What is Vitamin A?

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Vitamin A is a vitamin which is needed by the retina of the eye in the form of a specific metabolite, the light-absorbing molecule retinal. This molecule is absolutely necessary for both scotopic and color vision. Vitamin A also functions in a very different role, as an irreversibly oxidized form retinoic acid, which is an important hormone-like growth factor for epithelial and other cells. In foods of animal origin, the major form of vitamin A is an ester, primarily retinyl palmitate, which is converted to an alcohol (retinol) in the small intestine. The retinol form functions as a storage form of the vitamin, and can be converted to and from its visually active aldehyde form, retinal. The associated acid (retinoic acid), a metabolite which can be irreversibly synthesized from vitamin A, has only partial vitamin A activity, and does not function in the retina or some essential parts of the reproductive system. All forms of vitamin A have a beta-ionone ring to which an isoprenoid chain is attached, called a ''retinyl group''. This structure is essential for vitamin activity. The orange pigment of carrots beta-carotene - can be represented as two connected retinyl groups, which are used in the body to contribute to vitamin A levels. Alpha-carotene and gamma-carotene also have a single retinyl group which give them some vitamin activity. None of the other carotenes have vitamin activity. The carotenoid beta-cryptoxanthin possesses an ionone group and has vitamin activity in humans. Vitamin A can be found in two principal forms in foods:

retinol, the form of vitamin A absorbed when eating animal food sources, is a yellow, fatsoluble substance. Since the pure alcohol form is unstable, the vitamin is found in tissues in a form of retinyl ester. It is also commercially produced and administered as esters such as retinyl acetate or palmitate. The carotenes alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, gamma-carotene; and the xanthophyll betacryptoxanthin (all of which contain beta-ionone rings), but no other carotenoids, function as vitamin A in herbivores and omnivore animals, which possess the enzyme required to convert these compounds to retinal. Carnivores in general are poor converters of ioninecontaing carotenoids, and pure carnivores such as cats and ferets lack beta-carotene 15 and cannot convert any carotenoids to retinal (resulting in ''none'' of the carotenoids being forms of vitamin A for these species). The discovery of vitamin A may have stemmed from research dating back to 1906, indicating that factors other than carbohydrates, proteins, and fats were necessary to keep

cattle healthy. By 1917 one of these substances was independently discovered by Elmer McCollum at the University of WisconsinMadison, and Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Burr Osborne at Yale University. Since "water-soluble factor B" (Vitamin B) had recently been discovered, the researchers chose the name "fat-soluble factor A" (vitamin A). Later, a unit called retinol equivalent (RE) was introduced. 1 RE corresponded to 1 g retinol, 2 g -carotene dissolved in oil (it is only partly dissolved in most supplement pills, due to very poor solubility in any medium), 6 g -carotene in normal food (because it is not absorbed as well as when in oils), and 12 g of either -carotene, carotene, or -cryptoxanthin in food (these molecules only provide 50% of the retinol as -carotene, due to only half the molecule being convertible to usable vitamin). Newer research has shown that the absorption of provitamin-A carotenoids is only half as much as previously thought, so in 2001 the US Institute of Medicine recommended a new unit, the retinol activity equivalent (RAE). 1 g RAE corresponds to 1 g retinol, 2 g of -carotene in oil, 12 g of "dietary" beta-carotene, or 24 g of the three other dietary provitamin-A carotenoids. Micrograms of retinol equivalent per microgram of the substance 1 1/2 1/12 1/24 1/24 1/24

Substance and its chemical environment retinol beta-carotene, dissolved in oil beta-carotene, common dietary alpha-carotene, common dietary gamma-carotene, common dietary beta-cryptoxanthin, common dietary

Because the production of retinol from provitamins by the human body is regulated by the amount of retinol available to the body, the conversions apply strictly only for vitamin A deficient humans. The absorption of provitamins also depends greatly on the amount of lipids ingested with the provitamin; lipids increase the uptake of the provitamin. The conclusion that can be drawn from the newer research is that fruits and vegetables are not as useful for obtaining vitamin A as was thought; in other words, the IU's that these foods were reported to contain were worth much less than the same number of IU's of fat-dissolved oils and (to some extent) supplements. This is important for vegetarians. (Night blindness is prevalent in countries where little meat or vitamin A-fortified foods are available.) A sample vegan diet for one day that provides sufficient vitamin A has been published by the Food and Nutrition Board (page 120: Life Stage Group Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) Upper Limit Adequate Intakes (AI*) g/day

g/day Infants06 months 712 months Children13 years 48 years Males913 years 1418 years 19 - >70 years Females913 years 1418 years 19 - >70 years 400* 500* 300 400 600 900 900 600 700 700 600 600 600 900 1700 2800 3000 1700 2800 3000 2800 3000 2800 3000

Pregnancy<19 years 750 19 - >50 years 770 Lactation<19 years 19 - >50 years

1200 1300

(Note that the limit refers to synthetic and natural retinoid forms of vitamin A. Carotene forms from dietary sources are not toxic.) According to the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, "RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake."

Vitamin A Toxicity

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Since vitamin A is fat-soluble, disposing of any excesses taken in through diet is much harder than with water-soluble vitamins B and C, thus vitamin A toxicity may result. This can lead to

nausea, jaundice, irritability, anorexia (not to be confused with anorexia nervosa, the eating disorder), vomiting, blurry vision, headaches, hairloss, muscle and abdominal pain and weakness, drowsiness and altered mental status. Acute toxicity generally occurs at doses of 25,000 IU/kg of body weight, with chronic toxicity occurring at 4,000 IU/kg of body weight daily for 615 months. However, liver toxicities can occur at levels as low as 15,000 IU per day to 1.4 million IU per day, with an average daily toxic dose of 120,000 IU per day. In people with renal failure 4000 IU can cause substantial damage. Additionally, excessive alcohol intake can increase toxicity. Children can reach toxic levels at 1,500 IU/kg of body weight. It has been estimated that 75% of people may be ingesting more than the RDA for vitamin A on a regular basis in developed nations. Intake of twice the RDA of preformed vitamin A chronically may be associated with osteoporosis and hip fractures. This may be due to the fact that an excess of vitamin A can block the expression of certain proteins that are dependent on vitamin K. This could hypothetically reduce the efficacy of vitamin D, which has a proven role in the prevention of osteoporosis and also depends on vitamin K for proper utilization. High vitamin A intake has been associated with spontaneous bone fractures in animals. Cell culture studies have linked increased bone resorption and decreased bone formation with high vitamin A intakes. This interaction may occur because vitamins A and D may compete for the same receptor and then interact with parathyroid hormone which regulates calcium. Indeed, a study by Forsmo ''et al.'' shows a correlation between low bone mineral density and too high intake of vitamin A. Toxic effects of vitamin A have been shown to significantly affect developing fetuses. Therapeutic doses used for acne treatment have been shown to disrupt cephalic neural cell activity. The fetus is particularly sensitive to vitamin A toxicity during the period of organogenesis. These toxicities only occur with preformed (retinoid) vitamin A (such as from liver). The carotenoid forms (such as beta-carotene as found in carrots), give no such symptoms, but excessive dietary intake of beta-carotene can lead to carotenodermia, which causes orangeyellow discoloration of the skin. Researchers have succeeded in creating water-soluble forms of vitamin A, which they believed could reduce the potential for toxicity. However, a 2003 study found that water-soluble vitamin A was approximately 10 times as toxic as fat-soluble vitamin. A 2006 study found that children given water-soluble vitamin A and D, which are typically fatsoluble, suffer from asthma twice as much as a control group supplemented with the fat-soluble vitamins. Chronically high doses of Vitamin A can produce the syndrome of "pseudotumor cerebri". This syndrome includes headache, blurring of vision and confusion. It is associated with increased intracerebral pressure.