Experts Interviewed (Alphabetically)


Name Surname Title Cataloger Specialist for Pictorial Collection, Prints and Photographs Division Digital Conversion Specialist, Prints and Photographs Division Archivist, Gallery Archive Content Manager Hebraic Area Specialist, African & Middle Eastern Division Library Systems Manager Collection Information Systems Assistant, Office of the Registrar Curator, Prints and Photographs Division Digital Asset Management Solutions Collection Information Systems Coordinator, Office of the Registrar Color Scientist, Division of Imaging and Visual Services Acting Team Leader for the Israel/Judaica catalogers Web Manager Digital Asset Manager, Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery Photo Archivist, Photographic Reference Collection, Curatorial Affairs Institute Library of Congress Library of Congress National Gallery of Art World Digital Library Library of Congress National Gallery of Art National Gallery of Art Library of Congress National Gallery of Art National Gallery of Art National Gallery of Art Library of Congress National Gallery of Art Smithsonian Institution United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Meeting focus Meetings

Arden Katherine Julie Sandy Ann Karen Elizabeth Verna Peter Susan Kenneth N. Nahid John Cory

Alexander Arrington Blake Bostian Brener Cassedy Concha Curtis Dueker Finkel Fleisher Gerstein Gordy Grace

Cataloging Digital preservation Overview Overview Overview Overview Cataloging Curatorial processes Documentation Cataloging Documentation Cataloging Strategy Overview

2 2 1 1 continual 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1

Nancy

Hartman

Cataloging

85

Yasmeen Erik

Kahn Landsberg

Sr. Rare Book Conservator Head of Collections Imaging, Department of Imaging Services Director, Digital Collections

Michael

Levy

John Adam Gregory P. J. Michael Peggy

Mahar Metallo Most Neubert Pearlstein

Book Exchange Program 3D Digitization, Office of the Chief information Officer Chief, Department of Image Collections Supervisory Digital Projects Specialist Head, Hebraic Section at Library of Congress Director, Center for Architecture, Design and Engineering, Prints and Photographs Division Technical Director

Library of Congress Museum of Modern Art United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Library of Congress Smithsonian Institution National Gallery of Art Library of Congress Library of Congress Library of Congress World Digital Library National Museum of American Jewish Military History Smithsonian Institution Library of Congress Library of Congress Smithsonian Institution Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum World Digital Library National Museum of American

Preservation Documentation

1 1

Overview

Acquisition Documentation Fellowship Research Supervision Overview Fellowship Research Supervision Curatorial processes Overview

1 1 Continual 1 continual

Ford

Peatross

Michelle

Rago

Herb

Rosenbleeth

Nation Executive Director. Colonel, U.S. Army (Ret) 3D Digitization, Office of Exhibits Central Model Making Unit African/Middle Eastern Acquisitions Section in the Order Division Liaison Specialist, Veterans History Project Head/Imaging & Photographic Services, Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery Head, Art Department, Smithsonian Institution Libraries Director Assistant Administrator

Overview

Vince

Rossi

Documentation

Gail Jason John

Shirazi Steinhauer Tsantes

Acquisition Strategy Documentation

1 2 1

Stephen John Mary

Van Dyk Van Oudenaren Westly

Overview Strategy Overview

1 2 1

86

Lindsay

Zarwell

Archivist, Steven Spielberg Film and Video Archive, Curatorial Affairs Metadata specialist

Alison

Zhang

Jewish Military History United States Holocaust Memorial Museum World Digital Library

Cataloging

Cataloging

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Appendix B

VRA + ARLIS/NA 2011 full schedule at vraarlis11.sched.org E Event | M Meeting | I Session | P Special Interest Group - User Group
March 24 Thursday M 2:00pm 3:00pm P 3:00pm 4:00pm P 3:00pm 4:00pm March 25 Friday I 9:00am 10:30am E 10:00am 5:00pm I 11:00am 12:00pm I 1:30pm 3:00pm I 3:15pm 4:45pm March 26 Saturday I 8:30am 10:00am E 10:00am 12:00pm E 12:00pm 1:30pm I 3:30pm 5:00pm March 27 Sunday I 9:45am 11:15am M 11:15am 12:15pm I 1:30pm 3:00pm More Than Meets the Eye? Retrieving Art Images by Subject ARLIS/NA Art and Design School Libraries Division Meeting Paving the Way for an Uncertain Future Case Studies IV Vendor Slam, part I Joint VRA+ARLIS/NA Buffet Lunch Engaging New Technologies Case Studies II Exhibits Hall Opening Plenary: Works and Fair Use: Can Bridges Be Built Between Educational Users and Copyright Owners? Images Unleashed: Expanding Beyond Traditional Disciplines Inside Out: Examining Studio Artists Perceptions, Representations, and Actual Use of the Fine Arts Library ARLIS/NA Architecture Section Meeting Cataloging Issues Discussion Group Future of Art Bibliography

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