CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1

INTRODUCTION TO TURBOJET ENGINES A turbojet engine can be broken down into five major subassemblies, the

inlet duct, compressor, combustion chamber, turbine wheel, and exhaust outlet. When the engine is running, air is drawn into the compressor where it is compressed and the pressure is increased. It is then ducted to the combustion chamber where fuel is added and burned. The heat in the combustion chamber causes the air to expand before it exits through a nozzle and drives the power turbine. The turbine drives the compressor by means of a drive shaft. The remaining hot gasses are expelled out the exhaust nozzle. Forcing the large amount of air taken into the engine and expelling it out the exhaust duct at a much higher velocity creates thrust. This is the principle of operation of the turbojet engine. It is a reaction engine.

Fig. 1.1 Reaction Engine Illustration

A reaction engine can be illustrated by visualizing a balloon filled with air. If the stem of the balloon is held closed the pressure inside the balloon is equal on all parts of the interior surface. If the stem is released and the air is allowed to escape, the pressure in the area of the stem is lowered while the pressure remains the same on the side opposite the stem. The pressure is now unequal on the interior surface and the balloon is forced to move in the direction opposite the stem. The undisturbed air pressure in the balloon is potential energy that becomes kinetic energy when the air is allowed to escape. This movement is called reaction.

Fig. 1.2 shows a simple single spool turbojet engine. When the air in the combustor isheated, it expands and is forced through the turbine blades which, in turn, drive thecompressor. Air is drawn into the compressor and the pressure is increased as it enters thecombustion chamber. The cycle is continuous. Approximately 90% of the energy produced by the expansion of air in the combustionchamber is used to drive the compressor and the remaining 10% goes out the exhaustnozzle to produce thrust. Most of the fuel burned in the engine is usedto drive the compressor.

Fig. 1.2 Single Spool Turbojet Engine

Fig.1.3 shows a dual spool turbojet engine. In this engine a turbine wheel is placed behindthe primary turbine and is used to drive the first stage compressor. This engine has theadvantage of being capable of producing much higher compression ratios since the firststage (low pressure section) forces a large amount of air into the high pressure section.This type of turbojet engine produces more thrust for a given diameter than a single spoolengine and is desirable for fuselage-mounted engines.

Fig. 1.3 - Dual Spool Turbojet Engine

CHAPTER 2 DESCRIPTION OF WORK

2.1 SCHEME

Inlet Duct Airflow

Turbine

Exhaust Compressor Flame tube Combustion Chamber Fuel Injector

Spark Plug

Fig. 2.1 Schematic Design

The scheme adopted for making turbojet engine is shown in Fig. 2.1. It uses the compressor and turbine from a common turbocharger. The turbocharger compressor serves the same function as the compressor on a commercial jet engine. The turbine on the turbocharger drives the compressor and the excess energy is expelled out the exhaust nozzle to provide thrust. The lower portion of the drawing shows the combustion chamber attached to the turbocharger. Fuel is injected through the bottom of the combustion chamber into the flame tube. A spark plug is also connected at the bottom the combustion chamber to ignite the fuel air mixture. Enough air is allowed to go into the burner to allow the correct fuel to air ratio and the rest is used as cooling air in the turbine. Without this cooling air, the turbine would get too hot and melt the blades. Also oil is supplied into the region around the shaft which connects the turbine and compressor. This serves as a lubricant as well as a cooling agent that takes away the heat generated in the turbocharger. The blades are generally made from Hastalloy, a nickel alloy, and can handle temperatures in excess of 2,000 deg. F. without damage.

2.2 CONSTRUCTION

2.2.1

Selecting the Turbocharger Check the unit very carefully. Make sure that the turbine and compressor

turn freely.

If the unit has been overheated there will be signs of heat

discoloration on the turbine wheel and turbine housing, Check the castings for cracks or lumps. If a foreign object has entered the compressor and broken a blade, it will likely fly apart and damage the case. The compressor housing is made from aluminum alloy and is easily broken. The turbine housing is made from malleable cast iron and is quite tough. They are rarely damaged. The turbocharger used for this project is shown below. The turbocharger was manufactured by Garret Turbochargers. GTC 1241 VZ used in Volkswagen cars.

Fig. 2.2 Garret GTC 1241 VZ Turbocharger

2.2.2

Modifying the Turbocharger The above turbocharger is a Variable Geometry Turbocharger(VGT). It

differs from a normal turbocharger from a fact that it has no wastegate and instead contains a VGT disc inside the turbine housing. The turbocharger is disassembled into its three components, namely compressor housing, turbine housing and the shaft that contains both the compressor and turbine blades along with the shaft bearing.

Turbocharger Compressor The compressor on the turbocharger serves the same function as the compressor on the turbojet engine. It is used to compress a large amount of air into a small space and increase pressure. The compressor wheel turns at a very high speed; usually between 45,000 and 125,000 rpm. The larger truck

turbochargers turn about 75,000 rpm. The compressor wheel is usually made from an aluminum alloy. It does not run at a high temperature so aluminum works fine. The temperature of the air will increase 200 to 400 deg. F. in the compressor. The compressed air exits the compressor into a diffuser. This is usually a casting that increases in area so that the air will be slowed down and the pressure will increase. The compressor end contains the impeller. It is usually an investment casting of aluminum alloy. The blades should all be intact and not bent

excessively. The curved portions of the blades near the center are called the inducer vanes and are used to draw air into the compressor where the radial blades accelerate it. The air then passes into the snail shaped housing called the diffuser.

The Turbine The turbine is located at the rear of the turbo charger inside a snailhousing. The turbine is a radial inflow design. The snail housing is designed to increase the velocity of the inflowing air so that it strikes the turbine blades, at high velocity. The inflowing high speed air strikes the tips of the turbine blades causing the turbine to rotate at very high speed. The turbine wheel has angled blades near the outlet and is designed to exhaust the hot gases to the rear. Gas temperature at this

point is about 1800 deg.F. The turbine wheel is usually cast from Hastalloy or some other nickel alloy. The thrust bearing on the turbine end rides on a layer of oil and is cooled by oil. The turbine end bearing runs extremely hot, usually about 1,800 deg.F .Large quantities of oil must be supplied to provide adequate cooling.

The Drive Shaft and Bearings The turbine drives the compressor by means of a drive shaft; usually a very small diameter shaft that is friction welded to the turbine wheel and bolted to the compressor. The shaft runs through an aluminum bearing. Most modern

turbochargers use hydrodynamic bearings. This an alloy sleeve bearing with design tolerances that allow a layer of oil between the shaft and the bearing. When the turbocharger is running, the oil supply is under pressure and the shaft rides on a layer of oil and does not touch the alloy bearing. The shaft is suspended on a layer of oil.

The VGT disc The VGT disc controls the airflow into the inlet manifold based on the speed of the engine. At high speeds the vanes on the disc closes and allows less air into the manifold, and at low speeds the vanes open and allows more air.

LOW SPEED

HIGH SPEED

Fig. 2.3 VGT disc variations during low speed and high speed.

For maximizing the thrust force in this project we have removed the VGT disc so that more air will be forced out of the turbine side creating more thrust.

Fig. 2.4 Turbine housing with VGT disc removed.

2.2.3

Construction of the Combustion Chamber The combustion chamber is the key element of the engine. This is where

fuel is mixed with compressed air and burned, causing the air to expand and drive the turbine wheel. The combustion chamber used in this project is mainly divided into four parts - a cylindrical section which houses majority of the flame tube, a tapered conical section which converges into the turbine inlet size, a bend pipe section and a base plate which covers one end of the chamber and supports the fuel nozzle and spark plug. A shield called a combustion liner or flame tube is kept inside the combustion chamber to allow some air to mix with the fuel and burn, while the remainder of the air is used to cool the steel parts.

Fig 2.5 Base plate with nozzle and spark plug The holes in the combustion liner are adjusted to allow the right amount of air to mix with the fuel so that combustion can occur. If the holes are too large, the incoming pressurized air will blow out the flame. If the holes are too small, there will not be enough oxygen to support combustion. If the holes at the fuel inlet end are too small, the flame will have to travel along the combustion liner until enough oxygen has entered to support combustion. This will cause the combustion to occur in the inlet to the turbine and overheat the turbine.

Fig 2.6 Combustion Chamber Assembly

Flame tube/Combustion liner Flame tube hole pattern is most important in the design of combustion chamber and it is the essential part of the entire system. There are three different zones in the hole pattern. Primary zone with small holes supply air needed to start the combustion, without blowing out the flame. The secondary zone supplies air needed to sustain the flame and finally tertiary zone or dilution zone provides remainder of air to cools the exhaust gases before reaching the turbine blades.

Fig 2.7 Flame tube

2.2.4

Lubrication System Most turbochargers are equipped with hydrodynamic bearings. The

bearing itself is a sleeve made from an aluminum alloy. The bearings are designed to have an excess of clearance on the turbine shaft. The bearing is flooded, under pressure, with light oil. The oil provides lubrication as well as cooling. When the

turbocharger is running, the oil fills the gap between the bearing and shaft and the metal parts do not touch. This is an excellent bearing for this particular application since the turbine runs at extremely high temperatures and some sort of mechanism is needed to carry the heat away from the bearings. The oil gets very hot though. The system consist a high pressure oil pump from a diesel automobile, a 0.25HP motor coupled to the oil pump via chain, oil sump, banjo fittings for the oil line and an oil pressure guage. The oil used was SAE 15W40 which is commonly used in turbocharged trucks.

Fig. 2.8 High pressure oil pump

The pump was a belt driven one and it was modified into a chain driven by attaching a sprocket. The maximum allowed oil pressure to the turbo was around 70psi. The oil pump delivers oil upto 200 psi. So inorder to reduce high pressure going to the turbocharger shaft, the oil relief of the pump was modified so that the limit was set to 100psi. .

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Fig. 2.9 Banjo fittings used in oil lines

2.2.5

Fuel System We are using LPG as fuel because it is very easy to install and there is no

need for any injection systems or fuel pumps. LPG is stored in a 2 Kg capacity cylinder. The cylinder is connected to two valves, one stop valve and other control valve, that regulate the flow of gas. The valve is followed by high pressure flexible tubes used in gas welding. The other end is connected to the fuel nozzle made from mild steel, which is welded to the base plate of the combustion chamber. A pressure gauge was also connected to know the cylinder pressure.

Fig. 2.10 Fuel Supply unit

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2.2.6

Ignition System The ignition system consists of an ignition coil of Maruti 800, a capacitor

of 12.5 F, 400V and a 400W light dimmer. Capacitor and dimmer are connected in series to the primary terminal ignition coil. The high tension secondary terminal is connected to a spark plug that is welded to the combustion chamber through a high voltage wire and the body of the spark plug is connected to the neutral terminal. 230V mains are connected to the ignition coil through dimmer and capacitor. The ignition coil increases input voltage many times, the dimmer synchronizes with the frequency of the main supply and creates a continuous spark between the terminals of the spark plug. The dimmer together with the capacitor serves the function of distributor in the car that triggers the creation of spark. By controlling the dimmer we can change the characteristics of the spark.

Fig. 2.11 Circuit Diagram for the Ignition System

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Fig. 2.12 Ignition System

2.2.7

Final Assembly

Turbojet Engine Flanges were made for both turbine inlet and compressor outlet. So the combustion chamber was bolted onto the turbocharger. The turbocharger was supported using a frame made of steel anglers. The frame was minimized so that testing of thrust will be easier. All units were arranged in a very compact manner so as to reduce the overall size. A tray with wheels was used to identify any noticeable thrust.

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Fig. 2.13 Final Assembly

2.3

OPERATION PROCEDURE AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Engine Starting Procedure: Ensure the blades are spinning (or not stuck) by keeping the blower to the compressor inlet. Start oil pump and keep it for a few minutes. Turn the igniter (spark plug) on. Open fuel valve to pre-ignite cold engine. You will hear a rumbling sound at this moment. Confirm fuel ignition. Allow engine to accelerate. Turn igniter off. Flame will self-sustain. The engine can be accelerated, reduced, or idled with the fuel control.

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Safety Precautions If the turbine blades or exhaust nozzle appears to be red-hot shut fuel off immediately. Or else it may damage the turbine wheel. If excess smoke is coming from the turbocharger stop the engine immediately. The smoke is due to the burning of oil which is supplied for lubrication. The operation of the fuel control should be done in a safe distance from the engine. Sufficient length is provided for the fuel line for this. Always keep one hand on the shut off valve while the other hand controls the throttling valve. Do not touch parts such as turbine housing, combustion chamber etc. as it will be very hot after working the engine.

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CHAPTER 3 CALCULATIONS

3.1

FLAME TUBE Flame tube dimensions Diameter = Compressor inducer dia x 3 = 29 x 3 mm = 87 mm 3 inch (76.2 mm) Length = Compressor inducer dia x 3 = 29 x 6 mm = 174 mm 7 inch (177.8 mm) Hole Pattern Inducer area Inducer area Primary zone Secondary zone Tertiary zone = sum of area of all the holes in the flame tube = 660.52 mm2 = 30% of Inducer area = 198.16 mm2 = 20% of Inducer area = 132.1 mm2 = 50% of Inducer area = 330.26 mm2

Table 3.1 Flame tube pattern

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3.2

SELF SUSTAINABILITY Velocity of air from the blower, v1 (when blower is at its lowest speed) Diameter of blower end Area of blower end, a1 Diameter of compressor inlet Area of compressor inlet, a2 Using equation of continuity, a1v1=a2v2 Velocity of compressor inlet, v2 = 3.7 m/s = 28 mm = 615.75 mm2 = 46 mm = 1661.9 mm2 = 10 m/s

ie, if the compressor (engine itself) is moving at a speed of 3.7 m/s (13.32 km/hr) the engine will self sustain.

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CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 TESTING RESULTS

Once the engine starts, the expanded air from the combustion chamber starts rotating the turbine and which in turn will rotate the compressor. So the engine should work smoothly even if the blower is removed from the compressor inlet after the engine has started. But from testing it is found that the engine will turn off once the blower is removed.

Though this is similar to the previous work done, it was found that the engine could work at the least possible airflow of the blower, unlike before. This minimum limit was identified as 15% of max blower air flow rate , compared to 73% of max blower air flow rate of the previous work.

In usual jet engine applications the body to which the engine is attached will have a sufficient velocity that will force more air into the compressor wheels. Hence the minimum air flow rate supplied by the blower is equivalent to the air flow rate at compressor inlet if the engine was actually moving at a certain amount of speed.

By knowing the values of the compressor inlet and blower outlet areas, as well as min velocity of air exiting the blower, this speed equivalence of the engine was found out using equation of continuity. If the compressor (engine itself) is moving at a speed of 3.7 m/s (13.32 km/hr) the engine will self sustain.

This is a very small velocity value compared to the usual values encountered in jet engine with thrust output applications. In the previous work, the engine cannot be run for long durations of time as it will start to smoke after a few minutes of operation. This was because the oil getting burned due to high temperature developed. The oil pump we used then was not able to supply oil at very high pressures which is needed for the smooth working of the engine.

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By using an automobile oil pump, coupled to a 180W AC motor (1440rpm), along with a dimmer for speed control, the above problem was completely solved. Also reduced the size of oil sump from 5litres to a mere 1.8litres.

Use of oil and fuel pressure gauges helped us to attain combustion quite easily and it was guaranteed unlike the previous work. Anemometers was used to measure blower velocities.

The frame was made much compact than before, though a much larger turbocharger and combustion chamber used. This was achieved mainly due to the use of a compact high pressure lubrication system.

Anemometers that were available cannot withstand the heat of the exhaust gases. Hence exhaust velocity calculations could not be made and theoretical thrust could not be calculated. This stopped us from the possibility of measuring theoretical efficiency also, as a function of turbo shaft speed, intake air flow rate, fuel supply pressure and flow rate, correlations between lubrication pressures and thrust etc.

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CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK

5.1

CONCLUSIONS

Turbojet engines are widely used in aircrafts, even though land based applications are minimal. But jet engine designs allow conversion into gas turbine engines, which are used in a wide variety of industrial applications such as electrical power generations, to power water, natural gas or oil pumps, propulsion for ships and locomotives etc. Industrial gas turbines can create up to 50,000 shaft horse power. Turbocharger turbojet engines can be utilized to power miniature aircrafts, unmanned aerial vehicles for surveying or espionage, model rocketry often they are used in drag racing calls, go karts, skate boards, and even in two wheelers. And these turbojet engines made from turbochargers can be utilized for educational purposes too. As the main raw material for construction is old or unused turbocharger, we can construct lots of turbojet engines easily and economically and these are powerful for their size and weight. Also these turbojet engines work on LPG or propane, rather than ATF or other liquid fuels. Its emissions are very low. Hence further research and development is needed for effectively utilizing these turbojet engines.

5.2

SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK

Using liquid fuel like kerosene or petrol, along with fuel injectors and a fuel pump will definitely help to achieve measurable thrust, i.e the engine will move under its own power.

Using anemometers capable of withstanding the heat produced by our turbojet engine (temperatures in excess of 700 deg Celsius) or with similar arrangements, exhaust gas velocity can be calculated.

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This in turn will help to calculate theoretical thrust, theoretical efficiency etc as a function of turbo shaft speed, intake air flow rate, fuel supply pressure and flow rate, correlations between lubrication pressures and thrust etc.

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REFERENCES
[1] Edwin H. Springer , Constructing a Turbocharger Turbojet Engine [2] V. Ganesan, Gas turbines, Tata Mcgraw Hill (2004) [3] Hugh MacInnes, Turbochargers, Price Stern Sloan, Inc. 1984 [4] Lauren Tsa, Design and Performance of a Gas-Turbine Engine from an Automobile Turbocharger, 2005 [5] Kurt Schreckling, Gas Turbine Engines for Model Aircraft, 1994

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