A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE COMPETITIVENESS OF ASIAN AND LATIN AMERICAN CITIES

Brian. H. Roberts Emeritus Professor Land Equity International and University of Canberra broberts@landequity.com.au Marco Kamiya Direccin de Polticas Pblicas y Competitividad, Corporacin Andina de Fomento Development Bank of Latin America mkamiya@caf.com

Summary: This paper reports on a collaborative research project funded by the Asian Development Bank and CAF - Development Bank of Latina American to investigate the competiveness of Asia and Latin American Cities. The research builds upon previous studies to investigate an approach to City Cluster Economic Development undertaken by the ADB in 2009. The research investigates the dynamics and nature of economic drivers supporting the development of eight large Asia and Latin American cities, and the role of industry clusters in supporting and sustaining their development and competitiveness. The paper provides the background context and outlines the approach to the research. The research will be used to improve the design and targeting of urban sector development projects funded by the two banks. Key Words: Asia, Latin America, city competitiveness, industry clusters, urban development

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A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE COMPETITIVENESS OF ASIAN AND LATIN AMERICAN CITIES

I. INTRODUCTION

The worlds economy is being driven increasingly by the growth and development of cities. This has led to increased competition between cities to expand trade, and attract capital for investment to support local economic development. The importance of competitiveness in driving the development of nations was highlighted decades ago by Michael Porter (1990); however, the focus on competitiveness has moved away from nation states to cities (UN-Habitat, 2005). As a result cities are now the primary generators of employment, investment and wealth creation in all but a few countries. Cities are variously estimated to contribute to between 75 and 80 percent of global GDP. However, there are significant differences in the size, rates of growth, scale of development and competitiveness of cities (Dobbs et al., 2011). Our understanding of what makes a city competitive is still somewhat limited especially in the context of developing countries and regions. This paper reports on a research project funded by the Asian (ADB) and Corporacin Andina de Fomento (CAF) - Latin American Development Banks to expand the depth of knowledge about the drivers of city competitiveness and, in particular, the role of industry clusters in underpinning the economic development of cities in Asia and Latin America. Various international studies have been conducted to compare the competitiveness of cities (OECD, 2006; Pengfei Ni & Kresl, 2010). Poor basic infrastructure, weak institutional arrangements, a lack of governance, low human and fiscal capital, and resource limitations are well recognized factors undermining the efficiency, competitiveness and performance of city economies. There are many economic drivers associated with these factors which affect the economic performance of cities. It is not easy to measures these. Economic drivers of competitiveness vary significantly between cities, as do the strategies and combinations of programs and initiatives undertaken by cities to enhance competitiveness. Over recent years there has been growing interest in strengthening the relationship and opportunities for improving trade development and other exchanges between Asia and Latin America countries (ADB, I-ADB, & ADB Institute, 2012; Dosch & Jacob, 2010). It was this interest especially factors linking cities and the role of competitiveness in economic performance and development that brought the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the Corporacin Andina de Fomento Development Bank of Latin American (CAF-DBLA) together to collaborate on this first of its kind joint research project. Research teams from the eight countries are involved in the project, coordinated by the two authors of the paper. The project commenced in May 2011 and will finish early in 2013. The following sections of the paper provide a contextual overview of the project, the rational for it, and information about the development of the two regions and their cities. The theoretical frameworks used to evaluate city competitiveness are then outlined followed by a review of recent studies on the competitiveness of cities in the two regions. Some of the general findings
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from these studies have provided a basis for the research questions that will be investigated by the research teams. The approach used to conduct the case studies cities is outlined, followed by a broad description of the methodology. The approach taken for the research adapts the method used in the ADB City Cluster Economic Development study of South Asian cities (Choe & Roberts, 2011). The final section of the paper outlines the next steps on the research project. II. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE PROJECT The ADB and CAF-BDLA, along with other international development banks, have a key role in supporting governments in funding the development of strategic infrastructure and capacity building to support the economic development and operations of cities in the respective regions. With international trade and development increasing between the two regions, the ADB and CAF-BDLA believe there would benefits gained from collaborating on a comparative study of a selected number of cities in the two regions to identify findings and lessons that could assist the development of their respective urban sector program of activities. The primary objective of the research is to develop a better understanding of factors that drive the competitiveness of cities and the role of clusters as a tool for sustainable urban economic development in the respective regions. This will then inform programs and activities that can be more effectively designed and targeted to support the sustainable development of cities in which they conduct their lending activities. From the ADB perspective it was the interest in the way Latin America Countries (LAC) are approaching urban development, implementing sustainable public transport and waste management systems in cities such as Curitiba (Brazil), Belo Horizonte, Medellin, and Bogota, that could provide valuable lessons for Asian cities facing rapid urbanization in the coming decades (ADB, I-ADB, & ADB Institute, 2012). The EIU (2012) Hot Spots report showed clearly Asian cities lagged well behind Latin American Countries in strategic infrastructure and urban management practices. Some Latin American cities are showing benefits from government support for industry cluster to foster agglomeration, innovation and reduce transaction costs (Nadvi & Barrientos, 2004:16; Zhang, 2010). There are useful lessons for Asian to be gained from this. From the perspective of CAF-BDLA, Asian industrialized countries are seen as paradigms of public policies for productive development. An efficient public sector and dynamic firms are achieving growth with competitive advantages based on innovation, education and social policies. In Asia, LACs are perceived as a fast growing region with enormous potential supported by an emerging middle class, emerging regional Latin American corporations, and an increasing number of important cities. There is a growing level of interconnectedness occurring in business and trade between cities in LAC and Asia, but the balance is in Asias favour. How to improve the linkage of LAC city economies into Asian city economies has the potential to signficantly enahnce the trade and development opportunties that would support the mutual development of cities in both regions. By understanding the natures of competitivness, it will allow cities in both regions to concentrate on the factors that catalyze private sector development, such as integrated public policies for business development, within a territory.

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This area of investigation known as Regional Competitiveness Cities (RCC) is understood as a combination of economic, political and institutional relationships in a specific geographical area, that generates a process of collective understanding. Focusing in RCC permits that competitiveness factors inside a productive structure to be identified which support business and government to generate economies of scale and scope in the productive regions, allowing strategies to be identified which can support the development of compettiive cities. Typically RCCs include collectively private (industries, specialized associations, chambers of commerce, etc.) as well as public (public entities, governorships, municipalities, etc.) organizations. This allows benefits to be obtained on a larger scale with synergies that arise by improving the level of cooperation and interactions between cities and business through fostering trade development and other types of exchanges. The questions to be addressed by the study are: how competitive cities appear, grow and develop? In that process, what is the role of public-private interactions into design policies for private sector development? How is policy design conducted? What are the institutions that allow an efficient arrangement? What are the main instruments that exist for cluster development and Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)? How is infrastructure planned in consonance with private sector needs? What is the place of innovation, how it works, and what institutions support it? Where is the place of basic and higher education on productivity? Last, but not least, how and where, do social and environmental policies avoid social and environmental conflicts with respect to sustainable local economic development? These are some of the key questions that the study on the competitiveness of Asian and Latin American cities are seeking to address. The responses to these questions, which have been raised by many studies on competitiveness have a significant impact on the way cities go about developing, financing, delivering and managing strategic infrastructure; developing policies and incentives for local economic development (LED). These also impact on the organisation of economic governance systems to develop an enabling environment that is responsive to the needs of public and private sectors for sustainable and competitive results. III. COMPETITIVENESS OF ASIAN AND LATIN AMERICAN CITIES 1. City Competitiveness Studies

There is growing interest by governments on what makes cities competitive (Cadena et al., 2011; Nollen, 2011; Parkinson, Hutchins, Simmie, & Clark, 2003). Many studies analyze the competitiveness of Asian and Latin American cities (AIM, 2008; Amrica Economa, 2010; Cadena, et al., 2011; Dollar, Wang, Xu, & Shi, 2004; EIU, 2012; Enright, Scott, & West, 1996; Kapoor, 2009; Pengfei Ni & Kresl, 2010; Prez, 2012; Zhang, 2010). These studies use different tools and techniques to measures and evaluate factors or drivers of city competitiveness. Most techniques use a scoring or ranking system of qualitative and quantitative indicators. However, because of the many different variables used in the studies, making comparisons about the competitiveness of cities at a global and regional level is difficult and typically results show that the factors which make cities competitive vary significantly.

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The most recent study on global city competitiveness by the EIU (2012) shows significant differences in the scores of economic drivers of competitiveness for cities in different regions of the world. Table 1 shows the median scores of drivers of city competitiveness by global geographic regions. There are significant differences in rankings for the 120 cities evaluated in the survey. There is no surprise in the leading global financial cities have the highest overall competitiveness ranking as these have the most well developed finance, governance, human capital and infrastructure. Generally, Asian and Latin American cities rank below the global average for most drivers. The global median score for all drivers of city competitiveness was 49.1. Only one Latin America city, Buenos Aires, ranked above the global overall median, while 12 out of 41 Asian cities ranked above the median score.
Table 1: Median Scores for Eight Drivers of City Competitiveness by Regions
Economic strength 30.00% 28.7 41.9 38.0 33.9 34.6 35.4 40.6 31.1 35.8 Physical capital 10.00% 58.9 76.8 51.5 90.2 65.2 71.4 89.3 98.2 77.65 Financial institutional maturity effectiveness 10.00% 33.3 33.3 25.0 50.0 33.3 50.0 66.7 83.3 50 15% 70.8 51.4 45.9 71.0 54.4 35.5 85.8 94.8 63.3 Social and cultural character 5% 36.7 53.3 32.1 84.6 55.8 36.7 85.0 87.5 66.25 Human capital 15% 64.3 61.3 55.5 69.1 61.9 60.0 76.9 68.9 63.7 Environ & natural hazards 5% 62.5 62.5 57.6 75.0 62.5 58.3 70.8 75.0 66.7 Global appeal 10% 8.3 5.1 3.3 19.2 9.3 4.3 15.3 18.9 9

Overall Weights Africa Asia E&SE Asia S&C Europe LAC MENA NA Oceania Median All 41.2 47.4 39.4 56.2 42.5 43.0 61.5 62.7 49.1

Source:(EIU, 2012)

Overall, the drivers for competitiveness in East and Southeast Asian cities tend to be stronger than those Latin American cities, especially in the fields of economic strength and physical capital. South and Central Asian countries are significantly less competitive in all drivers of competitiveness. Latin American cities competitiveness drivers are generally stronger for institutional effectiveness; social and cultural character, and global appeal. There are significant differences in the competitiveness of individual cities in both regions. Other surveys such as the Global Urban Competitiveness Index (Pengfei Ni & Kresl, 2010), which sampled over 200 cities, show similar findings to the recent EIU study. ) survey The different surveys undertaken to rank the competitiveness of cities in countries, regions and globally are useful in identifying what local governments need to do to enhance city competitiveness. While there are economic driver indicators common to many surveys, the weightings applied to sets of drivers vary significantly. There is need for greater consistency in the way global competitiveness indicators are defined and the data collected and interpreted. For many countries with large populations and cities, such as China and India, global competitiveness is not as important as domestic competitiveness. This suggests that in the context of large domestic economies the efficiency of factors driving the competiveness of nations cities need to examined and the analysis conducted at a more micro sector and crosssector scale.

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2.

Industry Clusters and City Competitiveness

Most studies on the competitiveness of cities adopt a holistic or umbrella approach to the analysis of key economic drivers of competitiveness when evaluating infrastructure, governance, business dynamics, finance and human capital support systems. Few studies on city competitiveness investigate these drivers of competitiveness at a sector or industry cluster level (Bradshaw & Blakely, 1999; Zhang, 2010). For most cities, there are a relatively small number of sectors and firms associated with industry clusters that drive the development of trade and investment in urban economies. The economies of cities grow naturally through population growth, but it is the development of the export and some endogenous growth sectors underpinned by the development of industry clusters that add value to urban economies, increase wealth, create export jobs and add to a citys competitiveness. Industry clusters play a key role as catalysts in attracting investment, stimulating creativity and innovation and building the information and knowledge networks upon which modern economies depend (Bradshaw & Blakely, 1999; Shakya, 2009). Industry clusters are viewed as a mechanism for enabling local firms to join their efforts and resources and work with government toward greater regional, national, and international competitiveness (World Bank, 2010). In the context of developing economies, the role of fostering industry clusters is becoming important to fostering the development of strong vibrant and sustainable city economies (Nadvi & Barrientos, 2004). However, not all attempts at fostering clusters have been successful, but it is one of several approaches cities can use to enhance the competitiveness and dynamics of local economies. IV. METHOD OFAPPROACH TO THE RESEARCH PROJECT In 2009 the Asian Development Bank (ADB) pioneered an approach (Choe & Roberts, 2011), for conducting competitive city studies, City Cluster Economic Development (CCED), to improve the design, targeting, integration, packaging and delivery of the ADBs urban sector projects and programs to support more sustainable LED outcomes for cities in the region. CCED uses a seven step approach, commencing with an analysis of the nations policy and economic realm, to the formulation of feasibility studies for projects and programs designed to enhance the competitiveness of selective industry clusters. These programs would then drive future employment growth and attract new investment in core industries and industry supply chains. The tools and techniques developed and applied in the context of CCED studies of South Asian cities were used to identify and measure indicators and attributes of competitiveness of six primary economic drivers for 39 cities Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka. From this spectrum of cities and driver analysis the study was able to drill down to the sector and cluster levels of competitiveness in Colombo, Dhaka, and New Delhi using multi-sector analysis techniques. Nine large industry clusters in the three cities were analyzed in detail to identify gaps in strategic infrastructure supporting these clusters. Through industry/government network partnership arrangements, business and investment plans to support the development of the industry clusters and institutional governance capacity building were prepared as part of an overall strategy to enhance city competitiveness.

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This CCED analytical research framework is being taken a step further and will be used in eight case studies of four large cities in the two regions: Bogot, Curitiba, Dhaka, Guayaquil, Hoc Chi Minh City, Lima, Nanning, and Seoul 3. Framework for Analyzing the Competitiveness of Asian and Latin American Cities CCED is a new approach to local economic development, rooted in rigorous analytical research and aimed at building competitive urban economies and industry clusters. The goals of CCED are to create an enabling business environment in urban regions, and stimulate industrial growth that eventually lead to new and more sustainable jobs and income creation opportunities that help to support poverty reduction. CCED provides a strategy for inducing and capitalizing upon industry cluster development by unlocking the potentials of micro-, small, and medium-sized enterprises (mSMEs) to agglomerate in and around cities. The seven-step analysis fully investigates the comparative advantages and drivers of competitiveness in cities, identifies industry clusters, helps in the preparation of long-term development plans, and prioritizes action plans to improve the competitiveness of cities. The steps in the process are described briefly below. Step 1: Review of Economic and Urban Development Policies National and international agreements and economic policies have a significant impact on economic geography and competitiveness of cities in countries. An important step in the case studies is to review and assess the implications of national and, if applicable sub-national, policies, laws, development plans, powers and responsibilities of governments on economic performance, and development of urban areas. These parameters can have a significant affect the economic geography and competitiveness of cities. International free trade, WTO and other agreements, affect the economic development and competitiveness status of cities. Bi-lateral and regional trade agreements give some cities, like Hong Kong, significant advantages over other cities. The analysis of the macro policy influences on the development of local economies is important for identifying if inter-governmental financial and power sharing arrangements, national economic policies, urban policies, and governance arrangements need to be changed to bring about harmony and equity of opportunities for cities to take action to become more competitive. It is extremely difficult for any city to enhance its competitiveness without consideration of the broader policy and regulatory realm. Step 2: City Economic Profile The second step in the CCED involves the preparation of an economic profile of the city. Census/survey data and general information is collected on the city, if available, which is used to provide background information and tables for analyzing the competitiveness of city economies. Where possible, information on labor force statistics, imports and exports, gross domestic product, sector investment is to be collected on time series basis. This material will be used to conduct location quotient, shift share and other time series analyses of economic data. The location quotient is a useful tool in identifying industry clusters which are playing a key role in the cities economy. A city economic profile is then prepared to provide some history on the development of the economy, and its role and importance to the national economy. The analysis also includes an overview of the governance arrangements for the city, its socio-economic structure and base, key export and imports and other relevant facts.

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Step 3: Analysis of City Competitiveness The next step in the process is an analysis of the competitiveness of the economy. Two levels of competitiveness are evaluated. Step 3.1 City Level Analysis

Using the CCED process, an assessment is usually made of the competitiveness of the countrys largest cities. Conducting a National competitiveness study of cities helps to identify significant differences in the strength of economic drivers and indicators of the country's largest cities. The evaluation of the competitiveness of the cities will be undertaken using an assessment of six key drivers and 49 competitive attributes. Table 5 lists the drivers and the weighting given to each. The weightings shown in the table will be applied to all the city case studies to provide consistency in the comparative analysis. Table 2: Economic Drivers weights and indicators used for the CCED analysis
Major Drivers A. Cost of Doing Business B. Dynamics of Local Economy C. Human Resources and Training D. Infrastructure E. Responsiveness of Government To Business Needs F. Quality of Life Total
Source: Authors elaboration

Weight 15.00% 25.00% 15.00% 15.00% 15.00% 15.00% 100.00%

Indicators 6 10 4 10 9 10 49.00

Step 3.2

Sector Industry Competitiveness

The second process involves a multi sector analysis of a citys economy using the same economic drivers and attributes. Competitiveness scores are evaluated for each attribute against each industry sector in the matrix. Scores are used to determine on a strength and weakness of scale from scale of 1 to 5. The competitiveness of between 12 and 20 sectors of the economy is evaluated. The raw scores are then adjusted according to the weightings determined for the drivers, and the importance of the industry sector to the economy. The weightings are normally allocated according to the contribution each sector to the economy as a whole. This analysis provides a useful insight into weaknesses in industry supply chains supporting key industry sectors and clusters which drive the development of the economy. These weaknesses become the focus of interventions to enhance the capacity of supply chains supporting identified industry clusters. Step 4: Industry Cluster Analysis The next step in the CCED process is to identify and map the structure of clusters and then to conduct an analysis of competitive attributes which make up the cluster supply chain. There are two sub-steps in this process.

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4.1

Identify and Analyze Patterns Industry Agglomeration

Improvements access to e-data on firm and branch addresses, business type and location enable patterns and agglomerations of economic activities are to be mapped using GIS and then analyzed using a range of decision support tools. The mapping of spatial patterns of agglomeration of firms, institutions and land use activities, provides important insights into spatial dependencies and the localization of supply chains to be identified. Strong patterns of spatial associations involving manufacturing, assembly, business, transport and education services are relatively easy to map, as many of these will be involved in domestic or international exports/imports and promote their business on the web. Combining spatial data with location quotient and other data enables a measure of the intensity of activities to be gained. 4.2 Mapping Industry Clusters

Each city will attempt a case study to map and analyze two industry clusters that are important drivers in supporting the future development of the economy, investment and employment. The clusters will be identified by the analysis conducted in earlier steps of the research. The cluster maps are intended to show the supply chain relationships in the core and supporting business activities within a cluster supply chain. The mapping of forward and backward linkages in industry supply chains provides important information about the dependencies industries have upon each other for the supplying and distribution of goods and services within a city or metropolitan region. Step 5 Competiveness Analysis Industry Clusters A twofold analysis of the competiveness of at least two clusters is being conducted in each city. This is being undertaken using the four main drivers of cluster development of the Porter (1990) diamond model, one of the techniques most widely used in industrial cluster analysis. The research teams work with industry focus groups to score the relative competitive strengths of the selected industry cluster(s) within a city or city region. Second, the results of the diamond model will show the gaps in competitiveness in the industry clusters concerned. The first step in the process adopts the five conditions of the Porters diamond model (i) input factor condition, (ii) demand condition; (iii) firm strategy, structure, and rivalry condition; (iv) related supporting industries; and (v) government (See Figure ) to evaluate the relative competitiveness of each in the support they play in the operations and competitiveness of a cluster. The analysts use a cardinal or alphabetic scale or symbols (+ or -or a scale measure of 1-5) which is used by a panel of experts to score or rank the strength of five conditions. The second process seeks to identify perceived gaps in the competitiveness of the sub elements of the five cluster conditions. Where there are significant differences, between the perceived condition and desired condition of competitiveness, the need for action to strengthen the weak elements and improve a clusters overall competitiveness and economic performance is indicated. For example, an emerging cluster seeking to compete in international markets under demand conditions might score 2.75 on current competitiveness, but it will need to lift its overall index score to 3.25 to succeed nationally, or 4 if it is to compete successfully in world markets that is, the cluster must improve its competitiveness index by 0.5, or 18%, to become a

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successful national cluster. Table 7 shows an example of how one competitive element of the cluster might be assessed.

Figure 1: Porters Diamond Model

Source: Authors elaboration

Table 3: Deficiency Gap Analysis

Current level of Competitiveness Markets Expanding domestic and local markets Expanding export markets New Products Demand expansion capacity for new products Responsiveness to change and innovativeness
Source: Authors elaboration

Desired level of competitiveness 2 4 4 3

Gap

3 2 2.75 2

+1 2 1.25 1

Step 6: Business Plan to Enhance City Competitiveness and Industry Clusters The final stage of the research program for the project is for each city case study to identify some key strategic initiatives to facilitate the development of a more competitive economy and key industry clusters. This is presented as Business Plan incorporating an action plan. The business plan, which is prepared by business stakeholders in collaboration with government, includes policies, strategies and projects or programs and other initiatives designed to develop strategic

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infrastructure, institutional capacity building, human capital, governance reform, and green city initiatives. The strategies should also include measures for inclusiveness and livability in cities to enhance the competitiveness of soft infrastructure and livability to make the city more attractive for people to live, invest, and develop business and employment. The processes for implementation and financing for the delivery of key strategic infrastructure projects will be included in the Action Plan and to prepare more detailed strategic infrastructure investment plans for the cities selected for the study if requested by city governments participating in the project. Step 7 Formulation of Prefeasibility Studies Normally with the CCED process, a cluster network partnership will emerge, or may already exist, which will work with a cluster facilitator to prepare prefeasibility studies for action plan projects. Most projects identified in the action plan will need some form of pre-feasibility study to be prepared to secure funds and resources for the project. Pre-feasibility studies are used to assess the bankability of projects: but they can also be used to market projects in the form of a prospectus. They define the scope and scale of the project activities, any assumptions underpinning the project, define and assess the robustness of the approach proposed, to delivering the outputs of the activity and an assessment of the benefit costs and risks. V. SUMMARY AND NEXT STEPS This research project to investigate and compare the drivers of competitiveness underpinning the economic development of Asian and Latin American cities is the first of its kind undertaken by the ADB and CAF-BDLA. It is intended as a learning project. Eight research teams are currently at different stages of their investigations into the competitiveness of cities. The Latin American studies of Curitiba, Lima, Bogot and Guayaquil are well advanced, with the city competiveness studies expect to be completed by the middle of August. The case studies of Dhaka, Ho Chi Minh City, Nanning and Seoul, have commenced, with the initial city competitiveness results expected by the end of August. Case study work is expected to be completed by the end of October, with the research findings to be published early in 2013. The research project is expected to provide one of the most detailed insights to-date into the competitiveness of cities comparing cities in two large geographic and diverse regions. It is anticipated the research will provide information to address important questions about how different drivers underpin the operations and development of city economies and the way they affect economic competitiveness and performance. It is also expected to provide clues about the way competitiveness factors are manifested spatially, in the agglomeration patterns, nature, intensity and scale of firms and business activities within cities. Important information is will be obtained about the spatial and functional relationships of cluster supply chains, features and dynamics of industry agglomeration, deficiencies in cluster driver elements and options for strategic interventions to build the capacity and competitiveness of industry clusters. This project will inform the ADB and CAF-DBLA about what makes cities competitive across the two regions, and how this knowledge could be applied to improve the formulation and delivery of key urban sector projects. For the cities selected as case studies to become more competitive, they will need to pay greater attention to a range of policies that make them more

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dynamic and livable places. The exploration of the different dimensions of competitiveness will be important themes for consideration in the case studies. It is essential for the ADB and CAFDBLA in. The research results are expected to give the ADB and CAF-DBAL tools and mechanisms to direct future operations policy for urban sector program support to city economic policy and development plans; while enhancing city competitiveness and generating sustainable development outcomes. VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY ADB, I-ADB, & ADB Institute. (2012). Shaping the Future of the AsiaLatin America and the Caribbean Relationship. Manila: Asian Development Bank, Inter-American Development Bank, Asian Development Bank Institute. AIM. (2008). Philippine Cities Competitiveness Ranking Project 2007 Manila: Asian Institute of Management Amrica Economa. (2010). Ranking Las mejores ciudades para hacer negociosen Amrica Latina. Retrieved 6 July, 2012, from http://rankings.americaeconomia.com/2010/mejoresciudades/ranking.php Bradshaw, T. K., & Blakely, E. J. (1999). What are Third-Wave State Economic Development Efforts? From Incentives to Industrial Policy. Economic Development Quarterly, 13(3 ), 229-244 Cadena, A., Remes, J., Manyika, J., Dobbs, R., Roxburgh, C., Elstrodt, H.-P., et al. (2011). Building globally competitive cities: The key to Latin American growth. San Francisco: McKinsey Global Institute. Choe, K.-A., & Roberts, B. H. (Eds.). (2011). Competitive Cities in the 21st Century:ClusterBased Local Economic Development. Manila: Asian Development Bank. Dobbs, R., Smit, S., Remes, J., Manyika, J., Roxburgh, C., & Restrepo, A. (2011). Urban World: Mapping the economic power of cities. San Francisco: McKinsey Global Institute. Dollar, D., Wang, S., Xu, L. C., & Shi, A. (2004). Improving City Competitiveness through the Investment Climate: Ranking 23 Chinese Cities Washington D.C.: World Bank. EIU. (2012). Hot spots: Benchmarking global city competitiveness. Economist(12 March). Enright, M., Scott, E., & West, J. (1996). Hong Kong's Competitiveness. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Kapoor, A. (2009). Competitiveness of Indian Cities: Study of 37 Indian Cities on Competitiveness Framework of Institute for Competitiveness Paper presented at the Institute for Competitiveness. Retrieved from

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http://blog.taragana.com/pr/competitiveness-of-indian-cities-study-of-37-indian-cities-oncompetitiveness-framework-of-institute-for-competitiveness-7407/ Nadvi, K., & Barrientos, S. (2004). Industrial Clusters And Poverty Reduction: Towards a methodology for poverty and social impact assessment of cluster development initiatives. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Nollen, S. (2011). Improving City Competitiveness: City Management and the Business Climate. Washington D.C: World Bank Institute. Parkinson, M., Hutchins, M., Simmie, J., & Clark, G. (2003). Competitive European Cities: Where Do the Course Cities Stand? Liverpool: European Institute for Urban Affairs. Pengfei Ni, & Kresl, P. K. (2010). The Global Urban Competitiveness Report 2010. Cheltnam: Edward Elgar Publishing. Prez, A. A. (2012). Ranking De Ciudades Latinoamericanas Para La Atraccin De Inversiones. Santiago, Chile: Equipo Tcnico CEPEC - Universidad del Rosario, Equipo Tcnico IdN - Inteligencia de Negocios. Porter, M. E. (1990). The Competitive Advantage of Nations. New York: Macmillian Inc. Shakya, M. (2009). Clusters for Competitiveness: A Practical Guide & Policy Implications for Developing Cluster Initiatives. Washington DC: World Bank. UN-Habitat. (2005). Cities-engines of Economic Development (pp. 44). Nairobi: UN-Habitat. World Bank. (2010). Innovation Policy: A Guide for Developing Countries Washington, DC: World Bank Institute. Zhang, M. (Ed.). (2010). Competitiveness and Growth in Brazilian Cities: Local Policies and Actions for Innovation. Washington, DC.: World Bank.

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