The GM crops are fast becoming a part of agriculture throughout the world because of their capacity for increased

crop productivity and their use in health-care and industry. However, there are conflicting schools of thought regarding the safety issues related to the use of GM crops and foods. The major concerns about GM crops and GM foods are: - Are GM foods fit for human and animal consumption? - What will be the effect of GM crops on biodiversity and environment? - the risk of transgenes escaping through pollen to related plant species (gene pollution) which may lead to the development of highly resistant super weeds. -The GM crops may change the fundamental vegetable nature of plants as the genes from animals (e.g. fish or mouse) are being introduced into crop plants. - The transfer of antibiotic resistance marker genes present in transgenic crops into microbes which can induce the problem of antibiotic resistance in human and animal pathogens. - The GM crops may cause changes in the evolutionary pattern. There is a need for public debate on these aspects of using GM foods and crops. The researchers and scientists are accumulating a large number of authentic and reproducible evidence about the safety of these products by doing field trials. The transgenic crops e.g. cotton, tomato, corn and soybean are already being used commercially after the risk assessment for environmental safety. However one cannot deny the importance of the assessment of the risks associated with the use of transgenic plants for animals and humans before they are released in to the environment. According to some people the use of GM crops and plant genetic engineering will be a very effective tool to sole the problems of poverty and hunger.

Bioethics in Plant Genetic Engineering New variations arise in population due to mutation. However, the frequency of variation depends on the rate of mutation. But in nature the frequency of mutation is very low (i.e. one in about 1 OVgene/generation). Cultivation of genetically modified (GM) crops by the farmers is increasing fast throughout the world. Hopefully, the GM technology will support healthcare and industry and provide food, feed and fibre security at global basis. However, it should be used to increase the production of main staple food, increase the efficiency of production, reduce the environmental impact of agriculture and provide access to food for small scale farmers. The global community is facing the important challenges associated with public perception of transgenic crops. The major concerns about GM crops and GM foods are given below: (i) The Risk of Transfer of Allergies:

There is fear of transferring allergens (usually glycoproteins) from GM food to human and animals e.g. peanut and other nuts. GM food from peanut is now widely labelled, but what about GM crops (where there is no labelling)? (ii) Pollen Transfer from GM Plants: There is a risk of gene pollution i.e. transfer of transgene of GM crop through pollen grains to related plant species and development of super-weeds. Will pest or herbicide-resistance gene incorporated into GM crop be transferred into closely related plants and increase the 'weediness'? (iii) Effect of GM Crops on Non-target and Beneficial Insects and Microbes: There are many non-target beneficial microbes that harbour on plant surfaces. The insects too harbour on flowers. Will the changed metabolites be colonised by new microorganisms/insects or affect them to get altered? (iv) Risk of Change in Fundamental Vegetable Nature of Plants: Transgenes from animals (obtained from fish, mouse, human, microbes) have been introduced into GM plant for molecular farming. There is risk of changing the fundamental nature of vegetables. (v) Transfer of Transgene from GM Food to Pathogenic Microbes: Antibiotic marker genes are used to identify and select the modified cells. Such cells grow on medium containing those antibiotics. Commonly, kanamycin and hydromyxin resistance genes are used in GM plants to confer resistance to these antibiotics, while ampicillin resistance marker gene is used for GM bacteria. If GM food containing antibiotic resistance marker gene is consumed by animals and humans, the transgene will transfer from GM food to microflora of human and animals. Will their gut microbe be resistant to antibiotics? (vi) Effect of GM Crops on Biodiversity and Environment: The GM crop is not naturally evolved but they have been manipulated artificially. However, there is risk whether they pose harmful effect on biodiversity (of other plants, microbes, insects, etc.) and overall impact on environment. (vii) The GM Crop may bring About Changes in Evolutionary Pattern: Evolution is going on naturally. Plants adapt the fluctuations occurring in the environment through changing their genes and developing better races to which one says the evolved races. Will transgene flow from GM crops to other non-GM plants and result in alteration in non-GM crop? Will non-GM crop evolve through hybridisation with GM crop? Now awareness about plant biotechnology, GM crops and GM food is increasing due to public debate throughout the globe and accumulation of evidences of bio-safety (for health and environment).

Several transgenic crops (e.g. corn, cotton, soybean, tomato, potato, and rape seed) and their products are sold in market. The GM crops and GM food are properly labeled. The labeling of GM food and ingredients has become a major issue and generating a great deal of confusion, and difficulty in application. In some countries including India, the GM crops are commercialised only after extensive field trials for environmental safety related to wild species, toxic effects and approval of regulatory authorities. Before their release, the GM crops and GM food are properly assessed for any risk associated with them against plants, animals and humans. Even the GM food and ingredients must be safe before their recommendation to sell in the market. Still there is increasing hope throughout the world that the GM crop can solve the problem of hunger and disease especially in heavily populated poor countries.

Ethical Issues in Genetic Engineering and Transgenics

Linda MacDonald Glenn An ActionBioscience.org original article en espaol articlehighlights
Transgenic technology has the potential of medical therapy, but it raises questions about these issues:

creation of new life forms and crossing species boundaries long-term effects on human health and the environment blending of nonhuman animal and human DNA unintended personal, social, and cultural consequences

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2004

Fluorescent GloFish, the first genetically modified animal to be sold as a pet. Source: glofish.com.

Genetic engineering involves manipulating genes.

Genetic engineering is the collection of techniques used to

isolate genes modify genes so they function better prepare genes to be inserted into a new species develop transgenes
Transgenic organisms contain altered genes from other organisms.

The process of creating a transgene includes isolating the gene of interest from the tens of thousands of other genes in the genome of a gene-donor species. Once that gene is isolated, it is usually altered so it can function effectively in a host organism. That gene is then combined with other genes to prepare it to be introduced into another organism, at which point its known as a transgene. A transgenic organism, sometimes called a chimera, is one that contains a transgene introduced by technological methods rather than through selective breeding.
Transgenics have traits not normally found in the species.

Current Developments
Transgenics allow scientists to develop organisms that express a novel trait not normally found in the species; for example, a type of rice known as golden rice has elevated levels of vitamin A. Scientists have also developed sunflowers that are resistant to mildew and cotton that resists insect damage. Possible transgenic combinations can be broken down generally into three categories (here animal refers to nonhumans):

plant-animal-human combinations animal-animal combinations animal-human combinations

Transgenic plants can contain human proteins to produce edible vaccines.

An example of a plant-animal-human transgenic combination would be one in which the DNA of mouse and human tumor fragments is inserted into tobacco DNA. The harvested plants contain a potential vaccine against non-Hodgkins lymphoma.1 Other transgenic plants have been used to create edible vaccines. By incorporating a human protein into bananas, potatoes, and tomatoes, researchers have been able to create prototypes of edible vaccines against hepatitis B, cholera, and diarrhea.2 The vaccines are proving to be successful in tests on agricultural animals and humans.
Goats with spider genes produce spider silk proteins in their milk.

BioSteel is a product created from an animal-animal transgenic combination. Scientists at Nexia Biotechnologies, a company based in Montreal, isolated the gene for silk protein from a spider capable of spinning silk fibersone of the strongest yet most resilient substances knownand inserted it in the genome of a goats egg prior to fertilization. When the

transgenic female goats matured, they produced milk containing the protein from which spider silk is made. The fiber artificially created from this silk protein has several potentially valuable uses, such as making lightweight, strong, yet supple bulletproof vests. Other industrial and medical applications include stronger automotive and aerospace components and stronger, more biodegradable sutures for closing wounds.3 Animal-human transgenic combinations represent a booming aspect of biotechnology. Here are several examples:
Pig organs can be used for human transplants.

Pigs are often chosen as transgenic animals because their physiology and organ size are so similar to humans. The hope is that pig organs can be used for organ transplantation, known as xenotransplantation, alleviating the shortage of human hearts and kidneys, which are in scarce supply. Researchers are also exploring the use of cell transplantation therapy for patients with spinal cord injury or Parkinsons disease.4 There are several drawbacks to xenotransplantation (discussed below).
Other transgenic animals have medical uses, too.

Other uses of this transgenic combination include growing tissue on a scaffolding, or supporting framework. This then can be used as a temporary skin substitute for healing wounds5 or burns6 or as replacement cartilage, heart valves,7 cerebrospinal shunts, or even collagen tubes to guide re-growth of nerves that have been injured.8

Additionally, commercial companies seek to derive therapeutic proteins, such as monoclonal antibodies, from the milk of transgenic cows, goats, rabbits, and mice and use them to administer drugs in treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, and other autoimmune disorders.9

Ethical Issues
Transgenic biotechnology presents an exciting range of possibilities, from feeding the hungry to preventing and treating diseases; however, these promises are not without potential peril. Some of the issues that need to be considered are the following:

Are we blurring the lines between species by creating transgenic combinations? What are the known health risks associated with transgenics? What are the long-term effects on the environment when transgenics are released in the field?

What ethical, social, and legal controls or reviews should be placed on such research?

Transgenic biotechnology presents challenges, such as health risks.

Are we inflicting pain and suffering on sentient creatures when we create certain types of chimeras?

Will transgenic interventions in humans create physical or behavioral traits that may or may not be readily distinguished from what is usually perceived to be human?

If the blending of nonhuman animal and human DNA results, intentionally or not, in chimeric entities possessing degrees of intelligence or sentience never before seen in nonhuman animals, should these entities be given rights and special protections?

What unintended personal, social, and cultural consequences could result? Will these interventions redefine what it means to be normal? Who will have access to these technologies, and how will scarce resources be allocated?
Are we crossing species boundaries?

Some individuals have argued that crossing species boundaries is unnatural, immoral, and in violation of Gods laws. This argument presumes that species boundaries are fixed and readily delineated. However, a recent issue of theAmerican Journal of Bioethics reflects that the notion of species boundaries is a hotly debated topic.10 Some bioethicists have pointed out there are a variety of species concepts: biological, morphological, ecological, typological, evolutionary, phylogenetic, to name a few.11 All of these definitions of what a species is reflect changing theories and the varying purposes for which different species are used by individuals.
Will the technology facilitate transmission of disease?

While the issue of the morality of crossing species boundaries reflects differing world views and may be conceptually unclear, there are known risks associated with xenotransplantation of transgenic cells or organsfrom animals to humans. For example, there is a small but significant risk of the transmission of usually fatal zoonotic diseases, such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (also known as mad cow disease), porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERVs), and Nipah encephalitis.12 The introduction of these diseases to the human population could have devastating consequences. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has banned xenotransplantation trials using nonhuman primates until the procedure has been adequately demonstrated to be safe and ethical issues have been sufficiently publicly discussed.
Is it ethical to create altered animals that may suffer?

The risks and benefits of the experimental use of animals need to be discussed as well. Similarly, by combining animal DNA and human DNA with plant DNA, do we run the risk of

creating new diseases for which there is no treatment? The long-term risks to the environment are unknown. Various bioethicists, environmentalists, and animal rights activists have argued that it is wrong to create monsters or animals that would suffer as a result of genetic alternation (for example, a pig with no legs), and that such experimentation should be banned.13

Altering Humans
Is it possible the technology may be used to create slaves?

Several bioethicists have called for a ban on species-altering technology that would be enforced by an international tribunal.14 Part of the rationale for a ban is the concern that such technology could be used to create a slave race, that is, a race of subhumans that would be exploited. In April 1998, scientists Jeremy Rifkin and Stuart Newman, who are both opposed to genetically modified organisms (GMOs), applied for a patent for a humanzee, part human and part chimpanzee, to fuel debate and to draw attention to potential abuses on this issue. The United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) denied the patent on the grounds that it violated the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which prohibits slavery. The decision has been appealed, but the appeal has not yet reached a court, and it may never do so. The appeal may be dismissed on other technical grounds.
Can the definition of human be applied to altered species containing human genes?

Although the USPTO has permitted the extensive patenting of bioengineered life forms and human DNA, the question that has been raised by Newman and Rifkins application is one that will not be resolved easily: What constitutes a human being? A genetic definition is not very helpful, given the variability of gene sequences between individuals. A species definition is controversial, as mentioned earlier. If we look to characteristics for a definition, there are many characteristics that humans share with primates and other animals.15 If we create a being that has the ability to speak and perhaps even reason but looks like a dog or a chimp, should that being be given all the rights and protection of a human being? Some bioethicists argue that the definition of human being should be more expansive and protective, rather than more restrictive. Others argue that definitions that are more expansive could be denigrating to humanitys status and create a financial disincentive to patenting creations that could be of use to humanity. The question of whether or not the definition should be more expansive or more restrictive will have to be considered as courts, legislatures, and institutions address laws regarding genetic discrimination.
Will society manipulate the genetic traits of children?

In a similar vein, the International Olympic Committee has expressed concern that athletes will soon employ genetic engineering to get an edge.16 If individuals are willing to genetically manipulate their children to make them better athletes, then its likely individuals will be willing to manipulate their children to be brighter, better looking, more musically inclined, or whatever the parents think would give them an advantage. Opponents of genetic

manipulation argue that by allowing this we run the risk of creating a race of superhumans, changing what it means to be normal and increasing the ever-widening gap between the haves and the have-nots. Proponents of genetic manipulation argue that currently parents can and do give their children advantages by sending them to better schools or giving them growth hormone and that banning genetic manipulation is a denial of individual liberties. These arguments also reflect the opposing philosophies regarding how scarce resources should be allocated.
Society must address the ethical and legal issues of altered organisms.

Conclusion
Transgenics and genetic engineering present intriguing and difficult challenges for 21st century scientists and ethicists. Until we as a society or, perhaps, as a global entity can agree on what beings, human or otherwise, are worthy of moral and legal status and respect, we can expect intense cross-disciplinary debate and discussion as new intelligent life is created through science and medicine.