HYDRODYNAMIC ANALYSIS

FOR OFFSHORE LNG TERMINALS

Xiao-Bo Chen
Research Department, BUREAU VERITAS
17bis, Place des Reets, 92400 Paris La Defense (France)
Email: xiao-bo.chen@bureauveritas.com
New developments in the hydrodynamic analysis of second-order wave interaction with
the oating system are presented. They consist of the application of the middle-eld
formulation newly-obtained by Chen (2004) to evaluate not only the drift loads but also
the low-frequency wave loads, and the adoption of the notation of fairly perfect uid to
introduce the dissipation in resonant wave kinematics due to complex interaction between
oating bodies in ooading operations. The numerical results validated with measure-
ments of model tests show that the Newman approximation largely used in practice is
not appropriate in most applications, and that the usual near-eld formulation gives re-
sults of low-frequency loads with poor convergence. The innovations presented here solve
these issues and provide accurate and ecient computation of full QTF. Furthermore,
the dynamic eect of liquid motion in tanks is analyzed and taken into account in the
computation of global responses.
INTRODUCTION
Recently, there are more and more large oating LNG terminals being developed in
remote oshore locations where marine environment can be hostile, in order to distance
themselves from neighbors and minimize permitting issues. As the important part of the
LNG system, the terminal can be of a barge type LNG/FPSO including accommoda-
tions, gas preconditioning and liqueed plant, a number of storage tanks and ooading
facilities. It serves also as a support to moor a LNG carrier during ooading operations.
The mooring of LNG carrier in side-by-side of the terminal is being considered as the
preferred option. In the design of such mooring system of LNG/FPSO terminals and
LNG carriers in deep water or in a zone of shallow water, one key issue is the accu-
rate simulation of low-frequency motions of the system to which the second-order wave
loading is well known as the main source of excitation. Associated with this issue, the
multibody interaction and the dynamic eect of liquid motion in tanks have to be taken
into account in a consistent and ecient way.
The formulations of second-order wave loads are elaborated after this introduction.
In particular, the low-frequency load is given by its complete expression including the
contribution of the second-order velocity potential. In the usual way, the low-frequency
wave load is expressed by the sum of one part depending on the rst-order quantities
and another contributed by the second-order wave eld. The rst part being function of
quadratic product of the rst-order wave eld and responses can be directly evaluated
once the rst-order solution is obtained. The second part can be further decomposed into
one component depending on the incoming waves and another relating the second-order
diracted waves. The indirect method (Molin, 1979) is used to evaluate the second-order
diraction load which is formulated by the sum of two integrals of Haskind type, one on
the hull and another on the free surface. The analysis by developing the low-frequency
load into a Taylor series with respect to the frequency () shows that the Haskind
integral on the free surface is of order [()
2
] or higher so that the approximation of
rst-order () is proposed in Chen (1994), one order better than the zeroth-order
Newman approximation largely used in practice.
Amongst the publication on the low-frequency load, more attention is paid on the
constant drift load. In particular, two classes of formulations have been developed.
One is called the near-eld formulation derived from the pressure integration on bodys
hull, as in Molin (1979), Pinkster (1981) or Ogilive (1983). Another called the far-eld
formulation in Maruo (1964) and Newman (1967) is obtained by applying the momentum
theorem to the uid domain. Since the starting points of the two formulations are so
distinct that their appearances are very dierent especially for oating bodies, additional
terms associated with bodys motion appear in the near-eld formulation while the far-
eld formulation keeps the same form without explicitly involving bodys motions. The
connection between both formulations has been an interesting issue.
Very recently, an important analysis on the classical near-eld formulation has been
realized in Chen (2004). Based on the use of two variants of Stokess theorems given
in Dai (1998), its shown mathematically that both formulations are indeed equivalent.
This theoretical breakthrough brings, in addition, several new formulations. A new near-
eld formulation is obtained by direct application of the variants of Stokess theorems.
It is essentially similar to the classical one with some improvements as terms associated
directly with bodys translations and rotations disappear. Applying the Greens theorem
to the domain limited by a control surface, a second new formulation is obtained and
involves the integrals on the control surface and along its intersection with the mean
free surface. Unlike the formulation given in Ferreira & Lee (1994) obtained by applying
the momentum theorem and applicable only to the drift loads, this new formulation
is absolutely general as it can apply to the high-frequency loads as well as the low-
frequency loads, to horizontal load components as well as vertical load components. An
interesting feature of the formulation concerns the low-frequency wave load for which
the formulation is largely simplied. In particular, the horizontal components of drift
loads involve only a surface integral on the control surface and a line integral along its
intersection with the free surface. This formulation written on the control surface at
some distance from the body is called as the middle-eld formulation. It is shown that it
has the same virtue as the far-eld formulation to have rapid numerical convergence for
horizontal drift loads. Furthermore, in the case of multiple bodies, the control surface
can be one surrounding an individual body and the wave loads applied on the surrounded
body are then obtained, while the far-eld formulation provides only the sum of wave
loads applied on all bodies.
An important application of the developed method is the multibody interaction.
The side-by-side situation amplies the interaction and can yield large kinematics of
wave eld in the conned zone. Within the framework of the classical linear potential
theory, there is not any limit in predicting wave elevations at the free surface while
the resonant motion in the reality must be largely damped by dierent mechanisms of
dissipation. Unlike the method developed by Buchner et al. (2001) or that by Newman
(2004), we apply directly the authentic equations, presented in Chen (2004), of the
fairly perfect uid involving the energy dissipation via introducing the damping force.
The integral equation extended to a limited zone of the free surface is then developed.
Numerical examples show that the method is ecient and provide results closer to the
experimental measurements.
The eect of liquid motion in partially-lled tanks of a LNG carrier is taken into
account in the seakeeping analysis. Classically, only the hydrostatic eect is taken into
account by subtracting the corresponding stiness from the global hydrostatic matrix.
This is only valid for very low wave frequencies. The dynamic eect is important es-
pecially at a wave frequency close to one resonance frequency of tanks. Under the
assumption of linear potential ow, the uid motion in tanks can be evaluated by solv-
ing the boundary value problem involving the same Green function which satises the
free surface condition. To approximate the damping eect to liquid motion in tanks, the
condition on tanks wall is modied by introducing a small positive parameter equivalent
to a partial reection of walls. This implies that the main part of dissipation occurs in
the boundary layer. Numerical results show that the approximation is good enough to
capture the major coupling eect of liquid motion with the global motion of vessels.
Finally, some discussions and conclusion on the foregoing analysis are addressed.
Furthermore, an important issue on the set-down in the second-order Stokes waves is
raised. The inconsistence of the global set-down in regular waves and in bichromatic
waves when one of two frequencies tend to another has been controversy : ones suppose
the zero constant set-down and others argue that the limit of a bichromatic wave is
not a regular wave. The analysis in Chen (2005) gives a consistent expression of the
second-order incoming waves which includes an additional term ignored in the classical
formulation of Stokes waves. This analysis is hoped to be useful in healing the breach.
LOW-FREQUENCY LOAD AND APPROXIMATION
Numerous studies have been devoted to the analysis of second-order wave loads. A
non-exhaustive list includes the classical work by Maruo (1964), Newman (1967, 1974),
Molin (1979), Pinkster (1980) and Ogilvie (1983). The general formulation of second-
order wave loads can be obtained by directly integration of the second-order pressure
on the hull surface of bodys mean position and the variation of the rst-order loads
due to the rst-order motions. The second-order wave load is then composed of one
part dependent on the quadratic product of the rst-order quantities and another part
contributed by the second-order potential :
(F, M) = (F
1
, M
1
) + (F
2
, M
2
) with (F
2
, M
2
) =
__
H
ds
(2)
t
(n, rn) (1)
where F = (F
x
, F
y
, F
z
) stands for the forces, M = (M
x
, M
y
, M
z
) for the moments
and
(2)
for the second-order potential. The commonly-used formula of the rst part
(F
1
, M
1
) is given by :
F
1
=
g
2
_

d (2
3
)n +
__
H
ds
_
()
2
/2+X
t
+R
t
_
n (2a)
M
1
=
g
2
_

d (2
3
)(rn)+
__
H
ds
_
_
()
2
/2+X
t
+R
t

(rn)+
t
Tn
_
(2b)
in which all quantities are of the rst order as for the free-surface elevation, for the
velocity potential, X=T+Rr=(
1
,
2
,
3
) for the displacement due to the translation
T=(
1
,
2
,
3
) and rotation R=(
1
,
2
,
3
), and r=(xx
0
, yy
0
, zz
0
) for the position
vector with respect to the reference point (x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) of rotation. In (2), stands for
the intersection of the hull H at its mean position with the mean free surface F(z =0)
which is supposed to be wall-sided. The normal vector n is oriented inwards to the uid,
as already described previously.
The line integral in (2) is the result of the integration of the rst-order pressure
on the intermittent zone around the waterline. The rst term in the hull integral of (2)
comes directly from the convective term in Bernoullis equation while the second term is
the correction of the rst-order dynamic pressure with respect to the displacement. The
term associated with the rotation R takes into account of the variation of the normal
vector. Finally, the last term in (2b) is the moment induced by the rst-order dynamic
pressure applied to translated reference point.
We consider bichromatic waves associated with frequencies (
j
,
k
) in which the
rst-order quantities (, X, R, T) are supposed to be in the same form as the rst-order
velocity potential written by
=
_
a
j

j
e
i
j
t
_
+
_
a
k

k
e
i
k
t
_
(3)
with (a
j
, a
k
) being amplitudes of rst-order incoming waves. Introducing the form (3)
for all rst-order quantities into (2), we obtain dierent components of the second-order
load associated with dierent frequencies equal to (2
j
), (2
k
), (
j
+
k
), 0 and (
j

k
),
respectively. Since we are interested here only to the low-frequency load, the components
associated with the frequencies (2
j
), (2
k
) and (
j
+
k
) are ignored. Furthermore,
the drift load (at zero frequency) can be obtained by the limit of the low-frequency load
associated with the frequency (
j

k
) when
k
tends to
j
. Without loss of generality,
we may write the low-frequency load by :
(F, M)=
_
a
j
a
k
(f , m)e
i(
j

k
)t
_
with (f , m)=(f
1
, m
1
)+(f
20
, m
20
)+(f
2D
, m
2D
) (4)
where a
k
stands for the complex conjugate of a
k
. This rule to denote the complex
conjugate by the over line is applied to all rst-order quantities in the following.
The rst part (f
1
, m
1
) can be directly obtained by (2) while the second part (f
2
, m
2
)
is decomposed into the component (f
20
, m
20
) contributed by the incoming waves and
that (f
20
, m
2D
) by the diracted waves :
(f
20
, m
20
)=i(
j

k
)
__
H
ds
(2)
0
(n, rn) and (f
2D
, m
2D
)=i(
j

k
)
__
H
ds
(2)
D
(n, rn)
The second-order incoming velocity potential is written as

(2)
0
= iA
g
2
cosh(k
j
k
k
)(z+h)/ cosh(k
j
k
k
)h
g(k
j
k
k
) tanh(k
j
k
k
)h (
j

k
)
2
e
ik

(x cos +y sin )
(5)
with A dened by
A =

j

k
k
j
k
k
_
1 + tanh k
j
htanh k
k
h

+
1
2
_
k
2
j
/
j
cosh
2
k
j
h

k
2
k
/
k
cosh
2
k
k
h
_
The contribution by the second-order diraction potential can be evaluated by Molins
method (1979) :
(f
2D
, m
2D
)
j
= i(
j

k
)
__
H
ds
_

(2)
0
n
N
H
_

j
+ i(
j

k
)

g
__
F
ds N
F

j
(6)
where
j
is the additional radiation potential at (
j

k
). The non-homogeneous terms
are given by :
N
F
=i(
j

k
)
_

k
P
+
j
P

k
0

i
j
2g
_

j
(
2
k

z
+ g
2
zz
)
k
P
+ gk
2
k
(1tanh
2
k
k
h)
j
P

k
0

+
i
k
2g
_

k
(
2
j

z
+ g
2
zz
)
j
P
+ gk
2
j
(1tanh
2
k
j
h)
k
P

(7a)
2N
H
=(i
k
x
k

k
)(R
j
n)(i
j
x
j
+
j
)(R
k
n)(x
j
)
k
n(x
k
)
j
n (7b)
in which
j,k
P
=(
j,k

j,k
0
) stands for the perturbation part, the sum of the diraction
and radiation potentials.
In summary, the second-order low-frequency wave load is composed of one part
depending on the rst-order quantities and another part on the second-order potential.
The second part can be further decomposed into one term of integration of incoming
wave pressure (f
20
, m
20
), one Haskind integral on the hull (f
2H
, m
2H
) and one Haskind
integral over the free surface (f
2F
, m
2F
) resulting from the second-order forcing on the
free surface. The sum of last two represents the integration of diraction wave pressure
(f
2D
, m
2D
), according to (6). Thus, we may write the lth component of QTF :
F

(
j
,
k
) = (f
1
, m
1
)

+ (f
20
, m
20
)

+ (f
2H
, m
2H
)

+ (f
2F
, m
2F
)

(8)
Furthermore, the QTF F

(
j
,
k
) is assumed to be regular function of (
j
,
k
) and a
Taylor expansion with respect to =(
j

k
) can be developed :
F

(
j
,
k
) = F

0
(
j
) + F

1
(
j
) + F

2
(
j
)()
2
/2 +
The analysis in Chen (1994) shows that the free-surface Haskind integral (f
2F
, m
2F
)

represented by the second integral on the right side of (6) is of order O[()
2
] or higher
so that an approximation of the low-frequency QTF is proposed. This approximation
consists of keeping all terms of (8) excluding only the free-surface integral (f
2F
, m
2F
)

is of order O(), one order higher than the approximation of Newman (1974) which
consists of using only the drift loads and is qualied as the zeroth-order approximation.
Furthermore, the numerical results presented in Chen (1994) using the rst-order ap-
proximation are in good agreement with experimental measurements on the NKossa
FPSO while the wave loads based on Newman approximation are largely underesti-
mated. As shown on Figure 1, the low-frequency force in surge at =0.06 rad/s is
depicted on the left by the solid line for the rst-order approximation and by the dashed
line derived from the Newman approximation. On the right, the surge response spectra
by using the rst-order approximation (solid line) and Newman approximation (dashed
line) are compared with the experimental measurements represented by circles. The time
Figure 1: Low-frequency load F
x
(=0.06) (left) and Surge response spectrum (right)
simulation of low-frequency motions conrm the Newman approximation gives results
too low: RMS being 35% (and extreme values up to 60%) smaller than those of model
tests. Very recently, Newman (2004) conrms that the zeroth-order approximation is
poor as the waterdepth is below 100m. It is further recognized that the approximation
including the eects of the second-order incoming wave potential, and its diraction by
the body, but not the part resulting from the second-order forcing on the free surface
(as proposed by Chen, 1994) gives much better results.
MIDDLE-FIELD FORMULATION
The pressure-integration formulation (2) to compute the rst part of low-frequency load
is called as near-eld one since the involved terms are evaluated on the hull and along
the waterline. In the particular case of
k
=
j
, the low-frequency wave load becomes
constant drift load which is contributed only by the rst part. Another formulation
base on the momentum theorem for the horizontal drift forces has been developed by
Maruo (1960) and extended to the moment around the vertical axis by Newman (1967).
This formulation involving rst-order wave eld in the far eld is often called far-eld
formulation and preferable in practice thanks to its better convergence and accuracy. By
performing a local momentum analysis, Ferreira & Lee (1994) developed a formulation
over a control surface surrounding the body to evaluate the constant drift load.
Unlike the previous approach based on the momentum theorem for the drift load,
the middle-eld formulation for low-frequency load has been developed by Chen (2004).
Starting with the near-eld formulation and making use of the variants of Stokes theo-
rem given in Dai (1998), we obtain a new near-eld formulation :
F
1
=
g
2
_

d
_

2
n2(Xn)k
_
+

2
__
H
ds
_
()n+2
t
(Xn)
_
(9a)
M
1
=
g
2
_

d
_

2
(rn)2(Xn)(rk)
_
+

2
__
H
ds
_
()
2
(rn)+2(r
t
)(Xn)
_
(9b)
which is essentially similar to (2) with some interesting improvements such as all terms
with body motion (T, R) disappear and the term involving the displacement in the
waterline integral gives a contribution only to the vertical components. Applying the
Green theorem in a domain D surrounded by S =H C F with the body hull H at
its mean position, a ctitious (control) surface C surrounding the body and the mean
free surface F limited by the intersection of H with z =0 and that
c
of C with z =0,
we obtain :
F
1
=g
_

d (Xn)k+
__
H
ds
_
(X
t
n)+
t
(Xn)
_

__
F
ds
_
(
z
+
t
)(
zt
+/2)k
_
+
g
2
_

c
d
2
n +

2
__
C
ds
_
2
n
()n
_
(10a)
M
1
=g
_

d (Xn)(rk)+
__
H
ds r
_
(X
t
n)+
t
(Xn)
_

__
F
ds
_
r(
z
+
t
)(
zt
+/2)(rk)
_
+
g
2
_

c
d
2
(rn) +

2
__
C
ds
_

n
(r)()(rn)
_
(10b)
The new formulation (10) is absolutely general as it can apply to the high-frequency loads
as well as the low-frequency loads, to horizontal load components as well as vertical load
components. The control surface C can be at a nite distance from the body or one
pushed to innity. In the rst case, C may be pushed back to H while in the second case,
C may be composed of the surface of a vertical cylinder plus the seabed. Furthermore, in
the case of multiple bodies, the control surface C can be one surrounding an individual
body and (10) gives the wave loads applied on the surrounded body.
An interesting feature of (10) concerns the low-frequency wave load for which the
formulation is simplied. It can be easily checked that the values of the hull integral
and of the rst term in the free-surface integral are of order O(). Furthermore, the
waterline integral as well as the second term in the free-surface integral contribute only
to the vertical loads including the vertical force F
z
1
and moments around the horizontal
axis (M
x
1
, M
y
1
). Thus, the horizontal components (F
x
1
, F
y
1
, M
z
1
) of low-frequency loads
can be expressed as :
F
x
1
=

j

k
2g
_

c
d
j

k
n
1
+

2
__
C
ds
_

j
n

k
x
+
k
n

j
x

k
n
1

+f
x
1
(11a)
F
y
1
=

j

k
2g
_

c
d
j

k
n
2
+

2
__
C
ds
_

j
n

k
y
+
k
n

j
y

k
n
2

+f
y
1
(11b)
M
z
1
=

j

k
2g
_

c
d
j

k
n
6
+

2
__
C
ds
_

j
n
(x
k
y
y
k
x
)+
k
n
(x
j
y
y
j
x
)
j

k
n
6

+m
z
1
(11c)
with the additional terms (f
x
1
, f
y
1
, m
z
1
) given by :
f
x
1
=

2
__
H
ds
_

j
n

k
x
/
j

k
n

j
x
/
k

2g
__
F
ds
_

k
x

j
x

(12a)
f
y
1
=

2
__
H
ds
_

j
n

k
y
/
j

k
n

j
y
/
k

2g
__
F
ds
_

k
y

j
y

(12b)
m
z
1
=

2
__
H
ds
_

j
n
(x
k
y
y
k
x
)/
j

k
n
(x
j
y
y
j
x
)/
k

2g
__
F
ds
_

j
(x
k
y
y
k
x
)
k

k
(x
j
y
y
j
x
)

(12c)
The formulations (11-12) provide, for the rst time, an original way to evaluate the
horizontal components of low-frequency wave loads. The additional terms given by (12)
are of order (). If the bodys motion is small (X0) in waves of small period, the
integral over hull surface is negligible since
n
=X
t
n on H. The integral over the part of
free surface is ease and accurate since the velocity potentials are not evaluated at bodys
surface.
In regular waves, the formulation (11) reduces to the rst two integrals on the
control surface since
j
=
k
. The low-frequency loads by (11) becomes the drift loads.
If the control surface C is put to innity, the expression (11) is in agreement with
those by Maruo (1960) and Newman (1967). On the surface C at innity, asymptotic
expressions of the rst-order potential can be used to simplify further the formulation
to the single integrals involving the Fourier polar variable. This shows formally that the
usual near-eld formulation and far-eld formulation are indeed equivalent.
The near-eld, middle-eld and far-eld formulations are rst compared in the com-
putation of second-order drift loads on a LNG terminal of size (LengthWidthDraught
= 350m50m15m) moored in water of nite depth (h =75m). The meshes of the hull
composed of 1490 panels, and the control surfaces C F including the part of free sur-
face F are illustrated on the left part of Figure 2. Only the half of the hull (y 0) and
that of CF for (y 0) are presented in the gure. On the right part of Figure 2, the
non-dimensional values of drift load F
y
D
/(gL/2) with L = 350m in waves of heading
=195

are depicted against the wave frequency (). Three meshes composed of 1490,
3816 and 7824 panels on the hull surface are used. The results using the near-eld and
far-eld formulations are represented by the dashed, dot-dashed and solid lines for three
meshes (1490, 3616 and 7824 panels), respectively. The results using the middle-eld
formulation are shown by the symbols of circles (1490 panels), crosses (3616 panels) and
squares (7924 panels). The curves associated with the near-eld formulation are sepa-
rated for > 0.45 rad/s. This shows that the results using the near-eld formulation
are not convergent in most part of wave-frequency range. On the other side, the results
obtained by the far-eld formulation (dashed, dot-dashed and solid lines) are indistin-
guishable on the whole range of wave frequency. The same feature is observed for the
results associated with the middle-eld formulation (circles, crosses and squares). Fur-
thermore, the results of middle-eld formulation are in excellent agreement with those
of far-eld formulation.

E E
Wave heading
Control surfaces
Terminals hull
x
y
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Middle-eld and far-eld
Near-eld
Figure 2: Terminals hull & control surfaces (left) and drift loads F
y
D
(right)
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Middle-eld
Near-eld
Near-eld
Middle-eld
Figure 3: Real (left) and imaginary (right) parts of F
y
1
in oblique sea
Now, we consider the low-frequency load F
y
1
/(gL/2) at a dierence frequency
(
j

k
)=0.04 rad/s in waves of the same heading =195

. The results in complex are

presented on Figure 3 against wave frequencies (
k
). The real part and imaginary part
of F
y
1
are depicted respectively on the left and right part of the gure. The results ob-
tained by using the near-eld formulation are illustrated by the dashed, dot-dashed and
solid lines associated with the meshes of 1490, 3616 and 7924 panels, respectively. The
results obtained from the middle-eld formulation are shown by the symbols of circles,
crosses and squares associated with three meshes. Again, we observe that the near-
eld formulation gives the results with poor precision while the middle-eld formulation
provides the results of excellent convergence.
MULTIBODY INTERACTION IN OFFLOADING SYSTEMS
The interaction of multiple bodies includes the mechanical and hydrodynamic interac-
tions. The mechanical interaction is dened by the mechanical properties of the con-
nection between bodies which depend only on the design and operation procedure. The
hydrodynamic interaction is more complex and requires a complete solution taking ac-
count of full interaction between multiple bodies. In some cases such as side-by-side
vessels, the hydrodynamic interaction may annul any motion in the conned zone at
some wave frequencies, or create violent kinematics of wave eld at other wave frequen-
cies. Particular attention to this resonant phenomena is paid and new method based on
the notion of fairly perfect uid is developed to take into account the damping mecha-
nism in uid.
A few of publications have been realized recently on the resonant motion of wave
eld in the conned zone between two oating bodies. Unlike the resonant response of
bodys motion associated with the balance of inertia and stiness loads, this resonant
kinematics of uid is due to the hydrodynamic interaction - wave kinematics annulled
or amplied by the complex scattering between bodies. Within the framework of the
classical linear potential theory, there is not any limit in predicting wave elevations at
the free surface while the resonant motion in the reality must be largely damped by
dierent mechanisms of dissipation. This unrealistic uid motion magnies the wave
loads on the bodies. To hold the wave motion back to a realistic level, Buchner et al.
(2001) developed a method consisting to place a lid on the gap in between the two
bodies. The unrealistic wave kinematics is then suppressed. In fact, no wavy elevation
is possible under the rigid lid and noticeable perturbation around the ends of the lid
due to the diraction eect can be observed. To make wavy motion allowable on the
lid, Newman (2004) renders the lid exible using a set of basis functions of Chebychev
polynomials. The deformation of the exible mat (equal to the free-surface elevation) is
then reduced by introducing a damping coecient.
Unlike above methods using an articial lid, we apply directly the authentic equa-
tions, presented in Chen (2004), of the fairly perfect uid involving already the energy
dissipation via introducing the damping force. The dissipation term appears in the
boundary condition on the free surface :

z
k

ik

= 0 for P F(z = 0) (13)

with k

=
2
/g and the dissipation coecient. Following the analysis in Chen (2004),
we have :
(P) =
__
S
ds (Q)G(P, Q) with S = H F

F (14)
and the integral equations to determine the source distribution are :
2(P) +
__
S
ds (Q)G
n
(P, Q) = v
n
P H (15a)
4(P)
__
S
ds (Q)G
n
(P, Q) = 0 P F

(15b)
4(P) + ik

__
S
ds (Q)G(P, Q) = 0 P F (15c)
The integral equation (15b) on the internal waterplane surface F

is necessary to elim-
inate the irregular frequencies. The integral equation (15c) is written over entire F.
However, we know =0 if =0 from (15c). As we need to apply a non-zero value of
only in the zone where the uid kinematics is susceptible to be violent, the discretization
of F is limited. A practical way is to mesh the zone between two vessels on which a con-
stant or a distribution of varying in space can be applied. The rst example concerns
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10



Num. =0
Num. =0.016
Measurement
Gap meshed as the damping zone

Figure 4: Side-by-side barges & damping zone (left) and wave elevation in the gap (right)
2 side-by-side barges of the same dimension in meter (LBT =2.470.60.18) with
mechanical properties (z
G
=0.02 and gyration radii=0.187/0.527/0.527) free oating in
head waves. The mesh of barges and the whole gap (0.116 as width) meshed as the
damping zone are presented on the left of Figure 4. The free-surface elevation is mea-
sured at the center of the gap. The results of numerical computation with two values
of parameter = 0 and 0.016 are drawn on the right together with those of measure-
ments, against the wave frequency (rad/s). Large free-surface elevations are remarkable
at three wave frequencies. The results with = 0 (no damping) are much larger than
those measured while the results with =0.016 agree well with the measurements. By
comparison between the curves of numerical results corresponding to = 0 and 0.016,
we see that the damping aects only the values in the range of frequencies around one
where large elevations occur, as expected.
The second example is the case of a Wigley hull placed side-by-side with a barge,
presented in Kashiwagi (2004). Both vessels are of dimension in meter (LBT =
20.30.125) and set in beam waves with the two separation distances (S
1
=1.097 and
S
2
=1.797) between two centerlines of the vessels. The case of S
1
=1.097 is considered

Damping zone
Control surfaces

Figure 5: Side-by-side vessels & damping zone (left) and control surfaces (right)
here. The mesh of two vessels is represented on the left of Figure 5 on which a rectangular
zone (damping zone) between the vessels is shown as well. On the damping zone, The
values = 0 (no damping) and = 0.016 are applied. On the right of the gure, two
separate control surfaces surrounding respectively the two vessels are illustrated together
with the vessels mesh. The drift loads in the beam sea with the Wigley hull on the
weather side are computed and compared with the measurements by Kashiwagi et al.
(2004). Two vessels are xed during model tests. The middle-eld formulation is used
and the results are found to be quite close to those by the near-eld formulation. The
comparison of drift loads is presented on Figure 6. The sway drift forces F
y
D
/(gLa
2
0
/4)
on the Wigley hull and on the barge are shown against the wavenumber k

L/2 on the
left and on the right, respectively. Furthermore, the sway drift forces on the Wigley hull
alone (without the barge) and those on the barge alone (without the Wigley hull) are
represented by the dashed lines. It can be seen on Figure 6 that the numerical results
from the middle-eld formulation are in good agreement with measurements, except
those around k

L/2 4.71 where large values appear. The curves (solid lines) with
=0.016 are very close to those (dot-dashed lines) of =0 (no damping) except around
k

L/2 4.71 where the curves with damping are closer to the model tests, as expected.
This shows that the importance of damping eect on the strong interaction between two
vessels, and that the utility of the small parameter introduced in the boundary condition
at the free surface. It is remarkable that the sway drift force on the Wigley hull on the
weather side of beam waves becomes large negative around k

L/2 4.71 while the force

on the barge (on the lee side) keeps the same sign and with large values. The sum of
forces on two vessels remains positive in the whole range of wave frequency. This shows
again that the multibody interaction is important and can create large forces of repulsion
(and attraction as well) between two bodies. At large wave frequencies, the barge on
the lee side withstands less forces than those when it is alone due to the screen eect of
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8




-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8




M.F. =0
M.F. =0.016
Measurement
Wigley hull alone
M.F. =0
M.F. =0.016
Measurement
Barge alone
Figure 6: Drift load F
y
D
on Wigley hull (left) and that on the barge (right) in beam sea
the Wigley hull on the weather side. At the limit of innity frequency, the drift forces
on the barge should be nil while those on the Wigley hull tend to the value (gLa
2
0
/2)
when it stands alone in beam waves.
EFFECTS OF LIQUID MOTION IN TANKS
The full account of liquid motion in tanks such as sloshing eect is dicult due to the
non-linearity of the phenomena and a time-domain solution of coupling is necessary as
presented in Malenica et al. (2004). It is assumed that the major eect to vessels global
motion is linear so that a solution in frequency domain is possible. This assumption is
indeed valid when the liquid motion in tanks is not violent in the range outside of
resonant sloshing frequency. At low wave frequencies, only the hydrostatic eect is
important and can be taken into account just by introducing negative values for the
non-zero terms of stiness matrix :
C

44
= gI
yy
; C

45
= gI
xy
= C

54
and C

55
= gI
xx
(16a)
with I
xx,xy,yy
are the moments of waterplane with respect to its center.
In general cases especially at a wave frequency close to one of resonance, the liquid
motion induces additional inertia loads and damping if energy dissipation is modeled.
In fact, the motion equation of the vessel is modied as :
6

j=1
_

2
(M
kj
+A
kj
+A

kj
) i(B
kj
+B

kj
) + C
kj
+C

kj

a
j
= F
k
(16b)
for k = 1, 2, , 6 and the inertia matrix M
kj
associated with the mass distribution
excluding the liquid in tanks. The additional mass matrix A

kj
is equal to that to
consider the liquid as a solid mass in classical approximation valid for low frequencies
and the damping B

kj
=0 in this case.
The linear velocity potential due to forcing oscillations of the tank can be solved
in the same way as the solution of radiation problem for the vessel. The matrices
A

kj
and B

kj
can then be obtained for each wave frequency. At low wave frequencies,
the contribution of liquid in tanks is nearly like solid mass. When wave frequency
approaches the resonant frequency, the value of inertia increases rapidly without limit
at the resonance. The added-inertia changes the sign when the wave frequency goes
across the tank resonant frequency. This variation of inertia modies the response of
the barge. Instead of one peak without dynamic eect of liquid motion, there are two :
one on the left of the tank resonance and another on the right. This can be explained
by the fact that the inertia is largely amplied when the excitation frequency is close to
but smaller than the rst tank resonant frequency, the peak of global response is then
shifted on the left. At the tank resonance, the response is largely reduced due to the
large value (up to innity if no damping) of added-inertia. At a higher wave frequency,
the large negative values of the inertia due to liquid motion yield a second peak resultant
from a new balance between the total inertia force and stiness force of the system.
We consider a LNG carrier of 274m in length, 44.2m in width and 11.58 in draught.
The tank No.2 of size (LB=47.1839.1) and the tank No.4 of size (LB=41.439.1)
with a lling height of 10m are placed at the position 144.55m and 64.25m from the
after perpendicular of LNG, respectively. The bottom of tanks is at the height of 3m
from the baseline. The mesh of LNG together with the two tanks are illustrated on
the left of Figure 7. Dierent sets of model tests in irregular waves varying signicant
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8







Num. =0
Num. =0.02
Test n

1
Test n

2
Test n

3
Test n

4
Test n

5
Figure 7: LNG carrier and two tanks (left) and sway RAOs in beam sea (right)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8







0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8







Num. =0
Num. =0.02
Test n

1
Test n

2
Test n

3
Test n

4
Test n

5
Num. =0
Num. =0.02
Test n

1
Test n

2
Test n

3
Test n

4
Test n

5
Figure 8: Heave RAOs (left) and roll RAOs (right) in beam sea
height H
S
from 2.5m to 6m and peak periods T
P
from 8s to 16s associated with the
spectrum of Jonswap type were made with a length scale of 1:50. The results of numerical
computations with =0 and 0.02 are compared with those of measurements. The RAO
of sway motion is presented on the right of gure 7 while those of heave and roll are
on the left and right of Figure 8. There is not signicant dierence between the results
with =0 and those with =0.02 except the peak values of sway and roll are slightly
smaller for =0.02, as expected. It is shown that the numerical results are in very good
agreement with model tests. Not only the position of peaks in sway and roll motions
of numerical computation coincides with that of measurements, but also the values of
peaks in two sets of results are in excellent agreement.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The low-frequency wave load is composed of one part depending on the rst-order quan-
tities and another part contributed by the second-order wave eld. The zeroth-order
approximation (Newman, 1974) consists of using only the drift load derived only from
the rst-part of wave load is shown to not be appropriate for most applications. On
the other side, the rst-order approximation (Chen, 1994) gives much better results and
is considered to be sucient for most applications in deep water as well as in water of
nite depth.
To evaluate the quadratic transfer function of low-frequency load in bichromatic
waves, the near-eld formulation derived from the pressure integration is largely used
and considered to be the only way to go, unlike the constant drift load for which the
far-eld formulation based on the momentum theorem is available as well. However,
the near-eld formulation is reputed by its poor precision and convergence, especially
for structures hull with sharp geometrical variations. The method using higher-order
description of hull geometry (B-spline patches, for example) was hoped to give better
accurate results than the lower-order method (constant panels). However, the higher-
order method is more sensitive to the singularities which are present in the velocity eld
at sharp corners. As concluded in Newman & Lee (2001), this sensitivity is manifested
when the tangential uid velocity is computed as in the evaluation of the mean pressure
or the low-frequency pressure. As a result, the low-frequency load converges slowly or
in the worst cases, it may be non-convergent.
The middle-eld formulation newly-obtained in Chen (2004) solves this issue. Its
application in the computation of second-order low-frequency loads conrms its im-
portant advantages. Firstly, it permits to make the connection between the near-eld
formulation derived from the pressure integration and the far-eld formulation based on
the momentum theorem for the constant drift load. Secondly, it accumulates the virtues
of both near-eld and far-eld formulations, i.e. the excellent precision of far-eld for-
mulation and the access to the low-frequency wave loads as the near-eld formulation.
Furthermore, in the case of multiple bodies, the middle-eld formulation provides the
drift load as well as the low-frequency load on each individual body while the far-eld
formulation can only give the sum of drift loads on all bodies.
Based on the notion of fairly perfect uid, the damping to reduce, to a reason-
able level by comparing to model tests, the resonant kinematics of wave elevation is
applied via the boundary condition at the free surface. Following the same principle,
the boundary condition on bodys hull can be modied as well to include a partial re-
ection equivalent to energy dissipation in boundary layer. The new integral equations
are established following these modications. The applications to the side-by-side multi-
body interaction and to the liquid motion in tanks show its soundness and eciency.
It is natural to extend the application to the moonpool issue for which the success can
be envisioned. In spite of these successful applications, the method remains to be an
approximation to the dissipation mechanism - an important and complex aspect of uid
mechanics. The involved parameters need to be determined by comparing to experi-
mental measurements or results of elaborated CFD simulations.
The dynamic eect of liquid motion in tanks is represented by the added-mass
and damping (if a dissipation coecient is applied on tank walls) terms. These terms
can be obtained in a similar way as the solution of radiation problems. The important
coupling eect on global responses of LNG carriers (or oating terminals) is shown and
compared with experimental measurements. The second-order low-frequency load on
LNG carriers/terminals must be much aected by these eects.
Based on the power series of the wave steepness ka which is assumed to be small
(ka 1), Stokes (1847) gave a nonlinear solution for regular wave trains in deep water
and then extended to nite waterdepth. The largely used form of the Stokes waves up
to the second order is written as :
= a sin(kxt+)
ka
2
2
_
3tanh
2
(kh)
2 tanh
3
(kh)
_
cos(2kx2t+2)
ka
2
/2
sinh(2kh)
(17)
in which (a, k, , , h) stand for wave amplitude, wavenumber, wave frequency, phase and
waterdepth, respectively. The rst term on the right hand side of (17) is the rst-order
Stokes waves also called as Airys waves. The second term is the second-order correction
which makes the crest of Airys waves sharper and the trough atter. The third term
is a negative constant called the set-down which represents the mean level in regular
Stokes waves.
The so-dened regular Stokes waves of the second order have two issues. One
concerning its validity in describing free-surface elevation especially in shallow water
(kh 1), is solved by the requirement that the ratio between the magnitude of the
second term and that of the rst term is small, i.e. :
ka[3tanh
2
(kh)]
4 tanh
3
(kh)
1 or ka/(kh)
3
1 for kh 0 (18)
in agreement with the analysis in Ursell (1953). The value ka/(kh)
3
is often called
as Ursells parameter. The other issue concerns the inconsistence of the global set-
down in regular waves and in bichromatic waves. Considering two regular waves with
frequencies
j
and
k
, unit amplitude and the same initial phase, the set-down in the
limit as
j

k
is not equal to that of a regular wave of the same frequency with the
amplitude doubled.
In the notes of Chen (2005), the second-order problem of wave-wave interactions
is described by the system of classical dierential equations. The solution provides
the complete expression of second-order bichromatic waves. By making the limit of
bichromatic waves, an additional term written as :
C =
ka
2
4
_
4S+1tanh
2
(kh)
4S
2
kh tanh(kh)
_
with S =
sinh(2kh)
2kh+sinh(2kh)
(19)
is obtained. This term is a negative constant in water of nite depth, more signicant
than the existing one ka
2
/[2 sinh(2kh)], and has been ignored in the classical expres-
sion of Stokes waves. Although this set-down component does not contribute to the
horizontal components of low-frequency wave loads, the vertical components of wave
loads are much aected. Without this term in the analysis of bichromatic waves, an in-
consistent discontinuity would appear on either side of the diagonal of quadratic transfer
function for second-order vertical load. With this term, the mean position of a oating
terminal is pulled down so that the clearance between the structures bottom and sea
bed (one of design criteria in shallow water) is more reduced. Furthermore, this term
must play a role in the second-order decomposition of real waves measured in the site
into components of free waves and bound waves. As well as in the third-order analysis,
there must exist components associated with this term.
The innovative developments have been realized within the software HydroStar -
the hydrodynamic part of the software package VeriSTAR-Oshore of Bureau Veritas.
HydroStar has beneted from continuous elaborations, inspirations of most recent the-
oretical ndings and developments of ecient numerical algorithms. The analysis on
the free-surface Green function of wave diraction and radiation in water of nite depth
leads to the development of powerful algorithms. The removal of irregular frequencies
by the extended integral equation method solves the issue associated with the classical
method. The implementation of innovative formulations for the computation of second-
order wave loads creates new reliable and practical options. Applications to multibody
interaction and the dynamic eect of liquid motion in tanks with numerous results ex-
tend the range of validity of established formulations and developed algorithms, and
enrich the database of HydroStar.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank Dr. Marcos Donato Ferreira (CENPES) for his valuable
comments on the middle-eld formulation and Dr. Jerry Huang (ExxonMobil) for his
constructive inputs and discussions on the set-down issue of Stokes waves.
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