Application of Waste Manegement

TRITA-INFRA EX 03-001 ISSN 1651-0194 ISRN KTH/INFRA/EX-03-001-SE MASTER OF SCIENCE THESIS
TOWARDS INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN LOW-INCOME HOUSING AREAS IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Supervisor: Prof. Dick Urban Vestbro Stockholm 2003 Master of Science Thesis in the subject of Built Environment Analysis, Division of Urban Studies, Department of Infrastructure within the Master Programme Environmental Engineering and Sustainable Infrastructure Royal Institute of Technology
TRITA-INFRA EX 03-001 ISSN 1651-0194 ISRN KTH/INFRA/EX-03-001-SE
TOWARDS INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN LOW-INCOME HOUSING AREAS IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
Supervisor: Prof. Dick Urban Vestbro
Stockholm 2003
Master of Science Thesis in the subject of Built Environment Analysis, Division of Urban Studies, Department of Infrastructure within the Master Programme Environmental Engineering and Sustainable Infrastructure Royal Institute of Technology
FOREWORD
I am a Brazilian civil engineer and from my time as a student in the Federal University of Paran, I have been interested in issues related to waste management and sustainability in urban areas. South Africa is, in many ways, quite similar to my home country. One such similarity is that both have high rates of poverty contrasting with some well-developed and prosperous industrialized sectors. The opportunity of studying the waste management system in low-income areas in Durban was very interesting. I was able to observe a new approach to a very frequent problem. My hope is that the lessons learnt from the South African experience can be useful to many - also in Brazil. I owe a debt of gratitude to many individuals who supported and assisted me in various ways during the time I spent working on this thesis. I could not have carried out the work presented here without the help, guidance and advice from my supervisor Prof. Dick Urban Vestbro. My thanks to the Swedish Foundation for International Cooperation in Research and Higher Education (STINT) for their financial support, without which, my studies in the Environmental Engineering and Sustainable Infrastructure Master Programme would not have been possible. I am extremely thankful to my parents who did not measure efforts to give me good education. To my extended family and friends, your support is very much appreciated. Especial thanks to my husband Emanuel, for supporting and encouraging me from the very beginning. Jenny Andersson, from SWECO, has helped me with very needed contacts within the field of Waste Management in Durban. Her assistance facilitated my fieldwork to a great extent. During the six weeks I spent in Durban researching for the case study I got help from several people and I am grateful to all. Sean Reilly, Munitechs managing director, supported me not only with relevant data collection and contact to key persons, but also offering me a place to work while I was in town. To Doug McGarr, Sam Moodley, Dave Sneedon, Caryn Reardon and Lindiwe Kubheka, also from Munitech, thanks for all the small and big things that made my stay and research easier and more enjoyable. I would also like to express my gratitude to Zanele Mlambo, from MSA, for taking me to the study areas and helping me with translation during some interviews. Gabi Mchunu from KDBA was of great help concerning information about community involvement and education issues in Durban. I should also credit those at Durban Solid Waste who in one way or another helped me with data collection. Above all I am grateful to God, who blessed me with the opportunity of pursuing my studies and gave me strength during the whole study period. Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen Stockholm, January 2003.
ii
ABSTRACT
Concerns about sustainable development and environmentally sound policies have been growing considerably everywhere. Waste production and management are among the issues that need to be dealt with. In South Africa, as in many other countries, wasterelated problems are growing and the situation is often aggravated by lack of funds. This thesis has two main sections: the first is an overview and discussion of concepts and practices involved in integrated solid waste management strategies. In the second part, a case study on the waste management strategies Durban Solid Waste (hereafter DSW) is using in formal and informal low-income housing areas is presented. Lack of proper waste management is a problem for it induces health hazards, water and soil pollution and other environmental hazards, besides the negative aesthetic impacts. Integrated solid waste management is a strategy that uses the concept of waste hierarchy, where a range of methods and practices is used to handle municipal solid waste. It embraces waste avoidance and minimization methods, reuse and recycling programs, collection of refuse, treatment methods (e.g. incineration and composting) and safe disposal. These concepts are described and discussed in Chapter 2. Low-income areas usually pose a challenge for planners in many aspects. This is certainly also true regarding the implementation of waste management strategies. Low income areas, specially the informal ones, usually suffer from lack of infrastructure such as roads, which complicates the access for waste collection vehicles. Illegal waste dumps are widespread and the waste-related problems are aggravated by lack of interest from community members, because their priorities lay on more urgent issues. Durban Municipality, in South Africa, was given the responsibility over waste management in several low-income areas after the end of apartheid, in 1996. It was a challenging task, not only due to the sudden increase in areas to be served, but also because of the need to engage people from the community. They have approached the task in an innovative and challenging way. The lack of staff and equipment in DSW department for such a sudden increase in demand created the conditions under which a new model would be developed. Based on a competitive tender, the municipality decided to delegate the cleansing services needed in specific contracting zones to small local contractors. In that way DSW kept only the supervision responsibility. It continued to manage the landfills, promoted education campaigns and some recycling initiatives. Based on case studies in two low-income areas, Chesterville (formal) and Cato Crest (informal) it is revealed how unemployment is reduced due to the employment of community members for labor-intense waste collection activities. KDBA, a nongovernmental organization working side-by-side with the municipality, created educational programs with the aim of informing and motivating people to keep the community area clean. Among the challenges to be addressed and improvements that could be done in the current waste management system in Durban are the need for a more comprehensive recycling effort, the enhancement of educational campaigns and the minimization of problems related to landfill areas. Key words: solid waste management, low-income housing areas, public participation, recycling, South Africa. iii
RESUMO
Nas ltimas dcadas o interesse em polticas que geram desenvolvimento sustentvel e que protegem o meio ambiente tm crescido consideravelmente. A produo e gerncia de resduos slidos urbanos encontra-se entre os aspectos que precisam ser tratados. Na frica do Sul, assim como em muitos outros pases, problemas relacionados a resduos slidos urbanos esto crescendo e so muitas vezes agravados pela falta de recursos. Esta dissertao possui duas seces: a primeira trata-se da reviso e discusso de conceitos e prticas utilizados em estratgias integradas de gerncia de resduos slidos urbanos. Na segunda seco um estudo de caso analiza as estratgias de gerncia que o municpio de Durban (na frica do Sul) vem usando em reas residenciais de baixa renda (bairros planejados e favelas), para tratar de resduos slidos urbanos. A falta de gerncia apropriada dos resduos slidos urbanos leva a problemas de sade, poluio de gua e solo, alm de criar um impacto visual negativo. A estratgia de gerncia integrada de resduos slidos urbanos usa o conceito de hierarquia do lixo, na qual uma srie de mtodos e prticas utilizada para tratar dos resduos slidos urbanos. Esta estratgia inclui mtodos para evitar e minimizar a produo de lixo, programas de incentivo ao reuso e reciclagem do mesmo, tcnicas de tratamento de resduos slidos (ex. incinerao e compostagem) e depsito seguro do lixo. Estes conceitos so descritos e discutidos no Captulo 2. Planejadores urbanos freqentemente enfrentam desafios ao procurar solues para problemas em reas de baixa renda. Isto tambm verdade para a implementao de estratgias de gerncia de resduos slidos urbanos. Um exemplo tpico dificuldades de acesso para o caminho de coleta gerada pela falta de ruas (especialmente em favelas). Outra dificuldade a falta de interesse da populao local em problemas e solues relacionados ao lixo, uma vez que suas prioridades esto em problemas mais urgentes. Com o fim do Apartheid, em 1996, o Municpio de Durban foi expandido e diversas reas de baixa-renda (ocupadas por negros e indianos) foram anexadas ao territrio do municpio. A responsabilidade sobre a gerncia de resduos slidos urbanos destas novas reas passou para o Departamento de Limpeza Pblica de Durban (DLPD), que tratou do desafio de modo inovador e criativo, criando um novo modelo de trabalho. Devido a falta de pessoal e equipamentos necessrios para atender o aumento repentino na demanda o DLPD resolveu, atravs de licitaes, contratar pequenos empresrios para prover servios de limpezas e coleta do lixo em reas pr-estabelecidas. Desta forma o DLPD passou a fiscalizar os servios prestados, alm de continuar gerenciando aterros sanitrios, promvendo campanhas de educao e iniciativas de reciclagem. O estudo de caso nos bairros Cato Crest (favela) e Chesterville (baixa-renda, com planejamento) demonstra como o nvel de desemprego nestas reas foi reduzido atravs da contratao de moradores para os servicos de limpeza e coleta de lixo. KDBA uma ONG que trabalha em conjunto com a prefeitura criando campanhas educacionais que visam informar e motivar a populao manter o bairro limpo. Dar mais ateno e nfase aos projetos de reciclagem do lixo, intensificar as campanhas de educao e tratar de problemas relacionados aos aterros sanitrios esto entre as melhorias que o municpio de Durban poderia realizar para que o atual sistema de gerncia de resduos slidos urbanos possa ser aperfeioado. Palavras-chave: frica do Sul, reas residenciais de baixa renda, gerncia de resduos slidos urbanos, participao pblica, reciclagem.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword ___________________________________________________________i Abstract __________________________________________________________ iii Resumo___________________________________________________________ iv Table of Contents ___________________________________________________ v Table of Figures____________________________________________________ vi List of Boxes _______________________________________________________ vii List of Tables ______________________________________________________ vii 1. Introduction____________________________________________________ 1 1.1. Aim and Problem Formulation__________________________________ 1 1.2. Research Methodology ________________________________________ 2 1.3. Limitations __________________________________________________ 4 2. Conceptual Framework on Waste Management_______________________ 5 2.1. The Problem of Waste_________________________________________ 6 2.1.1. Health Problems ___________________________________________ 6 2.1.2. Water and Soil Pollution _____________________________________ 7 2.2. Waste Minimisation __________________________________________ 8 2.3. Reuse and Recycling _________________________________________ 10 2.3.1. Separation and Collection Methods ____________________________ 10 2.4. Waste Collection ____________________________________________ 2.4.1. Simple Emptying Method ___________________________________ 2.4.2. Exchange Method _________________________________________ 2.4.3. Curbside Collection ________________________________________ 2.4.4. Non-systematic Collection___________________________________ 2.4.5. Vacuum Waste Collection ___________________________________ 2.4.6. Informal collectors ________________________________________ 2.4.7. Discussion about the collection methods________________________ 2.5. Waste Treatment and Disposal ________________________________ 2.5.1. Composting______________________________________________ 2.5.2. Waste-to-energy Combustion ________________________________ 2.5.3. Landfilling _______________________________________________ 2.5.4. Comparison between different treatment methods ________________ 3. 17 17 17 17 17 18 18 19 20 20 22 24 26
Education and Community Participation __________________________ 28 3.1. The role of Education ________________________________________ 28 3.2. Community Participation _____________________________________ 30
4.
Waste Management in Durbans low-income areas ___________________ 33 4.1. 4.2. Waste Management in Low-Income Areas _____________________ 33 Waste Management policy in South Africa _____________________ 36 37 38 42 46 43 49 52
4.3. The case of Durban ________________________________________ 4.3.1. Waste Collection ________________________________________ 4.3.2. Chesterville ____________________________________________ 4.3.3. Cato Crest _____________________________________________ 4.3.4. Waste Recycling Iniciatives ________________________________ 4.3.5. Waste destination: Bisasar Road Landfill ______________________ 4.3.6. Education and Public Participation __________________________ 5.
Recommendations______________________________________________ 57
Glossary __________________________________________________________ 61 References ________________________________________________________ 63 Personal Contacts / Interviews _______________________________________ 65 Appendix _________________________________________________________ 67
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Recycling Cartoon ___________________________________________ 13 Figure 2: Recycling Station in Stockholm _________________________________ 15 Figure 3: Informal collector pulling his car________________________________ 19 Figure 4: Waste dump in low-income housing areas_________________________ 36 Figure 5: Map of South Africa _________________________________________ 36 Figure 6: Map of Durban, highlighting the study area. _______________________ 38 Figure 7: Organisational structure of collection programme___________________ 41 Figure 8: Old and new residential areas in Chesterville_______________________ 43 Figure 9: Aerial photograph Chesterville South ____________________________ 44 Figure 10: Contractors office in Chesterville ______________________________ 44 Figure 11: Grass Cutting______________________________________________ 45 Figure 12: Waste Collection ___________________________________________ 45 Figure 13: Aerial Photograph of Cato Crest _______________________________ 46 Figure 14: Informal houses and commercial area in Cato Crest ________________ 47 Figure 15: Typical swivel drum_________________________________________ 48 Figure 16: Cleaning Equipment ________________________________________ 48 Figure 17: Victoria Phangela___________________________________________ 48 Figure 18: Bellair Road recycling facility __________________________________ 43 Figure 19: Bisasar Road Landfill________________________________________ 50 Figure 20: Transfer Station in Bisasar Landfill _____________________________ 51 Figure 21: Plant nursery and rehabilitated area in Marianhill Landfill ____________ 52 Figure 22: Warwik buy back center _____________________________________ 54 Figure 23: Metal scrap load ___________________________________________ 54 Figure 24: How Long Park ____________________________________________ 55 Figure 25: Adopt a verge program ______________________________________ 55 vi
LIST OF BOXES
Box 1: Fly breeding process and waste ____________________________________ 7 Box 2: Ten ways to reuse two-litre plastic cool drink bottle____________________ 10 Box 3: Curitibas Waste that is not Waste Program - Brazil __________________ 12 Box 4: Stockholms Recycling System ____________________________________ 14 Box 5: Buy-back Centre in Midrand, South Africa___________________________ 16 Box 6: Simple ways of composting ______________________________________ 22 Box 7: Incineration with energy-recovery in Sweden _________________________ 24 Box 8: Victoria Phangela ______________________________________________ 48 Box 9: How Long Park _______________________________________________ 55
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Summary of the different research methods _________________________ 4 Table 2: Benefits achieved by recycling___________________________________ 10 Table 3: Household waste separation in Stockholm _________________________ 14 Table 4: Advantages and Disadvantages of waste collection methods ____________ 19 Table 5: Comparison between waste treatment methods _____________________ 27 Table 6: Waste education strategies _____________________________________ 29 Table 7: Types of waste collection contracts in low-income areas in Durban ______ 40 Table 8: Organisational structure of collection programme____________________ 42 Table 9: Recycling initiatives in Durban __________________________________ 43 Table 10: Summary of technical information about Bisasar Landfill _____________ 51
vii
Towards Integrated Solid Waste Management in Low-Income Housing Areas in Durban, South Africa
1. INTRODUCTION
Concerns about sustainable development and environmentally sound policies have been growing considerably everywhere in the last decades. Waste production and management are among the issues that need to be seriously considered and dealt with. In many countries waste generation has been growing as a function of population and economic growth, besides unsustainable patterns of consumption and production. While developed countries usually have large amounts of resources available for dealing with solid waste problems, in developing countries the situation is often aggravated by lack of funds (Deshmukh et al, 2002). South African major cities are no exception, and difficulties in managing the waste are compounded by the political changes that have occurred in the country during the last decade. With the end of apartheid, areas that used to be formerly administrated and serviced by local authorities have been incorporated to the municipalities, and they suddenly had to provide services to an extended number of people. Environmentally sound waste management must go beyond the mere safe disposal. It should include minimization actions, reuse and recycling activities, proper treatment and finally safe disposal. But its success is highly dependent on an informed and participatory public. Public participation is considered to be an important part of waste management strategies. Integrated solid waste management is an approach that uses a range of methods and practices to handle municipal solid waste (as well as industrial and agricultural waste). It embraces waste avoidance and minimization methods, reuse and recycling programs, collection of refuse, treatment methods (as for example incineration and composting) and disposal. Different steps and activities which are part of integrated waste management strategies are discussed, followed by a study that shows how Durban Solid Waste, in South Africa, has been approaching waste management challenges in formal and informal low-income housing areas. Formal low-income housing areas consist of neighborhoods or regions that have been planned by the municipality. Permanent building materials (such as brick) are used for raising houses, plot boundaries are well defined and basic infrastructure like water supply, electricity and road network are in place. The typical house owners in these areas have been granted aid or loans with low-interest rates to pay for the houses. Usually these formal areas are established to relocate people from informal settlements thus providing better living conditions. Informal low-income housing areas are typically built illegally, without the consent of the planning authorities. They are characterized by no security of tenure and the houses (or shacks) are built with very poor material such as metal scrap, wood, paper and plastic. These areas are normally densely populated. People living in informal settlements are usually very poor and the lack of infrastructure provision is another characteristic of these areas.
1.1.
Aim and Problem Formulation
According to Chapter 7 in Agenda 21, the sustainability of urban development is defined by many parameters relating to the availability of water supplies, air quality and
the provision of environmental infrastructure for sanitation and waste management (UNSD, 1992). Many urban areas in South Africa are characterized by piles of rubbish in every open space. The direct cause of this large-scale litter problem is that there is no effective and appropriate way for residents to dispose of their solid waste (Korfmacher, 1997). Appropriate waste management plays an important role towards promoting a sustainable urban development within human settlements. With that in mind, and knowing that in most developing countries the highest urban population growth rates occur in the low-income areas, the goal of this study is to analyze the current waste management situation in low-income housing areas (planned and informal) in South Africa. To achieve the main goal, four sub-aims where developed: (1) provide a summarized review of the existing concepts on integrated waste management; then (2) discuss those concepts contributing to knowledge, as to create a framework for the case study. The analysis and recommendations in the case study (3) aims at being useful for the authorities involved in waste management in Durban Metro, concerning possible improvements for the existing system. And finally, since waste management in low-income areas is a major challenge for many municipalities in developing countries, the case study presented in this thesis also (4) aims at showing waste managers and decision-makers in countries at equivalent development stage as South Africa (as for example Argentina, Brazil and Chile) possible alternatives for dealing with waste management issues. The role of the community and NGOs related to waste management issues are also discussed in the study. Since their involvement seems to be an important characteristic of many successful waste management programs, as for example the case of Curitiba in Brazil.
1.2.
Research Methodology
Different research methods have been used in this study. Chapter 2 (Conceptual Framework on Waste Management) is mainly based on literature review and information obtained from the Internet, about specific solutions that are used in certain cities. The chapter about education and public participation is founded on literature review and complemented by information from the interviews and observations made during the case study period. A case study is a form of qualitative descriptive research, which refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular entity, the case. Case study is not sampling research, and therefore the selection of the case should be carefully carried out, so as to maximize what can be learned from it. The case study method is used for the analysis of the waste management strategies used in two low-income neighborhoods in Durban: Cato Crest and Chesterville. The case study areas were selected based on access to relevant information as well as their ability to show characteristics typical for formal and informal low-income areas in Durban. The study areas are located in the South Central region of Durban, where several low-income housing areas appeared in the last decades. In the past this region was mainly composed of informal settlements, but development projects are taking place in the area as to create improved conditions for the existing settlements, besides building new ones.
Chesterville and Cato Crest were chosen for the case study because they have similar characteristics concerning population and size, while one is formalized and the other is informal. Most of the people living in the study areas are from the Zulu ethnic group. While analyzing the neighborhoods, similarities and differences between waste management procedures in planned and informal settlement are identified. Triangulation is an important feature in qualitative studies. It is the combination of several research methodologies to study the same phenomenon. Theories and methods such as the use of empirical materials and multiple observers are combined to overcome intrinsic biases or weakness typical of studies made with single method, single-observer or single-theory. Table 1 shows how different methods where combined during this research. The use of multiple sources of data makes the case study methodology a triangulated research strategy. Yin (1994) identifies the following sources of evidence for case studies: documentation, archival records, interviews, direct observations, participantobservation and physical artifacts. The case study in this thesis uses documentation, interviews and direct-observations as sources of data and evidence. The documentation used for this thesis includes policy documents of the South African government (white papers), documents that govern waste management in Durban, tendering documents and contracts, and municipal reports on waste management. This documents are relatively recent, specially the national policy documents which are from 1999 and 2000. For that reason the implementation of the strategies suggested by most of the policy documents is not yet totally in place, and more time is needed for municipalities to be able to comply with the new regulations. Newspaper articles about waste management awards that the projects in Durban received have also been used. Interviews were employed as a mean of gathering information, but their main goal was to obtain different views and perspectives about waste management issues in the case study areas. Key persons from the municipality, community leaders active in the study area, inhabitants and developers, as well as NGO members have been interviewed. The interviews were carried out during the field visit in September and October 2002. They were unstructured and based on open-ended questions. A checklist founded on the literature review, and pointing to the most relevant aspects of integrated waste management was prepared before leaving Sweden. The checklist was used as guideline for the interviews (see checklist on appendix), and it was improved during the field visit period according to new questions that arose. Some of the interviews were recorded on tape, but due to equipment problems the author had to take written notes in most of them. For the interviews with the community leaders and inhabitants of the study areas it is important to note that a representative of Durban Metro always accompanied the author. This was necessary for translation purposes (from Zulu to English) and for security reasons. The presence of the translator might have affected the responses, especially in questions related to the quality of the services provided. This means that some people possibility answered the questions biased due to the presence of the translator, not necessarily being honest or telling the truth. Aware of that, the author did, as much as possible, crosscheck the information provided in the interviews with other sources, as for example written documents. Direct-observations were carried out in the months of September and October 2002, while the author was in Durban - South Africa. The observations occurred during field trips to landfill sites, recycling centers, the housing areas of Cato Crest, Chesterville and other low-income areas in Durban. At these trips, besides taking notes about the 3
physical characteristics of the neighborhoods the author also made use of photography to show and record illustrative features and interesting attributes of the area. The Table 1 summarizes the various research methods and the issues of this thesis in which they were used. Table 1: Summary of the different research methods
Issues Background Framework on Waste Management Education and Public Participation Case Study Waste Minimisation Waste Reuse and recycling Collection of waste Waste Treatment and Disposal Education Recommendations Analysis Literature of policy Review docs XX x XX XX x Observations Key person interview Photography
XX X x x
x X x X X X x
X X X X X X X X
x x x x x X
X XX
x x X
Legend: XX X x Very relevant method Relevant method Lower relevance
1.3.
Limitations
This study will neither approach technical design details, nor cost evaluation for integrated waste management. Issues such as the role of gender and different age groups could have been explored in more details. The author is aware of the importance and relevance of these issues, but they were considered to be out of the scope of this study. Another limitation to be considered is that there are different sources of waste. According to Kharbanda and Stallworthy (1990) the three main sources are domestic refuse, agricultural waste and industrial waste. This document, while dealing with refuse generated in low-income areas, will only deal with the so-called domestic or household waste, and therefore industrial an agricultural wastes will not be considered.
2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ON WASTE MANAGEMENT

The necessity for Waste Management is not a problem of the modern society, but it has existed for millenniums. In Waste Management Bilitewski et al (1994) reports that form 9.000 to 8.000 B.C. people learned to dispose of their waste outside their own settlement to avoid odour, wild animals and nuisances of vermin. Waste management is nowadays far more complex than it was some thousand years ago. The complexity arises not only because of the huge quantities of residuals produced by the modern society, but also because of differences in the composition of the waste. In recent years, the increase in population changed consumption patterns and economic growth has augmented the generation of waste everywhere. This is especially visible in urban areas with high population density. In many cities, the resource flow is linear, which means that there is not much concern about the origin and destination of the wastes (Girardet, 1996). This is not sustainable in a long-term perspective and the results can be seen in the waste dumps, health problems and environmental damage. There are many different solutions to approach the solid waste problems. Selective collection, incineration and composting are a few of them. But to accomplish sustainability within the field of waste management isolated approaches are no longer enough. Sustainable waste management means that the needs of this generation regarding waste production and treatment are met in such a way that it does not compromise the future generations ability to meet their own needs in this field. An integrated approach, where various complementary practices are used at the same time achieving safe and effective handling of municipal solid waste is needed as a means of -accomplishing sustainability. As pointed out in the limitation section (1.3), there are three main sources of waste: household, agriculture and industry. The focus of this work is on the household refuse. There is no such a thing as a single definition for household waste. Each country has its own definition, and the meaning can vary from place to place. The European Environment Agency (EEA, n.d.) defined household waste as solid waste composed of garbage and rubbish, which normally originates from houses. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 1997) defines it as Solid waste, composed of garbage and rubbish, which normally originates in a private home or apartment house may contain a significant amount of toxic or hazardous waste. In general, household waste contains not only valuable and often reusable materials, such as metals, glass, paper plastic and food waste with a high nutrient content, but also a ever-increasing amount of hazardous waste such as mercury from batteries, cadmium from fluorescent tubes, toxic chemicals from solvents and disinfectants, etc (Kharbanda & Stallworthy, 1990). An efficient waste management program will bring about various benefits to the community such as increased health standards, reduced risk of flooding (because the water channels are kept clean), pleasant and clean environment, among others. Based on the Agenda 21 (UNSD, 1992 b) and authors such as Kreith (1994) and Bilitewski et al (1994) it is possible to say that waste management programs have to deal with the following issues: Minimisation of waste in quantity and of contaminant concentration. Increased sound waste reuse and recycle.
Ensure environmentally friendly treatment and disposal of no recoverable wastes. The composition of the waste. This aspect is important especially to define ways of safe disposal, potential for recycling and appropriate waste collection method. Different patterns of consumption, life styles and season of the year will influence the waste composition. Integrated waste management programs can be organised in different ways in order to deal with the issues described above. If the community is involved in the process, there is a chance of achieving goals with reduced cost and also higher acceptance of the changes being implemented.
2.1.
The Problem of Waste
Urbanisation in developing countries has created an increased growth of informal settlements. This growth is taking place on such a scale that national and local governments find it very difficult to cope with the demand for appropriate housing conditions. At the city level, this is most noticeable in the sphere of infrastructure. Services often fail to reach new low-income areas, while existing municipal services rapidly deteriorate (UNCHS, 1989). The United Nations Development Program survey of 151 mayors during the International Colloquium, in 1997, identified insufficient solid waste collection and disposal to be among the 5 most severe problems in cities world-wide (UNDP, 1997). This numbers show the importance of well-functioning waste management systems, and the necessity of making improvements in this field. Appropriate waste management has been one of the biggest challenges most local authorities have been facing. Generally richer areas of cities have had a good or at least satisfactory waste collection system, but in most cases the same does not happen in lowincome housing areas and informal settlements. Besides the collection, it is also necessary to treat and dispose the waste properly, and this constitutes one of the biggest challenges that cities face. As an example one can use the case of Brazil where, based on the census 2000 prepared by Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatsitica (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics), from the residue collected in the big metropolitan areas 51,8% are taken to open dumps, 42,6% are deposited in landfills and only 0,5% is taken to recycling stations (IBGE, 2000). If unmanaged, wastes become a source of contamination and disease (UNCHS, 1989). Proper waste management is needed to reduce health problems, water pollution risks and other environmental hazards, besides the negative aesthetic impacts. 2.1.1. Health Problems In his keynote speech on the 14th Conference of the International Association for People-Environment Studies, David Satterthwaite (1996, p. 16-25) says that bugs and shit are the most concise summary for the main environmental problems in cities in Africa, Asia and Latin America, because these two factors are immediate causes of major health problems. The word bugs represents biological pathogens (or their vectors) such as acute respiratory infections, tuberculosis, malaria, dengue, etc. Whereas shit is used to summarise the causes of death and illness linked to diarrhoea diseases and others such as cholera, typhoid and some intestinal worms that are associated with faecal contamination of water, food or land (Satterthwaite, 1996, p. 16-25).
No garbage collection, improper waste disposal or lack of sanitation are in themselves not the immediate cause of the health problems discussed above, but they are the reason why the causes exist. Because flies use places with decomposition of organic matter to breed, waste piles or garbage containers are perfect places for them to multiply (see Box 1). Lack of proper waste management increases the fly breeding process and consequently the risk for people being contaminated by diseases transmitted by those insects grows. At the same time, in housing areas without a proper sanitation system, it is probable that people will defecate on the ground or dump the faeces in the waste piles. This in its turn will increase the probability of fly breeding, besides the chance of contaminating water and land. Jordan and Wagner (1993, p. 138) strengthen this argument saying that diarrhoea and other diseases which figure among leading causes of death in the world are associated with unsafe drinking water, improper disposal of wastewater and excreta. Charles Surjadi (1993), in his studies linking respiratory diseases to environmental factors suggests that the occurrence of respiratory diseases in children is significantly associated with problems of uncollected garbage. He states that children living in households with garbage collection problems are 1,62 times more likely to have respiratory diseases than the ones who live in areas without such problems. One of the reasons might be that where there is no garbage collection, people burn the wastes, creating harmful smoke. Box 1: Fly breeding process and waste
This description is based on Solid Waste Management in Low-Income Housing Projects: the Scope for Community Participation (UNCHS, 1989, p. 45). Fly breeding in refuse is one of the most critical factors of waste management. Flies spread diseases and therefore waste management should take into account the fly breeding process Female flies about to lay eggs seek for sources of decaying organic material. Usually one day after storing the waste the decomposition process starts and the emitted gases attract female flies. After the eggs have been laid, in warm climate regions, it takes one day for them to hatch. In the next stage, the larvae will remain in the waste container for five days to get food, and after two more days small flies come out of the waste container. The whole process of fly breeding takes around 8 days to be completed, and therefore it is crucial that the complete waste-handling process (from disposal in the household to final treatment and disposal) is ended within one week. After final disposal, a covering layer of earth with around 20 cm thickness will prevent the young flies to emerge.
Besides the biological pathogens, problems with waste management can also generate other diseases linked to the pollution of groundwater and soil. 2.1.2. Water and Soil Pollution Not only industrial hazardous waste is responsible for pollution of water and soil. Household wastes usually also contain small amounts of hazardous materials such as batteries, paint cans, solvents, heavy metals (mercury, lead, zinc), old medicine, oils from engines, fertilisers and pesticides, electronic equipment, plastics, etc. These hazardous materials, together with the regular leachate generated in waste piles, can be responsible for soil and water contamination. The leachate will infiltrate trough the waste disposal, aggregating different kinds of chemicals and toxic substances. As a result a harmful liquid is generated, and it needs to be treated and purified before it infiltrates the soil, reaching groundwater or superficial water bodies. 7
It is possible to reason that if there is no collection of waste and the refuses are dumped near to the households (as it often occurs in informal settlements), there will be no proper treatment of the leachate, and therefore a high probability of soil and water contamination exists. If besides not having proper waste collection and disposal, there is also a lack of supply of potable water in the same housing area, one can suppose that water wells might be drilled and if the ground water is contaminated by the leachate the population using the water from the wells could be contaminated, creating more health problems. In some cases, people plant vegetables in their backyards, or in areas assigned for this specific purpose. The contamination of the soil with hazardous effluents from the waste disposal could transfer toxic substances to the vegetables, and consequently to those who eat it.
2.2.
Waste Minimisation
The concept of waste avoidance encompasses all manufacturing aspects such as the waste is not created or is kept to a minimum level by the waste producer. Waste avoidance is closely tied to the producer as well as the consumer, and both of these groups have a tremendous influence on waste production and waste avoidance (Bilitewski, et al, 1994, p. 487). In the Agenda 21 (UNSD, 1992 b) waste minimisation is regarded as the first strategy that should be applied in waste-related programs. Waste minimisation or waste avoidance has a dual meaning because it refers to measures taken to prevent the generation of wastes in (1) quantity and (2) toxicity level. Sometimes the reduction of waste amounts can lead to increase in its toxicity (e.g. substituting some glass packages by lightweight plastic packages, which have higher amount of toxic components). But it is preferable that waste minimisation strategies do not reduce either quantity or toxicity at the expense of the other (Fishbein et al, 1994). Indirect waste minimisation actions are, for example, the increase in life-time for products. If refrigerators can be used for 20 years instead of only 10 years, then the waste generated will be reduced by half. The extension of product life can be achieved through better maintenance and repair services, new design and manufacturing process. Product manufacturers and industries are only some of the actors involved in waste generation. Consumers, service sector, retail and regulators also play important roles when it comes to generation and potential for minimisation of wastes. Product manufactures and Industry Industries and product manufacturers can contribute to waste minimisation programs by means of new designs that extend the products life-time, more efficient manufacturing processes that reduce the generation of waste, decrease packaging of products, etc. Industries that get involved in waste avoidance programs get also the advantage of being able to label their products as environmentally-friendly products, and this can be used as a powerful marketing instrument. Regulators The participation of industries and manufacturers as well as other sectors in waste minimisation programs will, in most of the cases, not be volunteer. Therefore, the regulators play an important role. An example of how government can use of regulations to enforce waste avoidance is the case of the Verpackungsverordnung - VerpackV (Packaging Avoidance Rule) in Germany. This regulation is directed to producers and distributors, and holds them
responsible for recovering and reusing the packaging material. The law deals with avoidance of packaging waste through restrictions in packaging volume and weight, and it also regulates toxicity level of packaging material (Deutsche Verpackunginstitut, 1998). As a result of this regulation, in 1990 retail, consumer goods, packaging and feedstock industries founded the well known Duales System Deutschland (DSD) Dual System Germany. The DSD, based on the Polluter Pays Principle assumed the responsibility for collection of used sales packaging. They also created the Green Dot program, which identifies recoverable packages (Bilitewski et al, 1994, p. 87-88). Service and Retail Sector Some of the practical ways in which service and retail institutions can help to avoid waste generation are listed as follows: Retailers can buy less wasteful products from manufacturers; Consumers can have their buying habits changed if the retails offer alternative products, as for example returnable and refilling products; Shops, stores and supermarkets can be used to distribute information on waste avoidance campaigns; No free plastic bags to be distributed on retails; Replace paper towels by hot air dryers in toilets; Use reusable tableware in cafeterias; Deliver short memos in small pieces of paper, use computer software that allow faxing from the computer; Reduce paper use by using printing and copying machines that use both sides of the paper and using used one-side printed paper for drafts; Store files in computers, to avoid paper archives.
Consumers - Households This document is focusing on waste management in low-income housing areas, and therefore the role of consumers, households and individuals is the most relevant among all actors that have already been discussed. Patterns of consumption and living standards certainly influence the quantity as well as the composition of wastes. Therefore, in order to design an efficient waste minimisation program, it is necessary to know habits and preferences of the people living in the area being studied. An attempt of some simple measures for reducing waste at the individual / household level are listed below: Use cloth diapers instead of throwaway diapers; Bring fabric bag when shopping, to avoid the need for plastic bags; When buying eggs, use multi-way packaging; Avoid the use of disposable dishes; Maintain and repair Electro domestics and other equipment, increasing their life-time; Prefer products made of recyclable materials or with recyclable packages; Give preference to beverages in returnable bottles; Buy products made from recyclable materials; Avoid buying over-packaged goods; Use rechargeable batteries.
2.3.
Reuse and Recycling
The reuse concept can be understood as one strategy for minimising waste production. Waste reuse means to find a new use for components that would be part of the municipal solid waste, without the need for reprocessing them. These products can be either be reused for their original purpose, or for a different one. Examples of reuse are selling or donating used clothes, using empty glass containers for candy storage, turn empty jars into containers for leftover food, use of refillable pens, among others. Box 2: Ten ways to reuse two-litre plastic cool drink bottle
1. Cut the bottom off at an angle and use the rest of the bottle as a funnel (to pour petrol for example). 2. Make a terrarium a garden in a bottle. 3. Make a container to keep toilet paper dry on camping trips. 4. Use clean sand and the up-ended top half of a bottle to make a water purifier. 5. Use a bottle as the basis for a toy of some sort (a car, a steamroller, a tricycle). 6. Make a rain gauge or a wind direction meter. 7. Fill a bottle with water to make a rolling pin. 8. Fill a bottle with coloured water, or paint it as a toy for a young child. 9. Protect a candle from the wind out of doors. 10. Drill holes in a bottle and fit it over the end of a hosepipe to make a sprinkler.
Source: The Fairest Cape Association (n.d., p.15) Regrettably most of the components of typical waste streams cannot be reused, and therefore the need for recycling arises. The recycling process turns materials that would otherwise become waste into valuable resources. According to Ruiz Jr. (1993) recycling is a method for solid waste management as useful as landfilling and incineration, but it is environmentally more desirable. By using recycling methods many basic materials such as metals, paper and glass can be reused, while raw materials mineral ores, timber and limestone respectively are conserved (Kharbanda & Stallworthy, 1990, p. 137). As shown in Table 2, besides saving raw materials, recycling also provides other benefits to the environment because the recovery of materials can reduce negative impacts on the environment as for instance reduce energy consumption, diminish air and water pollution and decrease water use. Table 2: Benefits achieved by recycling Reduction Achieved (%) Aluminium Steel Paper Glass Energy use 90 97 47- 74 23 74 4 32 Air pollution 95 85 74 20 Water Pollution 97 76 35 Water use 40 58 50 Source: Kharbanda & Stallworthy (1990, p. 138) 2.3.1. Separation and Collection Methods One of the first decisions to be taken when starting with a recycling program is about how the recyclables are going to be separated from the rest of the waste. There are mainly three different approaches: no-source separation, single-source separation and multiple-source separation. Each of them has a different degree of generator
10
involvement and cost of implementation. When deciding upon a waste recycling program it is important to take into account the waste streams, the communitys needs and the resources available. In addition to the discussion of characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of those three approaches, drop-off and buy-back centers which are ways of implementing multiple-source separation are also explained as follows. No-source separation or Mixed refuse collection This method requires the least involvement of the generator. No distinction is made between recyclables and other wastes at the source. The mixed refused is collected and the separation is done in Material Recovery Facilities, either manually or employing special equipment such as magnets, shredders, air classifiers, etc. Advantages Allows the use of same collection equipment as usual. Easiest option for the generator. Might be a good solution especially for commercial waste streams, because their composition is more or less homogeneous. Improved mechanical separation technologies make this option more attractive. Disadvantages The waste stream is first mixed (by the generator) and later it has to be processed and separated in different fractions. Processor has to separate usable components from the waste stream. Need for manual (labour intensive) or mechanical separation technologies. Health risk for the employees separating waste streams. Risk of contamination of different waste streams is high. Glass is usually not separated because it breaks during the collection and transport process. Need for large facilities with high initial capital and maintenance cost.
Based on McMillen, 1993 (p. 5.4 - 7) Single-source separation or Commingled collection In single-source separation, also called commingled collection, the waste is divided into two categories: recyclables and non-recyclable wastes. There is a need for defining what are the recyclable wastes, since for example, although grass and leaves could be considered recyclable (for composting), they should not be mixed with paper and glass. Another concept for single-source separation is to separate refuse into dry and wet fractions. The dry fraction (paper, glass, metal, etc) is separated at processing facilities into marketable recyclables and fuel, while the wet fraction (organic putrescible) is further processed into compost (McMillen, 1993, p. 5.8). In this method, the separation can be done either using different containers for each type of waste, or using bags with different colours (e.g. yellow bags for recyclables). The recyclable fraction of the refuse will be further separated in processing facilities.
11
Advantages The generator only separates recyclables from non-recyclables or dry from wet refuse. If the coloured bag system is used, the traditional collection equipment can be employed. Because recyclables are pre-sorted by the generator, it is easier to separate different materials at the processing facilities. Disadvantages Need to define what are recoverable materials and what are not, and to educate the waste generators about how to separate their refuse. To distinguish wet from dry waste is not always easy. Generators might get confused regarding the classification of different wastes. Problems for recovering paper. Glass and other contaminants lower the quality of the recovered paper. If different containers are used for distinct fractions of refuse, the need for a separate collection system for recyclable waste arises.
Based on McMillen (1993, p. 5.8 10) and Spencer (1994, p. 9.4 12). Box 3: Curitibas Waste that is not Waste Program - Brazil
In 1989 the municipality of Curitiba, in the southern part of Brazil, started with its first source separation programme. Its motto says Waste that is not waste, does not belong to waste!. At that time the population was massively educated and informed about the importance of recycling and separating organic from inorganic materials. The education campaign involved the media (TV, radio, newspaper, etc), distribution of flyers and brochures, as well as special instruction days at schools. Awareness was raised about the importance of recycling for the environment. These awareness campaigns have continued throughout the years and are responsible for maintaining the population motivated and involved. During the fist year of the program, 5163 tons of recyclable waste were collected, and in 2001 the figures amounted to 15 thousand tons. The separation is single-sourced. The households are asked to separate paper, cardboard, plastic, glass, ferrous metal and aluminium from the rest of the waste. The city is divided in regions and special trucks collect the recyclables (curbside collection) regularly (from once to three times weekly, depending on the location). There are 120 people and 23 trucks employed in the recyclables collection system. Besides the system being run by the municipality, there are also around 2800 registered scavengers that collect recyclables (around 135 kg/day/scavenger) from the streets, specially in the commercial areas of the city. The recyclables are, to a certain extent, directly sold to private recycling companies and in part taken to the material recovery facility owned by the municipality, where they are separated into different fractions and then sold.
Source: Municipality of Curitiba (n.d.) Multiple-source separation This option is the most common in recycling programs. The refuse are separated into different categories, and theoretically, there are dozens of fractions in which the waste could be separated. The Figure 1 shows the different fractions of recyclables. However in practice only a limited number of categories has been used, since otherwise it is difficult to get efficient participation from the generators and the cost
12
involved is not viable. Between the three methods described in this section, the multisource separation is the method that requires highest level of participation of generators. Among the cities using this separation method there are great variations in the number of categories in which the waste is separated. It can vary from three (refuse, fibres and containers) to eight (organic refuse, brown glass, green glass, clear glass, newspaper, ferrous, aluminium, plastic and old corrugated cardboard) categories of materials (McMillen, 1993, p. 5.12). Besides the categories described above, many municipalities also have separated collection systems for hazardous materials such as batteries, painting material, etc. The cost for collection and separation of different waste streams is directly related to the number of waste categories. At the same time, the cost for further separation in the processing facilities is inversely proportional to the number of initial waste categories. The optimal degree of separation has to be defined for each specific situation and municipality.
Figure 1: Recycling Cartoon Source: Don Addis. In McMillen (1993, p. 5.11) Advantages Different waste streams are kept separated, therefore the level of contamination is low. Increased public awareness about the need for waste recycling. Good quality of glass and paper for recycling. Reduced use of natural resources as industry increases the use of recyclables originated from the waste stream. Disadvantages Special collection system, with special equipment and separated containers for different refuse streams are required. Calls for high engagement from the waste generators. Necessity for storage space in homes or collection points near to residential areas. Need for constant educational campaigns. Challenges about how to carry out waste education projects, especially among illiterate people, are tremendous.
Based on McMillen (1993, p. 5.10 - 13) and Spencer (1994, p. 9.6 - 7). 13
Box 4: Stockholms Recycling System

The city of Stockholm has a complex multi-source recycling program. It started in 1977 with the foundation of Skafab, the Stockholms waste management company. At that time the main task of the company was to follow development in waste management with a focus on recycling. From 1981 the company was assigned the responsibility for all the waste management in the city of Stockholm. It was during the 80s that great efforts towards paper, glass and hazardous waste collection and recycling started, and since 1997 recycling stations have been placed all over the city (Skafab, 1998). Extensive information campaigns were launched to urge Stockholms residents to take proper care of their wastes. Nowadays, the household waste can be separated in many different fractions (see Table 3 for more details), and the cost for waste collection is reduced for those households who recycle their wastes (Agenda 21 Stockholm, 2001). There is usually a waste room in big housing areas, were the residents deposit their wastes, separating it into different fractions. There is also the option of Recycling Stations located within the city, where Stockholmers can bring their pre-sorted wastes. The collection of the different fractions of refuse is Skafabs duty (Skafab, 1998). Stockholm is a successful case of waste separation at the source. Depending on the fraction being analyzed, the amount of waste separated from the main stream varies from 60 to 90%. Despite being so successful, it is not easy to get the general public to participate in waste separation campaigns, especially if there are so many different fractions as it is the case in Stockholm (see Table 3). The case of Stockholm shows that using the right methods and with enough financial resources it is possible to accomplish good results regarding waste separation and recycling.
Table 3: Household waste separation in Stockholm Material Collection system / place Aluminium cans Shops with deposit / refund systems PET and return bottles Metal scrap Car batteries Recycling Centrals Automobile tires (Located in Lvsta, stberga Bulky waste (including furniture) and Vantr) White Goods (refrigerator, stove) Electronic waste Transparent Glass Coloured Glass Cardboard Recycling Stations Newspaper (Hundreds of them exist in the city Metal packaging see Figure 2) Hard plastic packaging Small batteries Oil, paint, solvent, chemicals and Environmental Stations other hazardous wastes (There are 22 of them in the city) Old medicines Pharmacy Clothes and textiles Donation Organisations Based on Liten Sorteringsguide (Skafab, 1999) and interview with Mr. Vestbro
14
Figure 2: Recycling Station in Stockholm Drop-off and Buy-Back Centres Drop-off and Buy-back centres are ways of pursuing multiple-source separation. Drop-off centres are usually centralised locations where residents will voluntarily bring and separate their wastes according to different recycling categories. These centres will typically be composed of several containers that store the materials temporarily until they are emptied and the residuals taken to a processing facility. Since the participation is voluntary, the results can often be poor, but educational programs, good location of drop-off centres, no collection of recyclables at home and economic incentives can improve the results. In the buy-back centres are similar to the drop-off centres, the main difference being that collectors are paid for the recyclables they bring in. These places are popular especially in poor urban areas. Different layouts such as the mobile buy-back centre have been used, since they are less expensive than stationary centres. The buy-back system requires more staff than the drop-off centres, since someone needs to be in the centre when people arrive with the recyclables. The material must than be weighted and the people are paid according to the quantity of material they brought. A disadvantage is that the price paid for recyclables will vary according to the market, making it very volatile for some materials. A advantage of these two systems is that they are cheap to be implemented, since the main investment are containers for the recyclables and there is little need for equipment (e.g. trucks) and they require small number of employees. One additional advantage of drop-off or buy-back centres is that they can accept a higher variety of recyclables than it would be possible for curbside collection1. In those stationary centres it is possible to collect separately more than ten different fractions of refuse, such as paper, hard plastic and metal packaging, cardboard, newspaper, various glass colours, used motor oil, painting material and chemicals, batteries (small and car), white wastes, old medicines, etc. The location of drop-off and buy-back centres is essential for their success. They should be near peoples home, and places such as schools, shopping centres and grocery stores are good candidate sites. Although location is important, it is also a problem. It is not always easy to find acceptable places to locate them. In the case of Stockholm, according to the chairman
1
Curbside collection is further explained in section 2.4
15
of the Stockholm Waste Management Committee - Mr. Vestbro (interview), lots of protests were voiced against the location of the Recycling Stations in the city. The main complaints being noise while filling and emptying containers, overfilled containers and the unclean environment created by people who throw rubbish that does not belong to the Recycling Station all over the place. Advantages Increased awareness about the need for waste recycling among households. Different waste streams are kept separated, and in that way the level of contamination is low. Good quality of glass and paper for recycling. Possibility to accept a higher variety of recyclables. The number of waste fractions depend on available space, layout of the centre and municipalitys recycling goals. Reduced use of natural resources as industry increases the use of recyclables originated from the waste stream. Drop-off centres have small need for personnel, equipment and maintenance. Buy-back centres are income generators for recyclable collectors. Disadvantages High involvement and participation from the waste generators. Constant education campaigns about the importance of recycling. These can be time and resource consuming. Difficult to achieve high recovery rates. Difficulty in finding appropriate location for the drop-off centre. Challenges about how to carry out waste education projects, especially among illiterate people, are tremendous.
Based on McMillen (1993) and Spencer (1994). Box 5: Buy-back Centre in Midrand, South Africa
Midrand is a young, vibrant area that lies halfway between, Johannesburg and Pretoria. It suffers from poor planning, land degradation and the legacies of apartheid but at the same time offers many opportunities for getting things right and creating an environmentally-friendly city its citizens could be proud of. The Midrand EcoCity Project has many sub-projects that aim at improve conditions, specially for the low-income population. The buy-back centre is one of those initiatives. Midrand throws away over 3.000 tones of rubbish per month, much of it is recoverable. The buy-back centre is located in Ivory Park and receives paper, tin, plastic and glass. It is called the Iteke Buy-Back Centre and runs as a community based co-operative. Iteke has created six direct jobs and the environmental work creates immediate socioeconomic benefits. By buying waste from the community the centre encourages the cleaning up of Ivory Park and provides an income for waste collectors and the staff at the centre. Schools, churches, youth groups and businesses are also being drawn onto the collection network. Two papermaking projects are also linked to the Iteke Centre. These projects were launched in Midrand as part of a national poverty relief programme. People are being taught to make writing paper, conference folders, jewellery boxes, food trays and wine bottle sleeves. Hand papermaking will use waste paper from Iteke, and because this activity is labour intensive, it is expected to create up to 40 jobs.
Source: Midrand - EcoCity of the future. (n.d)
16
2.4.
Waste Collection
Waste collection is one of important step involved in integrated waste management systems. It starts when containers are filled with refuse and ends when it is loaded into the collection vehicles. There are many different collection systems that can be employed. Six of them are discussed in more detail in this section: simple emptying method, exchange method, one-way method, non-systematic collection, vacuum waste collection and scavenger force. The first four methods are based mainly on information after Bilitewski et al (1994, p. 64 - 66). 2.4.1. Simple Emptying Method Standardised portable containers filled with waste are mechanically emptied into a collection vehicle and they are then returned. This method is often used for residential and small-scale commercial waste. The size and capacity of the containers can vary depending on the waste volume and type and the pick-up location. 2.4.2. Exchange Method Full containers are replaced by similar empty containers. This technique is appropriate for high-density waste (as for example construction remains) or low-density wastes produced in large quantities (e.g. in industries). In this method the full containers are taken by a collection vehicle and emptied at the disposal site. The empty containers are then used somewhere else. To make it economically feasible, the containers usually have 4m3 capacity or more. A variation of this method is when the full container is emptied and subsequently taken back to its original location. This happens particularly when containers of different sizes or types are used, or if the collection is based on specially arranged schedule (on-call services). 2.4.3. Curbside Collection Curbside collection is very common for collection of refuses in general, and it is based on picking up paper or plastic bags filled with waste, with no necessity of emptying or returning containers. The generator leaves the waste bags in specific locations, such as the sidewalks, and a collection truck will come regularly (e.g. twice a week) to pick up the refuse. The bags are collected by hand and therefore this method places considerable physical demands on the personnel involved in the collection. Because of the physical limitations of the staff and the limited strength of the bags material, the volume allowed for the bags is usually restricted to maximal 110 litres. This method can be combined with the simply-emptying method, and the bags are then placed into containers which are mechanically emptied by the truck. The cost for curbside collection is extremely variable. If there is multi-source separation, the need for specialised equipment such as trucks with several compartments will increase the overall cost for curbside collection. 2.4.4. Non-systematic Collection This method is used for collection of bulky waste of various natures, shapes and sizes. It can be loaded into the truck either using containers or as it is (e.g. furniture can
17
normally be loaded without the use of containers). As the name suggests, the nonsystematic collection does not happen on a regular basis, but waste is collected when the need for it arises. 2.4.5. Vacuum Waste Collection This system uses a completely closed vacuum system for waste collection. In residential areas the waste is thrown into a normal inlet, either indoors or outdoors. In the stationary vacuum system a series of collection points are linked together by pipes, which transport the waste to a central collection station. After a refuse bag is thrown into an inlet, it is momentarily stored in a shaft on top of a discharge valve. At regular intervals the full inlets connected to the collection station are automatically emptied. Fans are switches on by a control system and vacuum is created inside the pipes network. In order to allow transport air to enter the system an air inlet valve is also opened. After opening the discharge valves below each of the shafts, the refuse bags fall down by gravity into the horizontal network of pipes and are then sucked to the collection station. A cyclone separates the refuse from the air when it is entering collection station. The refuse falls down into a sealed container where it is compacted. The transport air passes through dust and deodorant filters and a silencer before being released. (Envac, n.d). In the case of recycling, a different inlet and container is used for each category of refuse. The control system directs a diverter valve to convey each category of sorted waste into the correct container. When the containers are full, normal trucks collect them for emptying for further transportation to incineration facilities, composting plants or landfills. There is also a mobile system similar to the one described above, with the difference that the waste is deposited in normal storage tanks which are regularly emptied via special docking stations into vacuum-equipped vehicles the vacuum truck. A newly developed housing district in Stockholm, Hammarby Sjstad, is an example of a place where this system is put into practice. Its main advantages lie on the fact that there is no need for human contact with waste sacks or containers and it also reduces the traffic of waste collection trucks. 2.4.6. Informal collectors Informal waste collectors are common in urban areas from developing countries. They are individuals that collect recyclable refuse from streets, in commercial and residential areas and also from within landfilling areas. These people are usually very poor, and collecting and selling recyclables is their way of earning some income. The informal collectors can be organised into organisations or not, and they usually will be responsible for collecting recyclable wastes such as cardboard, glass and aluminum cans. For the transport of the collected waste the scavengers commonly use cars that are pulled by themselves or by animals (e.g. horse). Figure 3 illustrates a informal collector pulling his cart.
18
Figure 3: Informal collector pulling his car 2.4.7. Discussion about the collection methods Depending on the situation, one waste collection method might be more appropriate than the other. The Table 4 was developed base on the literature review about different the methods. It helps to identify advantages and disadvantages of each system, and might be useful while choosing the most suitable solution for a specific situation. The vacuum waste method is, for example, more suitable for housing areas with high rise buildings - specially new ones - where the tubes for waste collection can be installed during the construction phase. This method requires the use of expensive equipments and is not suitable for informal settlements, or areas where houses are very spread. For low-income residential areas, the curbside collection might be more suitable than other options. It is cheaper, and it is labor intensive. People from the community can be employed in the collection services alleviating poverty. Table 4: Advantages and Disadvantages of waste collection methods Collection Characteristics Method - Does not require many employees; A - Workers have little contact with the waste; - Suitable for residential and small-scale commercial areas. Simple Emptying - Need special vehicle; D - Entail standardized waste containers; - Requires access road for the collection vehicle. - Appropriate for high density or big quantities of refuse; A - Containers can be placed in a road nearby informal settlements, so that people can deposit their waste bags. Exchange - Need for heavy vehicle to handle the containers; D - Not suitable for small amounts of waste. - Labour-intensive method, its good in case of poverty alleviation programs; A - Suitable for residential areas; - Cheap, when compared to other solutions. Curbside -High physical demand on personnel; D - Health hazard because the workers have to carry the waste bag; - Restriction on bag volume up to 110 litres.
19
Collection Method Nonsystematic A D A Vacuum Waste D A D
Characteristics - Sporadic collection of refuse; - Suitable for collection of bulky waste, carcases, etc. - No fix schedule people have to request such type of collection. - No contact between personnel and waste stream; - Reduced need for vehicles. - Expensive system, involving high technology solutions; - Households have to be taught to use the right inlet for each type of waste. - Income generation; - Enhances recycling activities. - Health threat due to direct contact of collectors with waste stream; - Trolley for carrying the refuse is usually pulled by the collector. D= Disadvantages
Informal Collectors
A = Advantages
2.5.
Waste Treatment and Disposal
After being collected, the waste needs to be treated and safely disposed. Biological treatments, thermal treatments and landfilling are the main groups of technologies that are used for these purposes. The following sections will present an overview of three technologies: composting (biological treatment), incineration (thermal treatment with waste-to-energy recovery), and landfilling. Landfilling has, for many years, been the most common solution regarding final waste disposal, but nowadays the trend, at least in developed countries, is to reduce landfilling as much as possible, and make use of treatments that have a smaller negative impact on the environment, such as composting. 2.5.1. Composting According to Diaz et al (1994, p. 10.3), composting is defined as the biological decomposition of the biodegradable organic fraction of municipal solid wastes under controlled conditions2 to a state sufficiently stable for nuisance-free storage and handling and for safe use in land applications. Contrary to what they say, and as will be shown later, composting is not a method used only for municipal solid wastes, but it can be applied at the household level for garden and kitchen refuse. In other words, composting is a waste treatment method that decomposes the organic matter existing in fractions of the waste (e.g. yard and kitchen wastes) through its biodegradation. The fractions of refuse being composted should be free of plastic, metals and other toxic materials to avoid contamination of the final product: an earthy dark substance that can be used for enriching agricultural and garden soil. The idea of composting is not new. In the nature composting has always occurred naturally. When leaves fall from the trees and pile up on the forest floor, they begin to decay due to the microorganisms that start eating the organic material. In the end of the process, the rotted leaves are incorporated to the soil, and the living roots complete the recycling cycle by reusing nutrients from the decomposed leaves.
The term controlled condition is used to distinguish it from the decomposition that occurs in open dumps.
2
20
One of the biggest advantages of composting is mass reduction. On average, from 100% of biowaste, 2-3% are removed in form of screening residues (e.g. plastic) during the preparation stage, 55-60% of mass is lost in form of water losses and decomposition of organic substances. Finally, 12% of the original mass is screened during the finishing stage. Remaining 35-40% of the initial waste mass is the mass of the final compost (Stypka, 2001, p. 70). In household waste the percentage of organic material is around 40% in weight (Bilitewski et al, 1994, p. 203). The use of composting technology is, therefore, extremely important because (1) it can reduce the volume of garbage that is unnecessarily sent for disposal in landfills; (2) it transforms waste into a valuable resource and (3) it completes the natural cycle and brings nutrients back to the soil. Composting can be done in large scale composting plants, but it is also possible to use this technology at small scale, groups of households or individuals can have their own composting station at the backyard or even indoors in apartment buildings and condominiums, using special containers. Several techniques can be applied for composting, but in general, the process is divided in four main stages, and its duration will depend mostly on the organic material itself, the aeration of the pile, the pH, the temperature, the active biomass concentration (micro-organisms) and the degree of degradation. Stage 1: Preparation The organic and inorganic fractions from the waste are separated (screening process). The organic fraction is submitted to size reduction process (to increase the active surface area for microbiological activity). When needed, nitrogen rich substances (e.g sludge from sewage treatment plans) are added to obtain the proper nutrient composition. The material is homogenised in a mixing process. Stage 2: Digestion This is the key part of the process, where the microorganisms decompose the organic matter and generate heat. The digestion can be achieved from 3 days to 2 weeks (Stypka, 2001, p. 70), depending on the system used. The most simple and time-consuming method is to pile up the prepared waste in heaps and turn them regularly for proper aeration. Stage 3: Curing In this stage the decomposition of remaining cellulose and lignin will happen. In large scale facilities it is done in regularly turning the piles. This stage can be quite long, varying from few months to two years (Stypka, 2001, p. 70). Stage 4: Finishing The ready compost goes through a final screening to take away small plastic and glass pieces. Finally it is packed and delivered to the consumers. A very important aspect that has to be considered, no matter the composting system in use, is the risk of contamination. The final product from composting, the compost, can only be used to enrich the soil with nutrients if there is none or very small amount of contaminants in it. If this criterion is not met, it will be very difficult to find a market interested in buying and using the compost. The best way of diminishing the contamination risk is to have a good separation system to avoid materials such as heavy metal, plastic, batteries, and metal packages to be mixed with the biowaste. In household-scale composting this process might be easier because there are few people involved. But when it comes to large-scale municipal 21
composting facilities, the risk of contamination is much higher, and it is impossible to guarantee the removal of all contaminants. Other disadvantages of composting, particularly in large-scale facilities, are: the offensive odour, the need for big areas depending on the duration of the composting process, necessity for frequent aeration (which implies in use of special equipment), difficulties in maintaining ideal temperature in the composting pile during the winter time and generation of leachate rich in organic matter and salts. But generally speaking, the environmental problems caused by composting, if compared to the other methods, are minor. Box 6: Simple ways of composting
Trenching This form of composting starts with the digging of a trench. The trench is then filled with compostable material. After the decomposition of the waste, the trench can be used to grow vegetables, trees or flowers. Worm composting It is ideal for small gardens or households. Use a 25 litre plastic bucket with drainage holes. On the bottom of the bucket put a layer of sand, followed by bits of torn up cardboard. Add some mature compost and a handful of earthworms. Feed the worms with organic waste like peels and leaves. The mixture must be kept moist and in darkness. From time to time add shredded paper and sprinkle soil. The final product is excellent for plants. Layering Construct a compost heap on soil and not on any hard surface. Beneficial bacteria will move from the soil into the heap. Lay down, in turns, layers of garden and kitchen waste, soil and manure. This will set up a fungus condition. Wood ash and a sprinkling of lime can be added every 30 cm. Keep the pile moist. More water is needed if the material being composted is dry. Aerate the heap regularly. Twiggy matter helps aerating the heap, but it can also be assisted by poking a garden fork or iron rod vertically into the heap to make holes. After 21 days turn the heap over and water it layer by layer. The bacteria will now become active in breaking down organic matter. After another 21 days repeat the watering process. After 40 more days the compost is usually ready to use. Dont forget! Can be composted: garden refuse, most kitchen waste including tea bags, coffee filters, food scraps, peels, eggs etc. Do not compost: meats, dairy foods, fats, oil or greasy, plastic, batteries, magazines and colour newsprint, dog and cat waste, cooked food, metal, chemicals, glass, among others.
Source: The Fairest Cape Association (n.d.); DSW (n.d.) & Milj Frvaltningen (n.d.) 2.5.2. Waste-to-energy Combustion The waste to energy combustion process, also known as incineration with energy recovery, consists of the thermal treatment of wastes converting them into a form of energy (usually water heat or electricity). The waste is destroyed through the use of high temperature, generating energy, gases and solid residuals. The emitted gases and the residuals need proper treatment to avoid pollution and contamination of the environment.
22
Advantages related to the incineration process are: Waste volume reduction - up to 90% in volume and 70% in mass (Stypka, 2001, p. 73). Reduction in volume is achieved almost instantaneously, without the need for long-term residence, as it is in landfilling or composting. Final waste disposal area required is small, if compared to landfilling. Ash residue is inert, non-putrescible. Energy recovery from waste incineration allows for reduction in the use of fossil derived fuels and other sources of energy. In the year 1999 in Sweden, for example, ten percent of all the district heating was supplied by energy generated by waste incineration plans (Rylander, 2000, p. 16). Cost of operation is reduced because of the energy recovery. The incineration process, as all the other waste treatments processes, does not only have positive aspects. There are also some disadvantages that need to be kept in mind: Very high implementation and maintenance costs. Production of toxic gases that need to be purified. Need for trained and specialised operators. Necessity for supplementary fuel to initiate and sometimes maintain the incineration process (Brunner et al, 1994, p.11.3). Concentration of pollutants in the fly ash and bottom ash. It is not possible to incinerate some kinds of waste (e.g. demolition, construction) There are many different equipment and ways of carrying out incineration with energy recovery. Only a brief and general description of the process is given, since more detailed information is not within the scope of this document. The main stages involved in the incineration process are the waste receiving; storage and pre-processing; charging and incineration units; slag removal, residue treatment and storage; boiler with steam recovery; air pollution control systems and stack. Trucks deliver the waste into a storage area near the entrance of the incineration plant. The bunker storage is necessary because the feeding into the incinerator is continuous, while the arrival of waste is usually in batches. The waste can be pre-sorted before arrival on the plant or, depending on the type of equipment, different wastes can be burned simultaneously. In some cases the waste is pre-processed (mixed or reduced to smaller pieces) before being combusted. Using a crane operated from a cabin that overlooks the bunker area, the waste is charged into the furnace where it is burned at very high temperatures (generally from 700 to 1000 degrees Celsius) with addition of air, to form hot high-energy gases. The bottom ash or slag (which is the solid fraction left after combustion) will than be collected from underneath the incinerator and led to a special deposit. The slag will be further treated and deposited in landfill or used for different purposes such as production of bricks. The hot gases coming out of the furnace pass through a boiler where they come into contact with cooled surfaces. In that way the thermal energy is transferred to a system with circulating water or steam (for the generation of electricity or heat) (Regeringskansliet, 1999, p. 41). The gases are subsequently purified in a complex system of filters before being released into the atmosphere.
23
The energy recovered from waste burning can be used either for electricity generation or heat. In cold countries from northern Europe such as Sweden, it is very common to use the energy for district heating, especially during the winter. Technologies have improved and the efficiency of recovery is increasing. It was mentioned before that the generation of slag (or bottom ash) and fly ash are among the disadvantages of incineration. The main problem related to both, bottom and fly ash, is the toxic substances that they contain. Usually the fly ash is very polluted and needs to be handled as hazardous waste, with special deposit and treatment. Depending on the regulations of each country or region, the bottom ash can be used for applications such as daily cover in landfills, bituminous paving mixtures, addition in Portland cement, vitrification, etc. Box 7: Incineration with energy-recovery in Sweden
Incineration is, nowadays, the most common method used for household waste treatment in Sweden. Forty percent of Swedens household waste remaining after source separation is burned in 23 incineration plants. Besides the household waste, some industrial wastes are also burned in the incineration facilities. During the year 2000, approximately 2.35 million tones of waste were incinerated, and the energy recovered was equivalent to 7.2 TWh in form of thermal power and electricity. The heat generated is used in the district heating system, and it is responsible for roughly 10% of all the heat needed in Sweden. In some towns the thermal power produced by incineration plants accounts for 30 to 40 percent of the district heating. The incineration plants have to meet strict requirements for pollutant emissions, and since the 80s great improvements in pollution control and emission have been achieved. Dioxin emissions, for example, have been reduced by 98 percent and are currently below the levels required by the European Union directives. There are two main reasons for the reduction in pollutant emissions: technological development and source separation, avoiding hazardous wastes to be burned together with household waste. The fly ash resulting from the incineration process is deposited as hazardous waste, after a stabilisation process. The bottom ash is either deposited in landfills or used as filling material for road construction. Research about ways for purification and alternative uses of bottom and fly ash are still in progress.
Source: RVF (2001, p. 12-14) 2.5.3. Landfilling Landfilling is the oldest and most common waste disposal method. It is based on the disposal of compacted waste layers in the surface soils of the earth. Landfilling applies a rather simple technology in which the waste is buried between layers of soil or another covering material (e.g. bottom ash, sludge, etc). It is important at this point to emphasise that there is a large difference between landfill and open dumps. The former is a place specially designed for waste disposal, with mechanisms to avoid contamination and minimise health hazards. The latter refers to areas in which the waste is deposited without any protection for the environment and public health. In the past most of the so-called landfills where nothing more than waste dumps. Nowadays, thanks to technological development and increased awareness, the landfills are safer waste deposit places, while open dumps are usually regarded as irregular or illegal waste piles.
24
Landfills can appear in different layouts and forms, the most common are excavated cell/trench, area and canyon. The excavated cell/trench method is founded on the placement of solid wastes into previously excavated cells. The soil removed during excavation is used as daily cover layer. This technique is optimal for locations where the water table is far from the surface. (OLeary & Tchobanoglous, 1994, p. 12.5) The area method is used when the terrain cannot be excavated. The site needs to be prepared with liner and leachate drainage system, and the daily cover layer needs to be imported from nearby locations. The canyon or depression method consists on the filling of those depressions with waste. The technique and preparations applied for deposit are similar to the area method, but will depend on the geological, topographic and hydrological condition of the site. (OLeary & Tchobanoglous, 1994, p. 12.5) Regardless of the layout being used, it is crucial that a seal underneath the landfill is provided, to minimize the contamination of soil and groundwater with leachate. From cheap to expensive, three solutions are listed: (1) impermeable clay lining (its quality depends on the available clay material); (2) asphalt membranes and (3) plastic linear, with 30mm thick PVC sheeting (Kharbanda & Stallworthy, 1990, p. 59). Besides the base seal, other independent protective barriers are needed to create a more environmentally safe landfill. According to Bilitewski et al (1994, p. 270-272), there are five additional protective measures that should be used: Waste pre-processing, with the aiming to immobilise hazardous contaminants as much as possible (e.g. trough inertization of wastes by incineration). The site itself should act as a barrier that ensures that any eventually released contaminant will spread slowly and predictably. Therefore geology, hydrology and topography of the site are important. Landfill body with predictable behaviour, with high internal (chemical, biological and physical processes) and external (geologic phenomena) stability. Cover material with separate collection of runoff to prevent infiltration of precipitation in the landfill, migration of gases and odours, soil erosion, etc. Proper use and monitoring during the whole life-time of the landfill, to detect possible problems, including maintenance and repair of the cover liners. After being completely loaded the landfill needs to receive a protective cap to allow vegetation to grow without disturbance of the gases and to avoid excessive leachate generation. Subsequently the landfill area could be used for new purposes. Some have been transformed into parks, others have been used for agricultural or forestry purposes. However, the use of the landfill area for plantation of food crops has been questioned in the latest years, since there is always the risk of food contamination. Regardless of the type of activity developed in closed landfill areas, it is necessary to continuously monitor the landfill and its surroundings for several years. The monitoring aims to control and avoid pollution of groundwater and soil, accumulation of explosive gases, among other problems that can occur due to the decomposition of the waste. The low cost, when compared to the other treatment methods, is one of the main advantages of the landfilling technique. Among the drawbacks and concerns one can think of (a) release of leachate that could contaminate groundwater and soil; (b) release of gases that cause odour and risk of fire, besides having impact on the greenhouse effect; (c) breeding of disease vectors such as rats and insects and (d) negative health and environmental impact (OLeary & Tchobanoglous, 1994, p. 12.7). In spite of all the precautionary measures, well-designed, carefully covered and properly sealed landfills still pose threat to human health and the environment. It is 25
impossible to ensure 100% efficiency in any sealing method, and therefore even when the most sophisticated technology is used, the contamination risk is always present. A good example to illustrate this risk is the fact that even when modulated into big concrete volumes, toxic wastes can leach. Leachate The leachate is basically all the water that has been in contact with the waste. It is generated by infiltration of precipitation, moisture from the deposited waste and other forms of water infiltration. The leachate needs to be collected and treated for two main reasons: to avoid contamination of clean water bodies and to avoid negative effects in the decomposition process of the waste. Usually one or a combination of various wastewater treatment processes can be used for the treatment of the leachate. Its collection will be done through a drainage system that needs to be built up simultaneously, as the landfill grows. Landfill gases Because of the anaerobic decomposition of the biodegradable fraction of organic matter inside the landfills, methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) gases are generated. These gases can be responsible for explosion and fire hazards, vegetation stress and noxious odours. The gases are a threat not only when they accumulate within the landfill itself, but also because of their ability to migrate. It is possible that they accumulate underground buildings or other enclosed spaces nearby the landfill (OLeary & Tchobanoglous, 1994, p. 12.18-19). The gas production in landfills is not constant over the time, and usually closed or older landfills generate more gas than new ones. This happens because at the beginning of the biodegradation the process is aerobic and not much gases are produced. When there is no oxygen left in the waste, then the anaerobic process starts and gas is produced. To avoid accidents caused by gas, landfills should have a gas extraction system such as the vertical extraction wells. After being collected from the landfill the gas can be used for different purposes such as production of electric power, fuel and heat. Health Considerations Leachate contaminating soil and groundwater, methane and toxic gases polluting the air and proliferation of rats, mosquitoes and other diseases vectors are some of the health concerns involved in landfilling. It is therefore important that measures are taken to reduce the impact or the existence of such factors. Daily cover and compaction of the deposited waste reduces the likeliness of rats and birds living in the landfill. Leachate drainage and treatment avoids pollution of water and soil while proper exhaustion and re-utilization of methane gas can reduce risk of explosion, odour generation and greenhouse gas emission. 2.5.4. Comparison between different treatment methods The treatment methods described are more suitable for one situation or another, depending on the type and quantity of waste, the resources available, the goals set by the waste manager (in most cases the municipality), among others.
26
Composting and landfill are cheaper waste treatment solutions, while incineration allows energy recovery and it is the most efficient method for reducing waste volume and mass. Landfill can be a suitable solution in areas with abundance of land, but it calls for measures to avoid soil and waster contamination with leachate. Composting is a solution that can be applied in small scale, at household level, but the quality of resulting product the compost will depend on separation of biowaste from other waste streams. Table 5 compares, in a summarized way some advantages and disadvantages of each treatment method. Table 5: Comparison between waste treatment methods Treatment Characteristics Method Advantages - Decomposition of biodegradable organic fraction of waste; - Cheap solution, if compared to other methods; - Can be applied in large as well as in small scale; - Mass reduction up to 35-40% of initial waste mass; - Produces compost, which can be used to enrich the soil. Disadvantages Composting - Risk of contaminated compost, specially in large scale composting facilities; - Need for separation, from biowaste stream, of materials such as plastic, paper, heavy metals, etc. to avoid compost contamination; - Time consuming the decomposition process can take from weeks to months, depending on climate, quantity of waste, aeration of waste piles, etc. Advantages - Waste reduction up to 90% in volume and 70% in mass; - Energy recovery (thermal or electric); - Cost of operation can be reduced if energy is recovered. Waste-to-energy Disadvantages Combustion - High implementation and maintenance costs; - Large-scale solution. Needs constant supply of fuel (waste); - Generation of toxic gases that need to be purified; - Pollutants are concentrated in the bottom and fly ashes. Advantages - Cheap solution; - Applies a rather simple technology; - Former landfill areas can be used for new purposes such as recreation areas and parks. Landfill Disadvantages - Generation of leachate which can contaminate soil and water; - Production of landfill gases which can causes explosion; - Need for constant monitoring, even after closure of the landfill; - Uses big areas of land.
27
3. EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION

Education and public participation play important roles in the waste management process. Education campaigns raise awareness among the community about the importance of a clean environment. The level of commitment to the ongoing waste management strategies in a certain area will certainly be increased if people are involved and their views and needs respected and addressed.
3.1.
The role of Education
It is widely agreed that education is the most effective means that society possesses for confronting the challenges of the future. Indeed, education will shape the world of tomorrow. Progress increasingly depends upon the products of educated minds: upon research, invention, innovation and adaptation. Of course, educated minds and instincts are needed not only in laboratories and research institutes, but in every walk of life. Indeed, access to education is the sine qua non for effective participation in the life of the modern world at all levels. Education, to be certain, is not the whole answer to every problem. But education, in its broadest sense, must be a vital part of all efforts to imagine and create new relations among people and to foster greater respect for the needs of the environment. (UNESCO, 2001) As pointed out by UNESCO, education is a powerful tool that should be used towards building a more sustainable society. Through education it is possible to build a society that is better informed, has critical views and has wiser and more responsible people. Better educated people will not solve the problems of the world, but it will provide the means and the determination to address them. Other consequences of education to society are to enable people to get a critical reflection of the world, its failings and injustices; it is also a means for disseminating knowledge and developing skills; for stimulating changes in behaviors, values and lifestyles, and for promoting public support for needed changes. (UNESCO, 2001) Education can take many forms and the widespread idea that people get knowledge only at schools is a mistake. Learning is a continuous process that occurs during a persons lifetime. Simple things and action can sometimes teach valuable lessons. Various techniques can be used as means of education: lectures, plays, flyers, news, songs, etc. But the education method itself will be ineffective if the target group is not taken into consideration. An example of a good education method used ineffectively would be the distribution of pamphlets with written information to a group of illiterate people. The most efficient ways for educating people in issues related to the environment, such as waste, are not always easy to identify. In certain communities, the illiteracy rates might be very high and methods like distribution of written information will, most probably, fail. It is not an easy task to educate illiterate people, and this issue alone could be developed in a further research topic. Public awareness and understanding the importance of waste management and its benefits are consequences of education and awareness raising campaigns. These campaigns are also responsible for more involvement and participation of the public. Independently of the methods or the target group, education in waste management has to be a continuous process, constantly reminding people about the importance and benefits of a well functioning system. Table 6 is based on the authors observations, interviews and literature review. It shows some practical ways of carrying out education campaigns to raise awareness about waste related issues. 28
Table 6: Waste education strategies At schools and creches Drama, music and arts activities to entertain, inform and motivate students. Hands-on activities such as establish and run a composting or a wormery. Excursions to landfill sites, recycling facilities and drop-off centres. Use of computer and Internet resources for research and exchange of ideas regarding waste management. Motivate students to create a program to minimize waste production and littering at the school, their homes and public places in the neighbourhood. Include waste hierarchy studies in the school curriculum. Training teachers and providing material for them to educate the children. -
General public Door-to-door education campaigns, using illustrated material. Distribution of fliers and pamphlets. Perform open workshops and meetings to discuss waste related problems and solutions with the community. Involve the media (radio, TV, local newspaper) in the case of scandals related to mismanagement of waste. Create awareness-raising campaigns using mass media channels. Competition between neighbourhoods or areas in order to award the cleanest and most well maintained place. Involve the community in clean-up campaigns.
Education is important in the waste management programs. The question then is who should be hold responsible for the education campaigns and activities. Authorities are most of the time considered as carrying major responsible for education efforts. This might be true, but they are not the only ones responsible for education and information dissemination. The press and other media channels can also play an active role. When the public starts to show growing interest in sustainable development concerns, communication media as well as traditional and folk media can be employed to build upon that interest. Besides the authorities and media, other educators include schools, teachers and community leaders. In many communities, NGO also play an important role as educators, carrying out education campaigns and pursuing public awareness strategies. The case study in Durban will show how the municipality and an NGO work together, the latter being responsible for almost all the education programmes related to waste management. Education campaigns will, usually, be strongly depend on the goals and ambitions of the educators. This might bring up the problem of biased campaigns, not necessarily working towards the best interest of the people being educated, but instead, pursuing the ideas and interests of a small group of people. Another problem related to the educators is, if more than one of the educators mentioned above are working simultaneously in the same area, that they might have conflicting objectives. The ideal situation would be when all the educators cooperate, and work towards the same aim. Education is not an easy task, and it will not solve all the problems related to waste management, but it can pay a vital role if carried out as part of the integrated approach for waste management. Some of the benefits brought by education are listed as follows: 29
Cleaner and healthier environment, reducing health hazards and water/soil pollution risks. Less problems related to flooding near water stream that are kept clean from waste dumps; Higher motivation and support from community member regarding waste related activities (including service fees); The amount of material going into the garbage stream is reduced due to minimization efforts (e.g. focus on initiatives such as encouragement of waste wise shopping and home composting) and increased participation in recycling programmes; Better quality of recycling material being collected can be achieved (e.g. less contamination); Quantity of solid waste being collected and taken to landfill is reduced due to reduce and recycling efforts; Reduced costs related to litter problems such as dumps removals and clean-up operations; In the long run, changes in lifestyle and wasteful consumption patterns could also be achieved. Despite the advantages and benefits of carrying out education campaigns there are some shortcomings that need to be taken into account. Many times, especially in developing countries, financial resources are restricted and the amount of money available for designing and carrying out well-suited education campaigns is often not enough. Something that has already been mentioned is the challenge in educating illiterate people. It is a fact that a high percentage of the people living in poor communities are illiterate, and this will impose some limitations in how to approach them and which educational methods to use. A challenge that is not always easy to achieve, but which can be very fruitful, is the involvement of volunteers from the community in the education process. They could be responsible for information dissemination as well as help urging people to keep the area clean. Since most of the solid waste (in quantity) is produced by rich people, a question that arises when discussing education campaigns in low-income areas is: How big should the education efforts be? How much money should be invested? Education campaigns need to be continuous. People need to be constantly reminded about the importance of recycling, reuse, no littering or dumping, days of waste collection, etc. While designing education programs for communities and setting goals for the education campaigns it is important to take into account the lifestyle of the people living in the target area, the major problems related to waste management in the community, the resources available, etc. These will allow for a
3.2.
Community Participation
According to Sanoff (2000, p.8), community participation has different meanings for different people and even a different meaning for the same people according to the situation; different users prefer to participate in different ways according to the situation too. After discussing different definitions for community participation, Sanoff concludes that genuine participation is when there is empowerment of people, letting the community participate in the
30
decision-making process and in finding solutions for the problems, instead of the authorities simply presenting ready answers that have been created for the community. Among the purposes for community participation are exchange of information, conflict resolution, supplementation of planning and design, more user satisfaction, better maintained physical environment, promote sense of community and increase awareness about a certain problem. (Sanoff, 2000) But the desirability of public participation in the process of finding and implementing solutions for problems related to waste management is debatable. While on the one hand it is important to involve the public, on the other this could create major conflicts. The general public is usually not aware of all the aspects involved in an integrated waste management approach, and therefore the top-down procedures can be more efficient. The case of Stockholm shows that it is possible to successfully implement a system in which, at the beginning, public participation was very small. The authorities did the planning of the recycling system without much consultation of the public. People got involved and stimulated to participate after the implementation, by bringing recyclable material to the recycling stations. The planning activities for the existing source separation and recycling system in Stockholm were carried out by the authorities, and the public was only involved at a later stage, when the system was ready to be used. Of course it had some problems (e.g. complaints related to the location of the recycling stations), but in general it worked well. Education campaigns were used as means of introducing the new system to the citizens and to motivate them to get involved and recycle their waste. NGOs can be helpful instruments in the process of public participation. They can help both, the people in the communities by increasing their capacity on playing an active role in local solid waste management, and the authorities by intermediating discussions with community members. Some of the ways in which NGOs can actively participate are (Schbeler, 1996): Increase peoples awareness of the waste-related problems (education); Stimulate or improve organizational capacity and formation of communitybased organisations (CBO); NGOs can be a channel of communication between authorities and CBO; Facilitate the access to credit funds; Support the informal sector of waste workers, assisting their organisation, improving their working conditions, increase their earnings, etc. As previously pointed out, the role of women should be carefully considered, since they normally carry the main responsibility for household waste management. To achieve high participation in recycling or composting programs it is important to involve the women. One could argue that due to limited education and specific knowledge about waste management issues among the general population, and specifically in low-income areas, it would be better not to involve them as early as during the planning phase. Instead, in these cases the engagement of community members could be encouraged in more practical activities, during the implementation phase. Activities such as the provision or management of the local waste collection services could involve people from the community, creating employment and a higher sense of ownership.
31
Maybe the most important aspect of public participation is to get each and every individual to cooperate in the daily waste management activities. These activities include waste separation, proper storage and placement of household waste in containers, discipline in the use of public collection points, placement of waste bags in the collection points at the right day of collection, participation in composting activities, etc. These aspects can be enhanced with the help of continuous education campaigns. Due to the NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard) problem, when it comes to issues related to location of landfills, waste incinerators and composting facilities it will be necessary to get the public involved at an earlier stage. To listen and address the populations concerns at the beginning, while choosing the best location for those facilities, can minimize complaints and problems afterwards.
32
4. WASTE MANAGEMENT IN DURBANS LOW-INCOME AREAS

This section starts with a reflection about the challenges brought by implementing integrated waste management programs in low-income areas. Then, a summarised overview of Waste Management policy in South Africa is presented, followed by a case study of the integrated waste management process being used in two low-income housing areas in Durban (one planned and one informal). Recommendations for improvements and possible solution that could be used for some problematic issues will follow the case study.
4.1.
Waste Management in Low-Income Areas
Proper and efficient waste management is not only dependent on the technology employed. It is surely also dependent on the characteristics of the community being served. Different groups of people have distinctive living behaviour, different consumption patterns and purchase power, dissimilar cultures and beliefes; and these differences affect the way waste management systems should be designed. Waste production and composition in rich communities is very different from the production and composition of the waste in poor communities. Nevertheless, both communities have the right to live in a clean and safe environment. Some of the aspects that should be taken into account while planning and implementing an integrated solid waste management system in low-income areas are highlighted and discussed as follows. Search for specific literature on waste management in low-income areas was unfruitful. Therefore, the aspects discussed in the following pages are the authors own reflections. These reflections are based on observations made during the field study in Durban, as well as knowledge about common practices for waste management, as described in Chapter 2. Priorities Most of the people living in poverty have so many other urgent concerns and problems, that solid waste related issues are not very high in their priority list. Most of them are not sure if there will be enough food on the table for the next day. With that in mind, it is understandable why worries such as putting the waste bag out of the house on the right day for collection simply are regarded as non-important. To create awareness and show the importance of cleanliness is a hard job and requires perseverance. To show the relation between waste and diseases, and also to explain the potential waste has for income generation (recycling) or food production (composting) might be ways of increasing interest and giving waste management higher priority among people. Waste X Resource A common phenomenon in poor communities is that much of the material regarded as waste by some of the richer communities is, for them, considered to be of great value. When walking around the informal low-income housing areas it is easy to observe how most of the dwellings are built with alternative materials such as metal scrap, pieces of hard plastic, corrugated cardboard, etc. These materials are usually collected from waste piles or landfill sites. Recyclable materials are also often used as source of income for many people living in disadvantaged communities. They collect (mostly) paper, glass and aluminum cans and resell them. 33
When municipalities that already have an informal scavenging force established consider implementing a waste recycling system, they should take the informal sector into account, and if possible involve them in the new system. If the new municipal system competes with the existing informal one, there is a risk of reducing the already low income generation potential of those people inducing even more poverty. Waste stream The waste stream in poor communities is typically very different from the solid waste generated in rich districts. The main differences lie in the quantity of refuse generated and its composition. While high income areas produce more waste and it contains a large amount of recyclable material (such as glass, paper, plastic and metal), low-income communities tend to produce less solid waste, and the composition of it is predominantly of organic material and some plastic and paper. This difference in quantity and composition of the waste stream reflects the disparity in consumption patterns between communities. Whereas poor people generate more organic waste, which is highly related to food consumption (e.g. vegetable and fruit peals), rich peoples waste reveals the consumption of more superfluous goods, or at least goods which use more packaging (such as electronics, pre-processed food, etc). Reuse and Recycle The concepts of reuse and recycle are usually already incorporated to the mentality of people in low-income areas, and therefore very little of what can be reutilized in some way or sold for recycling, will be found in their waste stream. Since the generation of recyclable material within underprivileged communities is so small, recycling and reuse campaigns would be more successful if they create a link between the rich and the poor communities. The recyclables produced by the wealthy communities could be used as an income generator in the low-income areas. Composting and Biogas Because of the high amount of organic matter in the solid waste stream from the poor communities solutions that involve composting could be used not only to reduce the quantity of waste to be collected, but also to improve living conditions for the community. Gardening or crop growing projects could be coupled to composting projects. The compost produced from the organic waste could be used to enrich the soil and produce food crop for the community. Another option is to use composting for biogas generation, but in this case precaution must be taken to minimize the risk for explosion and fire, especially in the informal areas. For composting projects to run smoothly a constant education program should be in place. This is necessary to instruct and constantly remind people about which fractions of the waste are suitable for composting and which not. Education Education is an important part of waste management, and low-income areas are no exception: they also need education and awareness raising campaigns. But it is not always easy to educate people, especially in poor communities where the illiteracy level is high. Often very simple things have to be repeated over and over before people understand and remember them. Things that seam simple for most people - such as day and time for waste collection or the difference between organic waste for composting 34
and general waste can be very difficult to teach in the low-income areas. Patience and perseverance are important characteristics in education campaigns. Another important feature of education is simplicity. While transmitting knowledge to the community, it is important to do it in the simplest way possible. It is vital to remember that many are illiterate, and as a result illustrative pictures can be very helpful. In education campaigns it is also essential to use words and expressions people are used to (sometimes a special dialect or even a different language!). Role of Women Women play an important role in low-income areas. They are usually more involved with the issues concerning the community, and one of the reasons for that is that most of them spend more time within the settlement. Men are very often working outside the community for long hours, while women are at home taking care of children and doing domestic work and therefore they are generally more apprehensive about health and cleanliness issues than men. Although women are more involved and concerned about those issues, they sometimes are highly dependent on their husband. In some cultures or societies women are not allowed to participate in any activity without the consent of the husband/father. On the other hand, there are also many cases where households are headed by women, but this usually happens when the men, for some reason (illness, divorce, death), is absent. To carefully access the role of women in a community will help to choose the most suitable method for projects within the community, and ensure peoples involvement and acceptance of tasks such as crop growing and composting. Community Involvement Community involvement is not always easy, and sometimes it creates conflicts. In underprivileged areas the unemployment rates are often high, and a way of getting people involved is to employ them in the various stages of integrated waste management projects. Waste collection, street sweeping and education programs are activities in which community members can be employed. Health hazard The health conditions in low-income housing areas are frequently worse than in wealthy areas. Due to deficiency in basic infrastructure provision (especially in the informal settlements) these areas suffer from diseases related to fly breeding and contaminated soil and water (see section 2.1). Lack of open space is also a reason for people, and especially children, to have no option but to play in very crowded areas, usually nearby to waste dumps. The solid waste system in these areas needs to take these factors into account, and possibly measures such as frequent garbage collection days, more intensive and frequent education campaigns and removal of waste dumps can improve health conditions for the community. Technical difficulties Technical difficulties such as lack of roads for the access of the waste collection vehicles, use of waste bags as construction material instead of using them to store the waste, overfilling of collective waste containers, etc, are problems that often occur in informal settlements. Alternative and creative solutions have to occasionally be found to overcome these and other shortcomings.
35
Illegal dumps A frequent image of low-income areas (see Figure 4) is the fact that they have waste dumps spread in every corner. Even in settlements were waste collection is in place illegal dumps keep appearing. There could be many reasons for that, and in order to solve the problem, it is necessary to find out the motives and tackle their roots.
Figure 4: Waste dump in low-income housing areas In some cases dumping the waste is easier than carrying it for long distances to the waste container, and a possible solution is to place containers as to reduce the walking distances, or change to a different waste collection method.
4.2.
Waste Management policy in South Africa
South Africa is a country located in the southern part of the African Continent, as shown in the map on Figure 5. It covers 1.219.090 square kilometers and its population amounts around 44 million. It is a middle-income country with fairly good infrastructure (e.g. road network) and a well-developed industrial sector. In the other hand, South Africa is one of the countries with the greatest disparities of wealth distribution in the world this is, in part, still a consequence of the apartheid years.
Figure 5: Map of South Africa 36
With the end of the apartheid regime a new constitution was written, and this affected the way in which waste management activities were to be pursued in the country. Based on the Bill of Rights, Constitution of South Africa (Act 108, Section 24 of 1996) Everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being (DEAT, 2000, p. 16). To give effect to the Bill of Rights and provide a healthier environment for the people, the South African government, during the last decade, has been developing policy documents and strategy guidelines among others also for waste management in the country. The two main documents are: White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management for South Africa IP&WM (DEAT, 2000) and National Waste Management Strategy - NWMS (DEAT, 1999). The IP&WM is a policy document that sets principles and aims to be used as framework by provincial and local government to develop their own legislation, adapted to meet their specific needs. The NWMS applies the principles of the IP&WM in action plans, which aim to move towards an integrated waste management. Both documents address the need for a shift from the so-called end-of-pipe solutions to the prevention approach, focusing on the waste hierarchy: waste avoidance (prevention and minimisation), resource recovery (reuse and recycle), waste treatment and final disposal. Besides the technical and environmental issues, the IP&WM and NWMS also address several social factors regarding community participation and gender issues. It recognises the necessity of involving women in the waste management process; acknowledges the importance of community based organisations (CBOs) and nongovernmental organisation (NGOs) recognising them as stakeholders; and recognises the need for full access to information about the waste management process by the communities, etc. According to the IP&WM the provincial government is responsible for monitoring and enforcing waste management issues within the province, while local government (municipalities) are responsible for providing the waste management services and managing the waste disposal facilities.
4.3.
The case of Durban
The city of Durban or eTekweni, in Zulu, is located in the province of KwaZulu Natal, and is the third largest city in South Africa. Figures vary between 3 and 4 million inhabitants, but no one is really sure about the numbers, due to the increasing population living in the informal settlements (KwaZulu Natal, 2002). Prior to the restructuring of the local government, in 1994, waste services in Durban Functional Regions townships were provided by a separate ethnic authority, the Provincial Authority. In most of the cases waste collection service was inadequate or non-existent. After 1996 Durban Solid Waste (henceforth DSW) became responsible for the waste management in those areas. A proper waste management in these neighborhoods was an urgent issue, and a great effort as to provide parity of services in all communities started. (DSW, 2001).
37
Legend: Study Area
Figure 6: Map of Durban, highlighting the study area. Source: The Rough Guide to South Africa (p. 451) Also in 1996, the Municipality of Durban developed a Green Paper on Solid Waste Management, based on the broader framework provided by the national policy and strategy documents on Waste Management. Principles for the waste management programme in low-income areas were developed and the case studies in Chesterville and Cato Crest are a result of the implementation of such principles (DSW, 2001): Parity of services in all communities; Consultation with communities; Create opportunity for new contractors; Accommodate contractors with a range of capacity/capability; Promote job creation, but with cost efficiency; Collection methodology should be appropriated and cost effective; Maximise the involvement of individuals or companies from previously disadvantaged areas.
4.3.1. Waste Collection DSW together with Munitech, an expertise company from the private sector, created a distinguished waste collection programme for low-income areas. The innovative aspect of this programme is that the services are contracted to members of the community. In that way, it is oriented to maximise development through community-based job creation and creates opportunities for the emerging contractor sector, without sacrificing the all important elements of delivery and cost-effective quality services (Sean Reilly, managing director of Munitech). 38
In 1999 the waste collection system for low-income areas in Durban was awarded the Impumelelo Award. This prize is given for innovations that reduce poverty and address key developmental issues of national concern. (Impumelelo, 1999) Planning and implementation Parity of services in all communities in Durban is one of the goals set by the Municipality. High as well as low-income areas should receive the same services. At the present moment all the communities have their waste collected only once a week, although the quantities of waste generated differ. Before starting the new collection programme, some important planning and implementation steps are performed: Together with the community, DSW defines the level of services and standards appropriate for each community. With the help of aerial photography the developments (formal and informal) are quantified. Communities are divided into contracting zones in accordance to the wards boundaries and economic parameters. (usually from 5.000 to 10.000 houses per contract) Appropriate tender/contract documents for each zone are prepared. The tenders are published and subsequently contracts are awarded (this is an ongoing process, when a contract expires, another is awarded). A clean-up day is set, and before the new collection service starts, the community is cleaned from all the waste that has been accumulating in open dumps and piles over the years. Management and supervisory structures are established (see organisational structure Figure 7). Community awareness and education campaigns are implemented.
The services The same services are provided in formal and informal settlements, but the methodology of provision differs, due to access conditions. In communities with high level of road access to individual houses, the waste is collected from the road verge. In communities with limited road access, the waste is collected from outside the households. Services provided by the contractors in the waste collection programme include (DSW, 2001): Each household receives an 85 litres refuse bag one day before the collection day. Waste bags are collected once a week. The number of bags required by business and institutions are agreed to on an individual basis prior to provision of services. The agreed number of bags is then delivered on a weekly basis and the refuse collection from designated points is done on the weekly scheduled day. Streets are cleaned and litter-picked once a week. The areas surrounding the houses in informal developments are litter-picked on a once weekly cycle. Grass and vegetation in street verges is cut and removed three times per year. Illegal dumps and other accumulations and piles of waste are removed as identified.
39
Sundry waste management related services, such as removal of animal carcasses, distribution of pamphlets and participation in community clean-up initiatives, are provided as necessary. Contractors are encouraged to use labour intensive practices, and they are currently employing ca. 700 people, about 80% of whom live within the respective contract zone (Impumelelo, 1999). The contracts Based on a competitive tender small local contractors take over the cleansing services needed in specific contracting zones. Each contractor is responsible for the total cleanliness of its area, according to his/her type of contract. At the moment 22 contracts (5 of which are women contractors) were awarded to emerging contractors and are operating in Durban (Impumelelo, 1999). Another 13 labour-only contracts, previously serviced by small contractors are, since July 2002, being operated by community co-operatives. This was a political decision taken by the councillors of the area (Inanda). They decided on not accepting the winners of the tendering process, but to hand the waste collection to the community cooperatives. Although it is still too early to draw conclusions, the Works Manager from DSW, Trevor Rubelli (interview) says that the quality of the services has deteriorated with this new system. To accommodate contractors with different capacities and also to provide services with different methodologies, three types of contracts were developed and are awarded in Durban: Table 7: Types of waste collection contracts in low-income areas in Durban Contract Description Used mainly in the formal areas and all the refuse is collected from the street verge into a truck and transported to the landfill Comprehensive or the nearest transfer station. Emerging contractors with access contracts to sufficient resources to operate a waste collection vehicle are the target for these contracts. The contractor is responsible for the removal of all the waste in the area into skips. This contract is used in informal settlements Labour-only and is accessible to contractors with very limited resources, since contract he/she only has to provide labour, and there is no need for vehicles. These contracts complement the labour-only contracts, and Skip servicing require sophisticated collection vehicles. They are responsible for Contract emptying the skips from the informal areas and taking the refuse to the landfill. Source: DSW 2001 Contract tendering process Contracts and supporting documentation for waste collection tendering were developed in a way that makes the tender process very accessible to emerging contractors, whom may have no knowledge about contracts and tendering procedures. The announcement of a new tender is published in the local newspapers and at the Durban Metros website. Interested contractors have to attend to a scheduled meeting where DSW, together with Munitech, will give a brief explanation of the contract with some of the most important details.
40
The contractors are offered, a free of charge tender workshop on how to go about preparing a business plan and pricing their tenders. These workshops are organised by DSW and Munitech to help first time tenders. Business support services are provided for new contractors, particularly during the first stages of the contract. This includes linking contractors to financial institutions, assisting them in registering with the various departments, assisting them to develop and implement business plans and on-going provision of on-the-job business advice (Impumelelo, 1999). This type of training has ensured transfer of skills and capacity building, which in its turn has allowed for individuals/companies to compete for contracting/tendering opportunities elsewhere. The organisational structure The organizational structure of the collection programme in the low-income areas in Durban, according to Durban Solid Waste Annual Report (DSW, 2001) is such that the public sector is only responsible for supervision, while the private sector provides the services.
Figure 7: Organisational structure of collection programme Source: DSW (2001) The flowchart shows how the Municipality of Durban, represented by DSW, is the overall responsible for all the waste management ongoing in its boundaries. KDBA is a non-governmental organization responsible for education campaigns. Munitech and MSA are consultant companies that work for DSW doing the planning, procurement, supervision and administration of the contracts particularly for the low-income residential areas. The inspectors working for MSA are the ultimate responsible for going into the respective housing areas and regularly checking if the service provided by the contractors is in accordance with the standards required.
41
The advantage of this system for DSW is that they reduce their administrative costs. DSW doesnt need to employ more personnel because companies are responsible for the planning and execution of waste management activities. Table 8 aims at explaining with more details the responsibilities of each actor from the flowchart in the Figure 6. Table 8: Organisational structure of collection programme Actor / Company Responsibilities Overall monitoring and control of the project. Regional managers monitor and control the Durban Solid Waste (DSW) implementation of all aspects of the programme in their respective areas. Community education. They have employed 14 Keep Durban community development workers to implement Beautiful Association (KDBA) educational programmes in the area. Agents of DSW, responsible for planning and Mtshali Sipamla Associates implementing the programme. MSA are responsible (MSA) and Munitech Joint for contract supervision whilst Munitech are Venture responsible for planning, contract procurement and contract administrative components. Responsible, under contract to DSW, for the Contractors provision of all collection services in accordance with their contract. Formed when necessary to provide meaningful community participation in the planning and contract Waste Management procurement processes. They are generally comprised Task Groups of nominated Councillors, DSW representatives, representatives of the management joint venture and nominated community representatives. Source: DSW (2001) 4.3.2. Chesterville Chesterville occupies an area of ca. 2,03 sq. km. It is a formal low-income housing development, with a small informal settlement within its boundaries. Its population is mainly from the Zulu ethnic group and it is located in the South Central substructure of Durban Metro. The formal areas have been established at different times, some as early as 1930s and some are still undergoing development (see Figure 8). The highways N2 and N3 pass right beside it, and the aerial photograph on Figure 9 shows the settlement with more detail.
Figure 8: Old and new residential areas in Chesterville 42
Prior to 1996, when Durban Metro assumed responsibility for the waste management in the area, the Ningizimu Authority controlled it. Private contractors contracted by the Town Authority handled the waste. In the formal areas, the contractor collected bags from the street verge twice a week and some litter picking from the streets was carried out. Residential waste collection was good, but street cleaning services were not provided on a scheduled basis and the Ningizimu Authority lacked supervisory personnel. The informal community within Chesterville had no collection service. (Durban Metro, 1996) Chesterville started to be serviced with the Comprehensive type of waste collection contract in 1996. The formal part of the community amounts to 2013 households and their waste is collected from the street verge once a week, on a scheduled day. The small informal settlement with 480 households is also serviced on a once a week basis, but the waste bags are collected from outside the households, and litter picking in the area is also performed once a week. All the households receive a black 85 litres plastic bag on the day prior to the refuse collection day.
Figure 9: Aerial photograph Chesterville South George Zuma Cleaning Services was awarded the contract for the area in February 2001 and will stay until February 2004. The contract includes not only Chesterville, but also three other communities, namely Wiggins, Nsimbini and part of Bonela. The contractor has a small office located in the area (see Figure 10) to store cleaning equipment and plastic bags. Every morning the workers meet in front of this office to get instructions about what they have to do.
43
Figure 10: Contractors office in Chesterville To facilitate collection, the contractor subdivided Chesterville into smaller areas, and the household waste is collected from the different sub-area on Wednesdays, Thursdays and Fridays. Institutional waste is collected on Mondays. Grass cutting along the 18km of road network is performed three times a year, on a three months basis, except during the winter. The pictures in Figure 11 illustrates the grass cutting activities.
Figure 11: Grass Cutting George Zuma Cleaning Services employs 27 people (14 women and 13 men), and only the Manager does not live in the contract area. The work is divided as follows: 1 manager, 2 bags distributors, 4 grass cutters, 12 street sweepers, 6 people working with the trucks and 2 persons trimming. Extra workers are contracted to substitute the ones on leave. The workers receive a minimum wage, which amounts to R 1.036,80 per month. The working hours are from 7 a.m. to 3 p.m., with two 30 minutes breaks. Collection of waste is performed from Monday to Friday, even during public holidays. The contractor supplies the employees with safety clothes, which include orange overalls or dust coats with REFUSE COLLECTION CONTRACT WS.5249 printed on the back, raincoat, rubber boots and gloves. Figure 12 shows the 85 litre plastic bags being collected from the street verge into the compacting truck.
44
Figure 12: Waste Collection It is also part of the contractors responsibility to empty the drums standing in the area twice a week. In Chesterville there are 40 free-standing (250 litres) and 25 swivel (160 litres) drums (see Figure 15). The cost for this contract amounts approximately R 480.000,00 per year, or R154 per household/year (DSW, 2002). The municipality subsidises most of the costs, since a great number of households do not pay for the services. In Durban only houses with a nominal value higher than R 29.000,00 have to pay the Municipal Rates, which includes waste collection services. If the contractor fails in providing the required services, he/she will be fined. I the case of Chesterville, R 350,00 was deducted from the contractors monthly payment due to unsatisfactory supervision work. Keep Durban Beautiful Association (KDBA) has one of its Community Development Workers active in Chesterville, and the role of this agent is further discussed in the section 4.2.6. 4.3.3. Cato Crest Cato Crest is a fairly new informal settlement located within Cato Manor with ca. 0,63 sq. km area see aerial photograph in Figure 13, in the South Central substructure of Durban. This settlement did not exist prior to 1992 and the area used to be just open space with bush. With the end of apartheid the area was occupied and an informal settlement is now established there. (interview with Mr. Mdaka) Although the City of Durban was the local authority responsible for Cato Crest, no waste collection was provided until 1999 and most of the waste produced was either dumped or burned (interview with Mr. Nkono). In April that year the first Comprehensive type of small contractor took over the responsibility for cleaning services in the area (interview with Mr. Mdaka).
45
Figure 13: Aerial Photograph of Cato Crest
Figure 14: Informal houses and commercial area in Cato Crest There are around 4480 dwellings in this settlement, and the majority of the population living in the area is from Zulu background. Besides waste collection the 46
service provided in the area include litter picking from between the houses and in empty spaces, street verges maintenance, etc. Refuse collection is performed on Tuesdays and litter picking on Fridays. Every household gets one black plastic bag per week for refuse collection, on the day prior to the scheduled collection day. Small shops and commercial areas get more plastic bags on request. As shown in the Figure 14, plastic bags from both, commercial and residential areas are pilled up near the street before the collection truck comes. Sisonke Cleaners was awarded the contract for the area in February 2001 and will stay until February 2004. The contract includes Cato Crest and two other communities, Dunbar and part of Bonela. The contractor set up a small office located in the area, and it is used as a meeting point for the workers in the mornings, as well as storage for the cleaning equipment (see Figure 16) and plastic bags.
Figure 15: Typical swivel drum
Figure 16: Cleaning Equipment
To organise and facilitate employment of people from the community any contractor working in this area should contact the community counsellor, Mrs. Mpume Clamane, telling her how many people he/she needs to employ. Mrs. Clamane will the consult the volunteers working in the community committees and they will help identify potential employees. Unemployed people are encouraged to contact the community committee members. Sisonke Cleaners employs 52 people (26 women and 26 men). From those, only the manager does not live within the contract area. The work breakdown is: 1 manager, 1 truck driver, 4 people working with waste collection in the truck, 2 guards for the truck (the truck stays parked in the area and needs to be guarded), 10 street sweepers, 10 street litter pickers, 10 litter pickers within the settlement and 14 people responsible for grass cutting and related activities. Extra workers are contracted to substitute the ones on leave. Safety clothes for all the workers are obligatory, provided by the contractor and the same as described in the section about Chesterville. The work is done from Monday to Friday from 7a.m. to 3 p.m. even during public holidays. Working during public holidays if they fall on weekdays is required in order to make it easier for the population to remember the day of collection, avoiding a change of schedule because of the holiday. The wage paid to the workers is calculated according to the minimum wage established by the government, and at this moment it is R 7,04 per hour, which amounts 47
R1130,00 per month. The total cost of this contract is around R660.535 per year or R142 per household. (DSW, 2002). During an interview with Mrs. Clamane, the Community Councillor in Cato Crest, it was pointed out that the services being provided by Sisonke Cleaners are satisfactory, but during the first months of contract the contractor had difficulties in paying the employees at the right day. This created animosity among the workers and the community leader was called to intervene. Another problem mentioned was the bad quality of the plastic bags being distributed. Box 8: Victoria Phangela
She lives in Cato Crest and has been working as litter picker for the contractors in this area for four years. In a country were unemployment rates near 40%, she says she is happy with her job, and that thanks to it, her daughter could continue studying after her husband died. When asked about difficulties with the job Victoria says that some people that walk along the street while she is working are rude towards her, making fun of her and her work. But she says that she just carries on working, not paying attention to what they say, because she knows that this work will pay a secure salary to her at the end of the month.
Figure 17: Victoria Phangela Victoria Phangela is 47 years old. She is a proud employee if Sisonke Cleaners.
Source: Interview with Mrs. Phangela 4.3.4. Waste Recycling Iniciatives Recycling is not a very strong and organised aspect of Durbans solid waste management. Informal waste pickers are responsible for collection and reselling of big amounts of recyclables in Durban, but no data on the actual numbers exist. The municipality and other stakeholders have been involved in some initiatives involving recycling. Figure 18 shows the new drop-off stations started by the municipality ad run by a contractor. Some of the other initiatives are described in Table 9.
Figure 18: Bellair Road recycling facility 48
Table 9: Recycling initiatives in Durban Description Initiatives Many people, mostly members of the Self-Employed CBD Cardboard Women's Union collect cardboard from formal businesses Collectors in the Durban CBD and sell it to recyclers. Multi-material buy-back centers are in operation in the Durban area, run by private recycling companies (Sappi and Buy-back Centres Mondi), with the support of DSW. These centers buy recyclables from informal collectors. Recycling collection schemes are popular as means of fund raising for schools and NGOs. They are successful because Recycling in schools wage costs are minimal, rather than because of the amount paid by the recycling companies for the materials collected. Collection containers for glass, paper, cans and plastic are available for the public at DSW garden refuse sites in the Recycling facilities north and south central areas. A well laid-out, privately run, collection center (including oil collection) exists at the Bellair Garden Refuse site. Companies recycle and minimise waste when it benefits their bottom line. By reducing the amount of waste they Recycling in business produce, they pay less for waste disposal. This has and industries prompted a number of organisations to recycle paper, glass, plastics and cans. Source: Durban Metro, 1999. The waste generated in the low-income areas has a high content of organic matter, and not as much recyclables as in rich areas are produced. As a matter of fact, highincome groups produce as much as 13 times more waste than the low-income (formal or informal) settlements, where the amount of waste produced per year ranges between 40 and 50 kg/person/year. (Durban Metro, 1999) Durban Solid Waste does not have any kind of separate collection for recyclables at the household level. According to the Eng. Trevor Rubelli (interview), from DSW, this type of service is too expensive and not cost effective, and the municipality of Durban does not have the resources to invest in such a project at this moment. 4.3.5. Waste destination: Bisasar Road Landfill The destination for most of the refuse in Durban is taken into landfills. There are three general waste3 landfills operated by the municipality, two low-hazardous waste landfills and all the medical waste is incinerated. Bisasar Road Landfill is among the biggest landfills in South Africa, and the refuse collected in the southern part of Durban (including both case study areas) is all taken to it. As one can observe from the aerial picture, a residential area, namely Clare Estate, surrounds Bisasar.
General Waste: waste which does not pose an immediate threat to people or the environment, i.e. household waste, builders rubble, garden waste, dry industrial and commercial waste. It may, however, with decomposition and infiltration by water, produce leachate with an unacceptable pollution potential. (DEAT, 2002)
49
Because of its location, the landfill has suffered hard criticism from the neighbouring community. Accessing their needs and responding to their complaints has been one of the targets of the landfills managers. The main reason for complaints have been the bad smell. An odour control program was set up and some volunteer members of the community help, filling in a form in which they describe the kinds of smell they feel, the day and time. This helps the landfill operators to identify the loads that might be causing more disturbances. Besides that, a computer program that takes into account the shape of the landfill and the wind direction helps predicting were the odour problems might be bigger, activating an automatic spray system that tries to minimise the bad smell is also employed.
Figure 19: Bisasar Road Landfill Source: DSW There is also one informal settlement located next to the entrance of the landfill, on its northern side (in the right side of the Figure 19). People from this community, especially women, come to Bisasar to pick recyclable material. To avoid accidents and reduce health hazards the landfill operators have created a special system for the waste pickers. Some people from the community are allowed to stay in a small transfer station (see Figure 20), which was specially built near the entrance of the landfill. These people select trucks with specific loads (containing recyclables) to be unloaded in the station. Everyday, from 1:30pm to 3:00pm a bigger group of registered people from the community (around 20) are allowed to enter the transfer station, separate and collect the recyclables and take them out of the landfill. In 1997 waste pickers were responsible for the collection of 260 tons of recyclables per month from the Bisasar Road Landfill this represents 0,5% of the total waste stream disposed (Durban Metro, 1999). Another advantage of the transfer station is that some of the trucks used for collection of waste in low-income areas are manually offloaded. If this was done in the main deposit area, it would take too much time and cause congestion for the heavier 50
vehicles coming into the site. The solution being used is that the waste is uploaded manually from these trucks in the transfer station, and later on it will be mechanically loaded to another vehicle and taken to the main deposit area. This procedure increases the cost for uploading, but it is safer. For security and health reasons the waste pickers and all the other employees working in the landfill get and have to wear orange jackets, special shoes, gloves and odour masks, but most of them do not use the protection gloves and masks.
Figure 20: Transfer Station in Bisasar Landfill Table 10: Summary of technical information about Bisasar Landfill Area: 44 hectares Capacity (volume): 21 million cubic metre Average landfilled waste : 3500 tons/day Number of trucks entering the landfill: 600 to 800 / day Employees in the landfill: Approximately 70 people Lifetime: From 1980 until 2015 (e) Opening hours: 7am to 5pm seven days a week Daily cover layer: Imported soil Methane gas: Flamed Leachate and Runoff treatment: Collected and diverted to sewage system Automatic Odour regulator: Present Type of waste deposited: general waste Soil protection: Geosynthetics and clay Inspection of the site: Twice a year Source: interview with Eng. Lindsay Strachan Unlike most of the landfills, where the rehabilitation of the area is done after their complete closure, the Bisasar Road Landfill rehabilitation is an intrinsic part of the daily operation and overall landfill design. Rehabilitation started in December 2001 and an Extending Green Carpet is growing at a rate of 100m per annum (Rolando et al, 2002). A programme called Plant Rescue Unit (PRUNIT) was created and is responsible for part of the rehabilitation process. The PRUNIT rescues indigenous plants species and the topsoil from the landfill area prior to the opening of a new cell, and place them in a holding nursery. The plants are cultivated and finally reinstated into the rehabilitated sections of the landfill (Rolando et al, 2002). The photo in Figure 21 was taken from Marianhill Landfill, where the first project from PRUNIT was implemented. Bisasar Landfill also has the same project, but it is still in an earlier stage of implementation. 51
Figure 21: Plant nursery and rehabilitated area in Marianhill Landfill 4.3.6. Education and Public Participation Keep Durban Beautiful Association (KBDA) is the main entity involved in education and public awareness campaigns concerning waste issues in Durban. The Keep Durban Beautiful Association is a NGO with non-profit community based education programs concerned with enabling all sectors of the community to dispose of their waste correctly. The Association exists since 1980 and from 1987 on it has been working in partnership with the public sectors. Durban Solid Waste pays some of the staff, but there is still much volunteer support from all sectors of the community. KDBA has various ongoing projects aimed at covering different sectors of the society. Only the ones related to low-income areas are described in this document. (interview with Mrs. Mchunu) Community Development Workers (CDW) This project started when DSW took over the responsibility for waste collection and management in various townships in the Durban Metro area. At that time, a need for people working with education and explaining the new collection system to the communities was needed, and therefore the CDWs were trained. Nowadays, CDWs are responsible for the ongoing education campaigns in low-income areas. CDWs are people living in the developing communities, appointed by their councillors, trained and paid by KDBA. The training lasts for two weeks and after that the CDWs are ready for the educational work in their community. The main activities undertaken by the CDWs are door-to-door education, motivation of volunteers and preparation of workshops, besides education programs in educational facilities such as schools and creches within their areas. There are currently 14 CDWs working in different communities in Durban, and the main issues they deal with at the household level are illegal dumps problems and teaching people to take their refuse bag out of their houses at the right day for collection. CDWs do also identify people in the community who are willing to participate as volunteers, helping to maintain the area clean, as well as identifying problems. When a need for clean-up in a certain area is identified, the CDW and the volunteers will be responsible for organizing it and motivating the community. Since the number of CDWs is small, and there are no resources for increasing it, they will act only in problematic areas. A continuous education based on their work is not currently happening. As soon as a community identifies a problem or requests help
52
related to waste management issues, the CDW will be asked to provide help for a defined period of time. Workshops General workshops on different aspects concerning the environment are prepared and presented by a group of people from various institutions such as KDBA, Environment and Health Department, City Park and City Hall. These meetings are advertised and all the members of the community are welcome. It is interesting to note though that the majority of people coming to the workshops are women (interview with Gabi). Workshops on specific themes (recycling, making articles from waste, etc) are presented by KDBA education officer according to the needs of a community and on their request. The workshops could be held at community halls, schools, library, or at the home of one member of the community. Special workshops designed for teacher training are done on a regular basis at schools, and supporting educational material is then distributed to the teachers. Development Forums These forums are held once a month in each community and target the community councillor and the community committees volunteers and members. During these meetings different issues are discussed. Representatives from KDBA, Health Department, Police, among others take part in the Development Forums and try to help in the process of finding solutions for specific problems in their areas of concern. Clean-up days in communities Usually after the CDW has been working for a while with awareness raising and doorto-door education within a community, the willingness or the necessity for a cleaner environment arises. On the request of the community, a clean-up day can be organized. The community provides the labour force; DSW provides equipment and material and KDBA is responsible for the organization and also provides some refreshment. Usually journalists from local newspaper are invited by KDBA to cover the event this increases the prestige and the pride of the community. The clean-ups can be done in large scale, involving the whole community, or small scale, in localized problem areas such as open dumps, involving only the neighbouring households. Buy-back Centers In August 2000 a buy-back centre was created in the Central Business District (CBD) as a public-private initiative between recycling companies, Self Employed Women Union and the Municipality of Durban (see Figure 22). The centre aimed at encouraging recycling and organizing a collection system for informal collectors in the CBD and Warwick area. During the pilot period the centre was a success, collecting up to 30 tons of paper and cardboard per month. But a follow-up survey carried out in March 2001 showed that the amounts collected had drastically dropped (5-10 tons per month) and that the centre was being under utilized. The main reasons being the fact that 60% of the informal collectors in the city are between the ages of 41 and 70, and therefore struggle to carry the recyclables for long distances. Another factor is that most collectors do not have a trolley, and prefer to sell their loads to the private recycling companies trucks standing on the street corners even when they pay less than the buy-back centre (Freeman & Mgingqizana, 2002).
53
Figure 22: Warwik buy back center
Figure 23: Metal scrap load
Despite the drawbacks, the centre is still functioning and is also used as a training place for disadvantaged people on how to run a buy-back centre, since the plans for the near future are to establish new buy-back centres situated within developing communities. In fact, a metal scrap buy back centre was recently established near to Cato Crest, and is run by locals, with support of the Municipality. Figure 23 shows a man carrying a load of metal scrap to one of the buy back centres in the city suburb. Landfill Site Tours Teachers are encouraged to take scholars from different age groups to field tours to landfills in the Durban area in order to learn more about waste and how it is disposed. KDBA created a workbook with a brief overview about landfill sites and some written exercises that can be used during these visits. Adopt a Spot The Adopt a Spot is an environmental project undertaken by community volunteers. Once a problem area has been identified (e.g. litter dump, a park, a stream, etc), a community group of volunteers (or a company, a school, etc) assumes the responsibility of maintaining that area, with special emphasis on correct waste management. The project starts with the group of volunteers identifying the specific problems occurring in the area. Than they conduct litter pick up campaigns, beautification (by planting trees and flowers the Park Department can assist with plants), public awareness exercises, evaluation and recognition procedures. When a spot is adopted, a sign providing information on the group responsible for the area is placed. This project exists in all areas of Durban and takes different forms. In the low-income areas most of the spots adopted are former waste dumps, and they are usually transformed into community gardens. The community benefits with a healthier and safer environment, better standard of living and increased pride over its area, while the local authority reduces its maintenance costs and increases cooperation with the community.
54
Box 9: How Long Park

An example of a spot adopted, firstly by one individual, but now being maintained with the help of the community and the municipality is the How Long Park, in the suburb of Umlazi. Hamza Mlangeni moved to Durban in the early 70s and was living in a plastic bag in a park. After some time he decided to build his own dwelling on a little hill near the Spingo River. He then started to clean up the river banks near his home and keep the area tidy. In 1976 he decided to call the area he was living in How Long, meaning: For how long will the nature be abused?
Figure 24: Spingo River in How Long Park He kept doing the voluntary cleaning work and little by little he gained the confidence of his neighbors and they started to collaborate and not to dump waste in the river banks. In 1996 Durban Municipality transformed the area into a park, providing plants and some park benches (see Figure 24). Hamza was then employed by the Parks Department and is still working for the maintenance of the area. The idea of Adopt-a-Spot is to encourage more people to take initiatives similar to the one taken by Mr. Mlangeni voluntary care for the cleanliness of a certain area.
Adopt a Verge This project is targeted to residents who have a grassed verge outside of their premises. Individuals are encouraged to adopt the verge in front of their houses and keep it clean and beautiful, an example is shown in Figure 25.
Figure 25: Adopt a verge program When the CDW notes a visible effort to maintain and beautify a verge he will notify KDBA. They will then send a letter of recognition (both in English and Zulu) by post and some weeks later a member of KDBA and a community leader will visit the home and present an acknowledgment certificate. 55
Although this project is very simple, it increases pride and creates a stronger sense of ownership and responsibility. In the past years, competition and prizes have been distributed among the households with best-maintained verges this has been interrupted due to financial resources problems. Handbook for pre-primary school teachers A handbook for pre-primary teachers was compiled and is distributed free of charge by KDBA. The handbook aims at developing individual and collective sense of responsibility for the environment and a responsible attitude towards litter prevention. Teachers are trained during workshops prepared by KDBA and many different activities that can be done with the children such as games, paintings, theater play among others are suggested in the handbook. Pamphlets DSW together with KDBA developed a series of pamphlets and also a manual covering different issues related to waste. The material is available free of charge at the KDBA resource center and also at the libraries of each community and shops. In some cases, pamphlets are distributed on a door-to-door basis. Among the themes covered by the pamphlets are waste sources, importance of waste minimization, recyclable materials and its uses, address of buy-back centers, how to make articles from waste, etc. Photographic Survey This is a very effective way of measuring the results of the waste management education efforts, because it shows the improvement (or not) of the overall cleanliness of an area. The CDW is required to identify spots in a community where it is evident that waste has been mismanaged. A range of sites that represent the community should be chosen (school, shopping center, residential area, illegal dumping, etc). A clear photograph of each of these areas is taken and then numbered and dated. On a three months basis the CDW is required to go back to the same spots and take new pictures. The comparison between pictures will show whether the situation has improved or worsened. Photographic record of activities that have been developed to enable the community to manage their waste correctly (e.g. workshops, clean-up days, adopt a verge certificate) is also encouraged. Ukuzihlonipha (Respect) Project This is a new project funded by the National Development Agency (NDA) and it is an effort from five institutions dealing with different issues, but working together at the senior primary and high school levels. KDBA (waste related problems) Cancer Association, Rugby Development Program, SANCA (drug and alcohol related problems) and ATTIC (HIV-Aids related problems). The project starts with a play that shows the students the importance of respecting themselves and involving all the five themes described above. On a second visit a workshop with each class of the school is held and more information about each issue is given. The creation of Respect Clubs among the learners is encouraged. These clubs are responsible for discussing and planning activities related to the Respect Project within the school. Support material for school environmental policy was elaborated and aims at helping teachers and learners to include waste management and other environmental issues in their curriculum.
56
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
Some of the suggestions made in this section are based on the waste management strategy used by the Municipality of Curitiba in Brazil. South Africa and Brazil have many similarities, and that is one of the reason for suggesting features from the model used by a Brazilian city. On the other hand, the author also believes that many aspects of the approach used in Durban are applicable and replicable not only to Brazilian, but also to other similar Latin American cities. Both South Africa and Brazil are middle-income countries that have a well developed industrial sector. This is one of the reasons for them (as well as countries such as Argentina, Chile and Venezuela) to have a better economic situation than some of the very poor developing countries in Africa and Latin America. Because of its relative wealth, these countries, even if in a restricted way, have more access to resources to address infrastructure-related problems than the majority of their neighbouring nations. Despite the prosperous industrial sector, another common feature to both countries is the social disparity. The wealth distribution is not equal. These countries have a small rich class, a growing middle class, but the largest percentage of its population still lives in poverty not enjoying the benefits brought by industrialization and economic growth. This means that a small amount of the population has access to most of the wealth, while the majority lives in very bad conditions. Because of that, rich communities typically have access to very good infrastructure and services, while the poor communities are left to cope with poor , if any, infrastructure and services. Rapid urbanization is another similarity that both nations have. The reasons leading to that urban growth differ, but the fact is that these countries have a growing urban population, and most of the people moving to the cities belong to the poor and less privileged percentage of it. This accentuates and stimulates the growth of informal settlements. One could go on drawing parallels between South Africa and some of the Latin American countries, but for the purpose of this thesis the ideas outlined above should be sufficient to enhance the reasons why solutions applied in one country could be used in another and vice-versa. Illegal waste dumps Despite all the efforts, new waste dumps keep appearing within or nearby the areas serviced by the municipality, especially in the low-income areas. To avoid or minimize the new waste dumps some strategies such as more frequent collection of waste (e.g. twice a week) could be implemented. DSW has the policy of equally serving all the communities, and therefore as well high as low-income housing areas get their waste collected only once a week. But one should take into account that, for instance, while the upper class usually lives in bigger houses and plots, having more space to store their waste, the same is not usually the case for the less privileged communities. The lack of space to store waste for a whole week in the low-income neighbourhoods might be increasing illegal dumping. For that reason, although equality is important, it might be reasonable to consider more frequent waste collection in some poor communities.
57
As discussed in the Chapter 3, continuous educational campaigns informing the disadvantages of a dirty area is also an important way of motivating people to keep the community clean and this may reduce the dumping problems. Curitiba has created a program in the informal low-income areas called Green Exchange. In that initiative, people living in those areas are encouraged to bring the garbage to special truck that visits each community on a scheduled day and time, and exchange it for fresh fruits or vegetables from the season. Schoolchildren are also able to exchange garbage for schoolbooks. In that way dumping has been reduced, while people are benefiting by getting food and books (Municipality of Curitiba, n.d.). Recycling activities The city of Durban has a high potential for recycling activities. Since the municipality considers the development of a separate collection system for recyclable material too expensive, one alternative way would be to organize the informal recyclable collectors. They could be registered, get standard trolleys to collect the material and more buy-back centres could be created in different areas of the city to facilitate the selling of the recyclables. As part of the waste management strategy in Curitiba informal recyclable collectors operating in the citys down-town have been registered, and a standard trolley has been provided for them. These actions organized and facilitated their work, besides giving them a sense of pride about the work they do. As stated in Chapter 2, Box 3 Waste that is not waste, despite the existing separate system for collection of recyclable offered by the municipality, the informal collectors are still responsible for most of the recyclable waste collection in the city. Since high-income communities produce more recyclables than the low-income ones, they could be motivated to separate paper, glass and cans, giving them to the collectors, instead of mixing it with the organic waste. In that way the volume of waste being taken to landfills would be reduced, and income would be generated for the informal collectors. Ways of motivating people could include reduction in the municipal fees, or, through education campaigns, emphasize how people can help each other in ways as simple as giving away their recyclable waste to improve another persons income. Many useful products can be created from recyclable waste, and even become an income generator. To teach people how to use recyclable material for producing toys, souvenirs, bags, among others could be included in the educational campaigns, maybe in form of workshops for adults, or even in schools. Those products could then be sold in open markets or usual shops. Creating a market for recyclables It is equally important that the municipality, through its laws and tax policies creates incentives for the industry to use recyclables material in their production process. It is necessary to stimulate the market for recyclables materials in order to make the recycling process economically viable. In Sweden industries have to follow national regulations that force the use of recyclable materials as row-materials in the production of some goods. For instance, glass production industries have to use a certain percentage of recycled material to produce their new products. The Swedish model is an example of how the government can induce or force the industry towards using material coming from waste recycling activities in the production 58
of new goods. But the process of creating a market for recyclables takes time and might meet resistance from the industrial sector, especially if the raw material for production of goods is abundant and cheap. As a start it is suggested that the Municipality of Durban analyses the potential market for recyclables by accessing the types of raw-material used by the existing industry in its region. After that the most relevant/usable types of recyclables could be defined based on the needs of the industrial sector. Based on that information incentives could be created to stimulate the growth and establishment of a market for recyclables. Lack of Composting and Biogas When analysing the waste management system in Durban an issue that becomes very evident is the lack of composting. DSW does not have any composting facility and all the organic matter is being deposited in landfills. Since Kwa-Zulu Natal has a hot and humid climate which stimulates the growth of plants the generation of organic matter originating from gardens occupies big volumes in the landfills. If there where some composting programs in place the volume of waste being taken to the landfills would be reduced, prolonging their life-time4. DSW administration doesnt need to go far to get an example of how to succeed with composting in big scale. Mr. Martins from Cape Town Solid Waste (interview) said that Cape Town has been composting garden refuse for some years and the resulting product is either sold or used in the municipal gardens. He also mentioned that because the climate in Durban is more humid, if compared to Cape Town, the time needed for composting the organic matter is shorter, speeding up the process and making it more desirable. Small scale composting programmes are not very spread. Especially in poor communities, people could benefit from community gardens, and composting could be used to produce soil for the growing of vegetables. Another option for composting projects would be to produce biogas for cooking purposes. Pilot projects of composting could be set up in schools to teach the learners on how to compost on a small scale, and hopefully the knowledge will spread and household composting will grow. In both cases, small or large scale composting, in order to have a good quality in the final product the compost it is crucial that only organic matter is mixed and composted. This creates another problem: the need to define what is organic matter and what not, calling for constant need of educational programs. Quality of plastic bags Some members from the community at Cato Crest were complaining about the bad quality of the black bags distributed by the waste contractors for the refuse collection. They argue that the 85 litre bags are to weak to hold the waste, collapsing while being taken to the collection points. Munitech responds to that saying that the bags are tested and have to meet certain standard to be approved before the contractor starts working in an area. What could be happening is that the contractor is sending in one type of bag for testing, and distributing bags of a different quality to the community. A simple way in which DSW could verify and solve that problem would be to randomly collect bags from the households in the communities and test them. If the quality of the plastic bags
Usually a landfill is design to be used for a defined number of years, according to the volume of waste it supports. The period for which the landfill can be used is called its life-time.
4
59
is lower than the requirements, the contractor should be fined and asked to distribute bags with characteristics within the required standards. Education campaigns The success and efficiency of any waste management programme depends on the involvement of the community. For that reason, education and awareness campaigns are crucial. The ongoing work from KDBA and the CDW is very important, but the staff is limited, and they are not able to handle all communities and their needs. The municipality should invest more in educational campaigns, maybe employing more people and training them as CDWs. CDWs could be trained to deal with a range of issues as for example health, water and sanitation, crime problems, etc. With that approach integration between different departments within the municipality could be achieved and consequently costs related to education staff and material could be reduced. Instead of each department having their own educators, one person could be approaching all the different issues within the same community. Whilst it is not always easy to educate illiterate people, some hints that might be useful are: employ simple language, make use of creative and hands-on examples, use of metaphors and analogies related to the tradition and cultural beliefes, be patient and perseverant. The Bisasar Landfill Regarding the Bisasar Road Landfill, the leachate collected is currently being mixed to the wastewater and treated at the nearest wastewater treatment plant. Because the hazardous household waste is not separated, and it all is deposited in Bisasar, the leachate contains toxic substances that cannot be properly treated at a regular wastewater treatment plan. Besides that, during the rainy season, the storm water coming from the landfill is not treated at all, being diverted to the nearest river. As a result the risk of water and soil contamination is high. The ideal solution in this case would be to have a separate treatment plan for purifying the leachate and storm water coming from the landfill.
60
GLOSSARY
Bottom Ash or Slag It is the solid incombustible residual, usually inert, that is left after the incineration of waste. It drops through the bottom of the incinerator, and depending on the waste being burned it can contain some toxic and ferrous substances. Corrugated cardboard Paper or cardboard produced in a series of wrinkles or folds, or ridges and grooves. Dump A site used to dispose of solid waste without environmental controls (e.g. uncontrolled burial or drop-off of solid waste). End-of-pipe solutions Solutions that do only address the consequences of a problem, without trying to address the causes of the problem. In Waste Management it means only focusing on waste treatment and deposit, with no regard to generation issues. Integrated Waste Management The use of various different methods and practices to handle municipal solid waste. It includes waste avoidance and minimisation methods, recycling, reuse, collection of waste, different treatment methods (e.g. incineration with or without energy recovery) and final disposal. Fly Ash Fine solid and non-combustible particles that are expelled through the draft in waste burning facilities, such as incinerators. These residuals can have high content of toxic substances, depending on the composition of the waste being burned. Hazardous Waste It is a type of solid waste which, because of its physical and/or chemical characteristics, quantities and concentration may be a threat to human health or have harmful effect on the environment. Examples are: paint solvents, batteries, herbicides, heavy metals, etc. Household Waste Solid waste, composed of food residuals, paper, plastics, glass, garden wastes and other garbage and/or rubbish, which usually are generated in private households. Many times it also contains a significant amount of toxic or hazardous waste (batteries, paint, oil, heavy metals, etc). Landfill A site for the controlled burial of solid waste according to applicable governmental rules and regulations. Properly designed and operated, landfills minimize the release of contaminants into the soil and groundwater, thus protecting human health and environment. Landfills have a limited life span based on the landfills capacity for accepting certain amount of waste. (Fairest Cape Association, n.d.)
61
Leachate It is a liquid generated mainly by external precipitation (rain) infiltrating the waste piles, but a small part of it is also generated as a by-product of waste decomposition. The filtering water will pick up many loose substances, chemicals and harmful matter existing in the waste piles, resulting in a toxic liquid called leachate. Material Recovery Facility (MRF) A processing facility where recyclables and compostables are removed from the general waste stream and separated into different types of waste. Municipal Solid Waste The definition can vary according to countries, but usually it comprises common garbage or trash generated by households, commercial areas, business, institutions and industries. Polluter Pays Principle It means that the polluter should pay the costs for prevention and control measures in order to ensure that the environment is kept in adequate condition (the standards for the environment are usually set by regulators, such as the government). Recyclables Materials such as glass, paper, aluminium cans, etc which when sorted out of the waste stream can be reprocessed or remanufactured into new products. Transfer Station A location where wastes are transferred from one collection vehicle to another, or to a designated container, prior to transportation to a disposal or processing facility. Waste It is anything that is considered to have no value and that is therefore fit only to throw away. Refuse, garbage, junk, litter, rubbish, trash are some synonyms.
62
REFERENCES
Agenda 21 Stockholm (2001). Kllsorteringsguide [Source Separation Guide]. Stockholm: Agenda 21 innerstad. Bilitewski, B., Hrdtle, G. & Marek, K. (1994). Waste Management. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Brunner, C.R., Hasselriis, F., Teller, A. & Curlee, T.R. (1994) Waste-to-energy Combustion. In F. Kreith, Handbook of Solid Waste Management (11.1 11.182). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. DEAT (1999). National Waste Management Strategy version D. South Africa. [Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism]. Available: http://www.csir.co.za/ciwm/nwms.html [2002, October 14] DEAT (2000). White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management for South Africa. Government Notice # 20978. [Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism]. Available:http://www.environment.gov.za/PolLeg/WhitePapers/20978.pdf [2002,October 14] DEAT (2002). User Friendly Guidelines for Waste Collection Final Draft. South Africa. [Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism] Deshmukh, S., Gupta, R. & Agrawal, V.S. (2002). Improving the Solid Waste Management by Developing the Peoples Perception a Case Study. Wastecon 2002 Proceedings. International Waste Management Biennial Congress & Exhibition, September 30 October 4 2002, Durban. Deutsche Verpackunginstitut (1998). Verordnung ber die Vermeidung und Verwertung von Verpackungsabfllen (Verpackungsverordnung - VerpackV) [Regulation about Packaging Avoidance and Usage of Packaging Wastes]. [Online]. Available: http://www.verpackung.org/expertwiss/vvo2_3.php3 [2002, July 25] Diaz, L.F., Savange, G.M. & Golueke, C.G. (1994). Composting of Municipal Solid Wastes. In F. Kreith, Handbook of Solid Waste Management (10.1 10.68). New York: McGrawHill, Inc. DSW (2001). Collection Programme for the newly incorporated areas. Annual report for the period July 2000 to June 2001. [Durban Solid Waste]. DSW (2002). North Central and South Central New Suburbs Waste Management Programme. Projected and Actual Expenditure 2002/2003. Record of expenditure up to the end of September 2002. Report number 3. DSW (n.d.). Lets Reduce and Recycle: Durban Solid Wastes Manual for Solid Waste Awareness for Communities. Durban South Africa. [Durban Solid Waste]. Durban Metro (1996). Green Paper on Solid Waste Management. Durban Metropolitan Area: Rapid Action Programme. Durban Metro (1999). State of the Environment and Development: Waste Report. Durban Local Agenda 21. [Online]. [2002, October 23] Available: http://www.ceroi.net/reports/durban/issues/waste/recycle.htm#recycle EEA (n.d.). Glossary [Online]. [European Environment Agency] Available: http://glossary.eea.eu.int/EEAGlossary/H/household_waste [2002, July 23] Envac (n.d). Envac Authomated Waste Collection [Online]. Available: http://www.envac.net/frameset.asp [ 2002, December 30] EPA (1997). Terms of Environment [Online]. [United States Environmental Protection Agency] Available: http://www.epa.gov/OCEPAterms/hterms.html [2002, July 23] Fishbein, B.K., Geiser, K. & Gelb, C. (1994). Source Reduction. In F. Kreith, Handbook of Solid Waste Management (8.1-8.33). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Freeman, S.A. & Mgingqizana, N. (2002). Negotiating the Public Private Partnership Maze Lessons learnt in setting up recycling centres in Durban. Wastecon 2002 Proceedings.
63
International Waste Management Biennial Congress & Exhibition, September 30 October 4 2002, Durban. Girarde, H. (1996). Giant Footprints. In: Our Plannet Magazine [Online]. Available: http://www.ourplanet.com/imgversn/81/girardet.html [2002, July 19] IBGE (2000). [Online]. [Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatsitica] http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/condicaodevida/pnsb/default.shtm Available: [2002, July 24] Impumelelo (1999). Impumelelo Innovations Award Trust. 1999 Award winner for Job Creation and Income-Generation in KwaZulu Natal. [Online] Available: http://www.impumelelo.org.za [2002, October 10] Jordan, S. & Wagner, F. (1993). Meeting womens needs and priorities for water and sanitation in cities. In Environment and Urbanization: Health and Wellbeing in Cities, 5, 2, 135-146. Kharbanda,O.P. & Stallworthy, E.A. (1990). Waste Management. England: Gower Publishing Company Limited. Korfmacher, K.S. (1997). Solid Waste Collection Systems in Developing Urban Areas of South Africa: An Overveiw and Case Study. Waste Management & Research, 15, 477-494. Kreith, F. (1994). Introduction. In F. Kreith, Handbook of Solid Waste Management (1.1 1.24). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. KwaZulu Natal (2002). Department of Economic Development and Turism [Online] Available: http://www.kzn-deat.gov.za/tourism/durban/thumbnail/population.htm [2002, October 21] McMillen, A. (1993). Separation and Collection Systems Performance Monitoring. In H. F. Lund, The Mc-Graw-Hill Recycling Handbook (5.1 5.68). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Midrand - EcoCity of the future (n.d.). Recycling. [Online]. Available: http://www.midrand-ecocity.co.za/pp-6.htm [2002, July 30] Milj Frvaltningen (n.d.). Lycka med Kompost (Succeed with composting). Third revised edition. Stockholm. Municipality of Curitiba (n.d.). Email from engineers from the Waste Management Department. [August 08, 2002] . Email Address: limpezapub@smma.curitiba.pr.gov.br OLeary, P. R. & Tchobanoglous, G. (1994). Landfilling. In F. Kreith, Handbook of Solid Waste Management (12.1 12.90). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Regeringskansliet [Ministry of Foreign Affairs] (1999). Waste Management: The Swedish Experience. Stockholm: Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. Rolando, A.J., Strachan, L.J. & Wright, M.R. (2002). Rescue, Reinstate and Remadiate Landfill Engineering Methods that Conserve the Receiving Environment. Wastecon 2002 Proceedings. International Waste Management Biennial Congress & Exhibition, September 30 October 4 2002, Durban. Ruiz Jr., J.A. (1993). Recycling Overview and Growth. In H. F. Lund, The Mc-Graw-Hill Recycling Handbook (1.1 1.10). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. RVF (2001). Svensk avfallshantering 2001 [Swedish waste management 2001]. Malm: RVF. [Svenska Renhllningsverksfreningen] Rylander, H. (2000). Avfallsfrbrnning en del av helheten [Waste incineration: a part of the whole]. Rvfnytt! (Branschtidning frn Svenska Renhllningsverksfreningen), 5/2000. Sanoff, H (2000). Community Participation Methods in Design and Planning. New York. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Satterthwaite, D. (1996). Identifying Environmental Priorities in Cities in the South. In Evolving Environmental Ideals Changing ways of Life, Values & Design Practices. 14th Conference of the International Association for People-Environment Studies, July 30 August 3 1996, Stockholm. Schbeler P. (1996). Partricipation and Partnership in Urban Infrastructure Management. Urban Management Programme 19. World Bank.
64
Skafab (1999). Liten Sorteringsguide [Litle Sorting Guide]. Stockholm: Stockholms Kommun Avfallsfrdling AB. Skafab. (1998). At your service, Stockholm. Stockholm: Stockholms Kommun Avfallsfrdling AB. Spencer, D. B. (1994). Recycling Part A. In F. Kreith, Handbook of Solid Waste Management (9.3 9.128). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Stypka, T. (2001). Technical Means of Municipal Solid Waste Handling. In Municipal Solid Waste Sludge Handling Sustainability and Trends. Unpublished. (can I quote this???) Surjadi, C. (1993). Respiratory diseases of mothers and children and environmental factors among households in Jakarta. In Environment and Urbanization: Health and Wellbeing in cities, 5, 2, 78-86. The Fairest Cape Association (n.d.). Wise Up on Waste. Fourth Edition. Cape Town South Africa. UNESCO (2001). Education for Sustainable Development. [Online]. Available: http://www.unesco.org/education/esd/english/education/role.shtml [2002, December 31]. [United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]. UNCHS (1989). Solid Waste Management in Low-Income Housing Projects: The Scope for Community Participation. Nairobi. [United Nations Centre for Human Settlements] UNDP (1997). Urban Problems Remain Similar Worldwide: Unemployment and Insufficient solid Waste Disposal are Main Concerns. [Online]. [United Nations Development Program] Available: http://magnet.undp.org/Docs/urban/Maysur.htm [2001, November 8] UNSD (1992). Agenda 21 Chapter 7 Promoting Sustainable Human Settlement Development. [Online]. [United Nations Sustainable Development.] Available: http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/agenda21.htm [2002, June 6] UNSD (1992 b). Agenda 21 Chapter 21 Environmentally Sound Management of Solid Wastes and Sewage Related Issues. [Online]. [United Nations Sustainable Development.] Available: http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/agenda21.htm [2002, June 6] Yin, R.K. (1994). Case study research: Design and methods (2nd ed.). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing.
PERSONAL CONTACTS / INTERVIEWS

Jenman, Barbra. Fairest Cape Association. Cape Town. [2002, November 13]. Martins, Raphael. Cape Town Solid Waste. Cape Town. [2002, November 14] McGarr, Doug. Senior Preoject Engineer at Munitech. Durban. Mchunu, Gabi. Keep Durban Beautiful Association. Durban. [2002, October 29]. Mdaka, Dumisani. MSA South Jacobs. Durban. [2002, October 24]. Mlambo, Zanele. Inspector at MSA South. Durban. Mlangeni, Hamza. Responsible for How Long Park. Durban [2002, November 4] Moodley, Sam. CAD Operator. Durban. Mpume, Clamane. Councillor in Cato Crest. Durban [2002, October, 31]. Nkono, Xolani. Member of Culture and Recreation Youth Affairs and Turism Committee in Cato Crast. Durban [2002, October, 31]. Phangela, Victoria. Employee of Sisonke Cleaners. [2002, October 24] Reilly, Sean. Managing director at Munitech. Durban. Rubelli, Trevor. Works Manager at DSW. Durban. [2002, October 11]. Sneedon, Dave. Surveyor at Munitech. Durban. Strachan, Lindsay J. Senior Engineer for Unicity Landfills DSW. Durban [2002, October 11]. Vestbro, Dick Urban. Chairman of the Stockholm Waste Management Committee. Stockholm.
65
66
APPENDIX
CHECK LIST - Waste Management in Low-income housing areas Used for guidance during interviews and data collection for the case study in Durban. Statistics / Data on Waste (in Durban or specifically in the study areas) ! Is there available information/data on waste for Durban? ! Waste generation per capita ! Waste generation per income group ! Waste composition ! Quantity of waste collected Waste management policy for Durban ! Integrated waste management approach ? ! Is there a goal for Minimization / avoidance in WM policy? ! Is there any special policy for low-income areas (planned and informal)? ! Role of private sector ! Municipality responsibility ! Is payment for waste collection required ? How much ? ! Do people pay ? Waste Collection ! How often is the waste collected ? ! Does separation at the source exist ? ! Who is responsible for collection ? ! How is the collection done ? (individuals, vehicles, etc) ! Is there any organized scavenger force being used ? ! Is the collection done from specific places, or is it collected from household to household ? ! Is there any special collection for toxic wastes? (batteries, paint, solvents, etc) Waste Recycling ! Is there source separation of any kind ? ! Is the waste further separated and recycled in recovery facilities ? ! What fraction of the waste is recycled ? ! Which wastes are recycled ? (paper, glass, metal, cardboard, etc) ! Is the informal sector (scavengers) responsible for a significant percentage of recyclables collection? Waste Disposal ! Where is the waste disposed ? ! Where are the landfills located ? ! What kind of control measures / regulations exist for landfilling ? ! Who is responsible for the control ? ! How is the prevention of groundwater pollution done ?
67
Waste Treatment ! What kind of treatment is given to toxic wastes (e.g. batteries) ? ! Is composting practiced ? ! Is incineration used ? YES with energy recovery ? NO has the possibility been analysed ? Role of Education and Public Participation ! Campaigns to raise awareness among population ? (importance of waste management/health issues, recyclables, toxic waste) ! In low-income settlements, is the community involved in waste management issues ? How ? ! Are the members of the community being involved in the collection of waste within their settlement ? ! What role do NGOs play in the WM process in low-income areas ? ! Is there any special way of involving women and youngsters being used ? (preschool, school, etc) ! Are there projects involving recycling and community members, with income generation ? (e.g. production of goods made of recycled waste) Observations ! Is waste left on the street and vacant land ? ! Do people burn waste ? Why ? (maybe lack of regular collection) ! How often the waste collection occurs within the studied settlements ? ! Is the community satisfied with the service provided ? Others ! Was the Waste management issue addressed during the planning period in Chesterville? ! Studies or observations about the relation of waste and diseases. (e.g. is the number of waste related sicknesses higher in low income than in high income housing areas) ! Are there problems of water an soil pollution within the settlements, due to waste related problems? How has it been addressed ? ! Is there information about the historical development of waste management? (pre, during and post apartheid)
68
Waste production and management are critical issues in the quest for sustainable development. In South Africa, as in most other nations, waste-related problems are growing and the circumstances are often aggravated by the shortage of financial resources. Low-income housing areas, especially the informal ones, generally suffer from lack of basic infrastructure. Illegal waste dumps are widespread and waste management becomes even more difficult because of the low priority attributed to the issue by community members - that struggle with more urgent issues. The deficiency in proper waste management in those areas induces health hazards, water and soil pollution on top of the negative aesthetic impacts. Integrated solid waste management is a strategy that combines waste avoidance, recycling, composting, safe disposal of waste and education, among others. This study shows how the city of Durban has tackled waste-related problems in lowincome housing areas, and how it is working its way towards integrated waste management.
This publication can be ordered from: Built Environment Analysis, Division of Urban Studies Royal Institute of Technology, SE 100 44 Stockholm Sweden

Application of Waste Manegement

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Deskripsi Asli:

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Application of Waste Manegement

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

TRITA-INFRA EX 03-001 ISSN 1651-0194 ISRN KTH/INFRA/EX-03-001-SE MASTER OF SCIENCE THESIS

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

TRITA-INFRA EX 03-001 ISSN 1651-0194 ISRN KTH/INFRA/EX-03-001-SE

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Supervisor: Prof. Dick Urban Vestbro

Aim and Problem Formulation

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Legend: XX X x Very relevant method Relevant method Lower relevance

2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ON WASTE MANAGEMENT

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

The Problem of Waste

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Reuse and Recycling

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Box 4: Stockholms Recycling System

Curbside collection is further explained in section 2.4

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Source: Midrand - EcoCity of the future. (n.d)

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Collection Method Nonsystematic A D A Vacuum Waste D A D

Waste Treatment and Disposal

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

3. EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION

The role of Education

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

4. WASTE MANAGEMENT IN DURBANS LOW-INCOME AREAS

Waste Management in Low-Income Areas

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Waste Management policy in South Africa

Figure 5: Map of South Africa 36

The case of Durban

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Legend: Study Area

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Figure 8: Old and new residential areas in Chesterville 42

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Figure 13: Aerial Photograph of Cato Crest

Figure 15: Typical swivel drum

Figure 16: Cleaning Equipment

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Figure 18: Bellair Road recycling facility 48

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Figure 22: Warwik buy back center

Figure 23: Metal scrap load

Box 9: How Long Park

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen

Carina Weingaertner Kohlscheen