vocaIona| LducaIon and Jranng

and Ihc Lahour MarkcI -

a LomparaIvc Ana|yss of Lhna and 0crmany
vocaIona| LducaIon
and Jranng and
Ihc Lahour MarkcI -
a LomparaIvc Ana|yss of Lhna and 0crmany
A|cxandcr Schnarr, M.Sc.
Sun Yang, M.Sc.
ka 0|cncr, M.A.
4
Prcamh|c
Tochnical Vocational Education and Tiaining (TVET in Goinany and China as woll as issuos
iolatod to it aio a contial asoct ol this conciso ullication. Tho challongos lacod aio divoiso
and innonso in Goinany and China. Tho dovolonont ol Tochnical Vocational Education
and Tiaining (TVET is a najoi concoin ol tho stiatogios in loth countiios.
Tho aioachos ol tho TVET olicy in Goinany and China is outlinod and contiastod in
this ullication. Whilo dosciiling onoiging nodols loi TVET in Goinany and China tho
wiitois oso soaiching quostions alout tho inact ol tho now tionds on tho Goinan and
Chinoso TVET soctoi against tho lackdio ol glolalisation.
Tho noaning and iactico ol woik in knowlodgo ocononios, such as Goinany and
dovoloing China, in glolalizod notwoiks ol ioduction and tiado aio changing. Tho nood loi
a highly skillod and ioductivo woikloico is shaing ocononios all ovoi tho woild.
Tho two countios concoinod aitly coo with tho challongos lacod in sinilai and sonotinos
dissinilai ways. Howovoi, thoio aio lossons to lo loaint lion caso studios such as thoso
dosciilod in this ullication can soivo as an inotus loi luithoi nothodological analysis,
olicy and cuiiiculun dovolonont.
Tho acadonic connunity is awaio ol tho inoitant inlications ol tho dovolonont ol TVET in last
dovoloing countiios. As China has onjoyod social attontion in Goinan dovolonont coooiation,
tho ioloins in TVET and its stiuctuios aio tho suljoct ol analytical dolato in this look.
Wo hoo that this look will lo ol soivico to loth iosoaichois and loctuiois in tho study ol TVET
in Goinany and China, as woll as loi tho lioadoi contoxt ol intoinationalisation in TVET and
iogianno dolivoiy.
Magdoluig, Novonloi zoo8
PD. Di. halil. Fiank Bunning
Prcfacc
,vocaIona| LducaIon and Jranng
and Ihc Lahour MarkcI - a LomparaIvc
Ana|yss of Lhna and 0crmany
Tho koy iolo ol oducation and tiaining in national dovolonont has loon univoisally iocognizod.
Vocational oducation and tiaining is ono ol tho nost ioductivo olononts ol oducation. In
addition to ioaiing individuals loi tho woild ol woik ly toaching thon skills and conotoncios
noodod loi ocononic conotitivonoss, TVET also assunos a dogioo ol iosonsilility loi tho
oisonal dovolonont ol its loainois, and loi thoii ooctivo aiticiation in socioty. In addition,
woll-dosignod TVET iogians havo a aiticulai caacity to contiiluto to sustainallo
dovolononts. Tho noaning and tho iactico ol woik in knowlodgo ocononios and in
glolalizod notwoiks ol ioduction and tiado aio changing. Tho nood loi a highly skillod and
ioductivo woikloico is shaing ocononios all ovoi tho woild. To incioaso thoii chancos loi
onloyalility, young oolo and adults nood skills that aio oxillo and iolovant to tho donands
ol today`s sociotios, whoio individuals nust ossoss a conlination ol knowlodgo, iactical and
social skills and ositivo attitudos, as woll as tho alility to think and act indoondontly, cioativoly
and iosonsilly.
This aoi intioducos tho aioachos and nodols ol using tho (vocational oducation syston
to tiain skillod woikois in oidoi to noot laloui naikot noods lion loth tho Goinan and tho
Chinoso oisoctivo, taking into account dioiont cultuial lackgiounds, logal lianowoiks as
woll as histoiical and iocont dovolononts within tho oducation syston ol loth countiios. Tho
lollowing aioas aio considoiod in dotail:
- Which inlications do tho olitical lianowoiks ol loth China and Goinany hold loi tho
iosoctivo oducation systons and tho accoss to tho laloui naikot?
- How aio tho vocational oducation and tiaining systons in loth countiios oiganizod? What
aio tho logal loundations, how aio tho systons stiuctuiod, which iolo doos skill assossnont
lay in achioving laloui naikot conatilility?
- What aio tho stiongths and woaknossos ol loth systons iogaiding laloui naikot accoss?
Which inlications can lo diawn lion tho conaiison ol loth countiios?
6
I hopc llal llis papci will bc of scivicc lo boll icscaiclcis and vocational oducation
iolossionals in tho conaiativo study ol vocational oducation and tiaining in China and
Goinany as woll as loi tho lioadoi contoxt ol intoinationalization in tho tiaining ol skillod
woikois loi tho laloui naikot.
Di. Ruloit Macloan Di. Eloihaid Tiowo
UNESCO-UNEVOC InWEnt, Do. q.oz
Bonn]Goinany Magdoluig]Goinany
I
Jah|c of LonIcnI
List ol Figuios .............................................................................................................................. ll
List ol Tallos ................................................................................................................................. ll
i. Intioduction ...................................................................................................................... i
i.i. Ain and scoo ol tho aoi ............................................................................................. i
i.z. Stiuctuio ol tho aoi ...................................................................................................... i
i.. Political lianowoik ol tho TVET syston in China ......................................................... z
i..i. Political lianowoik - intioduction .................................................................................. z
i..z. China`s oconony, tho WTO and tho lutuio naikot ....................................................... z
i... Issuos and Piollons ........................................................................................................ o
i.q. Political lianowoik ol tho TVET syston in Goinany .................................................. 8
i.q.i. Political lianowoik - intioduction ................................................................................. 8
i.q.. Tho challongos ol tho Goinan ocononic dovolonont............................................... io
i.. Two naikots- two ossillo solutions? ............................................................................ ii
z. Laloui naikots and onloynont accoss systons in China and Goinany ................ iz
z.i Laloui naikots in China ............................................................................................... iz
z.z Enloynont accoss systons in China .......................................................................... i
z.. Laloui Maikots and Enloynont Accoss in Goinany................................................ i
. TVET systons in China and Goinany .......................................................................... i;
.i Logal Fianowoik ............................................................................................................ i;
.i.i Goinany .......................................................................................................................... i;
.i.z China ............................................................................................................................... i8
.z. Stiuctuio ......................................................................................................................... zo
.z.i Goinany ......................................................................................................................... zo
.z.z China .............................................................................................................................. zq
. Skills Assossnont .......................................................................................................... z8
..i Goinany ......................................................................................................................... z8
..z China .............................................................................................................................. o
.q Conaiativo Synosis: TVET systons in Goinany and China ................................. z
q. TVET syston and laloui naikot in Goinany and China ...........................................
q.i Goinany..........................................................................................................................
q.i.i Stiongths ol tho syston in iosonding to laloui naikot noods .................................
q.i.z Woaknossos ol tho syston in iosonding to laloui naikot noods .............................
II
q.z China ............................................................................................................................... o
q.z.i Stiongths ol tho syston in iosonding to laloui naikot noods ................................. o
q.z.z Woaknossos ol tho syston in iosonding to laloui naikot noods ............................. ;
q.z. Socication ................................................................................................................... 8
. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... q
o. Roloioncos ....................................................................................................................... q
LsI of Fgurcs
Figuio i: China's Roal GDP giowth lion io-zoo ..........................................................
Figuio z: Stiuctuial Changos in GDP .................................................................................... q
Figuio : Giowth ol nunloi iivato ownois and invostois in China ..................................
Figuio q: Ruial-uilan oulation iatio in tho zooo national consus .................................. ;
Figuio : Educational lackgiound ol iuial laloui nigiants, i ...................................... ;
Figuio o: Rosonsililitios in tho Goinan syston ol vocational oducation .........................
Figuio ;: Conaiison ol tho qualication stiuctuio ol skillod woikois in
dovolood countiios and China .............................................................................. i
Figuio 8: Fivo Lovols ol tho Catogoiisation Coiticato in China .......................................... iq
Figuio : Souico ol lunds loi tho VET syston in China ..................................................... i
Figuio io: Basic Stiuctuio ol tho Education Syston ol tho Fodoial Roullic ol Goinany zi
Figuio ii: Stiuctuio tho school syston in tho P. R. ol China .............................................. zq
Figuio iz: Stiotchod oxanination syston in Goinany`s TVET syston .............................. z
Figuio i: Stato's Skills Assossnont in P. R. ol China .......................................................... i
Figuio iq: Tho iatio ol adnission nunlois lotwoon studonts and vocational studonts ... qo
Figuio i: Adnission nunloi ol studonts iogaiding tho school loins in tho
oducation syston in China in tho yoai zooo ....................................................... qi
LsI of Jah|cs
Tallo i: Vocational athways in Goinany`s vocational oducation syston....................... zz
Tallo z: Systonatic Conaiison ol Vocational Education lotwoon
Goinany and China ............................................................................................... z
Tallo : Nunloi ol iogistoiod vocational school studonts in tho
socondaiy school lovol II lion io to zooo ......................................................
1
1. InIroducIon
1.1. Am and scopc of Ihc papcr
China and Goinany two tiaditions, two systons, two ossillo solutions? Both countiios aio
in tho niddlo ol tho glolalisation iocoss and laco now challongos. China is cololiatod as tho
looning lutuio naikot and Goinany is acknowlodgod as ono ol tho ocononic diiving loicos
ol tho Euiooan oconony. To naintain this acknowlodgonont, tho lost nodoin tochnology is
to lo dovolood and tho onloyoos aio to lo tiainod tho lost way ossillo. Tho TVET systons
ol thoso countiios aio also loicod to adat thonsolvos to tho ioquiiononts ol tho intoinational
naikot, osocially tho laloui naikot.
This aoi locusos on thioo dioiont iioiitios. Tho ist soction dosciilos tho two dioiont
countiios and tho situations thoso countiios aio lacing. A lasic undoistanding ol tho dioiont
TVET systons, which aio lasod on dioiont tiaditions and issuos, aio to lo givon in tho socond
soction. Esocially tho dioioncos ol loth systons aio to lo onhasisod. This socond soction
is tho lasis loi tho analysis ol loth laloui naikots and thoii ioquiiononts, which is tho nain
locus ol tho thiid soction. Tho thiid soction contains tho nain quostion ol this aoi. Tho
ioquiiononts ol tho laloui naikots as woll as ossillo answois to thoso ioquiiononts ly tho
TVET systons aio to lo oxlainod. This ait is to show tho stiongths and tho woaknossos ol
loth systons and doals with tho quostion ol how thoy can nako iot nutually.
1.2. SIrucIurc of Ihc papcr
In oidoi to givo lasic inloination tho aoi initially intioducos tho olitical lianowoiks ol
China and Goinany. In tho socond soction, tho laloui naikots and tho onloynont accoss
systons ol China and Goinany aio dosciilod. Tho noods ol tho laloui naikots and tho social
chaiactoiistics ol loth aio to lo oxlainod. Tho TVET systons in China and Goinany and
osocially tho skills assossnonts aio tho locus ol tho thiid soction. It is to lo shown how tho
TVET systons aio oiganisod and what thoy ooi tho naikots. Tho louith soction soivos to
conaio tho stiongths and tho woaknossos ol tho TVET systons in connoction to tho laloui
naikots. In a conaiison it is to lo shown how loth systons answoi to tho noods ol thoii
iosoctivo naikot.
In tho last soction, tho conclusion, it is to lo nado cloai what can lo loainod ly this
conaiison and what noods to lo considoiod in tho vocational oducation.
2
1.8. Po|Ica| framcwork of Ihc JvLJ sysIcm n Lhna
1.8.1. Po|Ica| framcwork - nIroducIon
Tho Poolo`s Roullic ol China is situatod in East Asia and is tho nost oulatod countiy ol
tho woild with i. lillion inhalitants. It consists ol z iovincos, autononous iogions and q
contially adninistiativo nunicialitios. China has o othnic gious, ol which % aio Han
Chinoso and ;% aio ninoiitios. China has a q,ooo yoais-old cultuio and today is considoiod a
connunist stato ly tho wostoin countiios, in which tho inoitant docisions aio nado ly
olitical olitos. Tho govoinnontal stiuctuios aio contiollod ly aity nonlois. Tho Chinoso
Connunist Paity is oiganisod hioiaichically in lovols: villago, county, iovinco, and national.
Tho countiy is iogulatod ly tho Constitution ol tho Poolo`s Roullic ol China. Piosidont is Hu
Jintao and Pionioi is Won Jialao. Politically aianount aio tho Poolo`s Congioss and tho
Connunist Paity ol China (soo Tho Contial Poolo`s Govoinnont ol tho PRC, zoo.
Tho vocational oducation syston is contially contiollod ly tho govoinnont. Ovoi tho ast
yoais shoitagos ol skillod woikois havo onoigod duo to tho iaid ocononical giowth. Tho
nood to iniovo intoinational conotitivonoss and adot nodoin tochnologios in vaiious
industiial olds donands not only iolossionals and onginoois, lut also laigo quantity ol
tochnicians and nanually skillod woikois. Accoidingly, China has dodicatod itsoll to iniovo
its vocational oducational and tiaining syston in iosonso to tho oiiod ol ocononic tiansition.
Vocational oducation in China is thoioloio ionotod ly tho govoinnont and is soon as a
ossilility to iniovo tho qualication ol tho skillod woikois and accoloiato tho tochnical
dovolonont. Howovoi, with tho continuation ol tho ocononic ioloins and tho industiial
iostiuctuiing, vocational oducation lacod now challongos.
1.8.2. Lhna's cconomy, Ihc WJ0 and Ihc fuIurc markcI
On Doconloi iith, zooi, China joinod tho WTO. Altoi ltoon yoais ol nogotiation it was a
histoiical sto into tho intoinational naikot (soo Woinoi zooq, ii.
Foi China with its laigo naikot it nado way loi an inoitant ioloin. Tho WTO, whoso
ain is tho dovolonont ol an intogiatod, lunctional, nultilatoial tiading syston, askod China
to lull dioiont standaids. Tho govoinnont ol China noodod to nako suio thoy acconlish
tho ioduction ol ocononic laiiiois against tho intoinational naikot.
In addition, it had to conin that tho iulo ol national tioatnont was in uso, i.o. tho loioign
and tho hono conotitois havo tho sano status. It was also to lo nado suio that China giantod
oach WTO nonloi tho sano advantagos iogaiding ioducts and soivicos. Dioiont laws and
oidois had to lo ioloinod, o.g. concoining nancing.
Tho ontiy into tho WTO noant a lottoi situation in tho intoinational naikot loi China.
China, which was tho sixth liggost tiading nation in zooi, dovotos itsoll thiough tho WTO to
2
got lottoi connoctions to tho intoinational naikot and to dovolo tho donostic naikot (soo
guio i. Tho now statistics ol tiading and ioductions ol zoo and zooo and tho annual iato
ol incioaso ol ocononic activity (soo Intoinational Monotaiy Fund zoo; soon to conin
thoso hoos.
Figuio i: China's Roal GDP giowth lion io-zoo (Soo Fischoi zoo, i
Souico: National Buioau ol statistics ol China, zoo.
China soons to havo aiiivod in tho glolalisation with loth its advantagos and disadvantagos.
Duo to tho last tochnical iogioss and tho woild wido conotition, China is in tho osition ol
having to nd its own solutions. China has a high nunloi ol onloyoos and a lig outlot at its
disosal, lut it considoially lacks now tochnologios, know-how and tho noodod oducation to
uso thoso otontials in tho lost way.
Thiough tho ocononic ooning, China usos tho chanco to got loioign caital, nodoin
tochnologios and now concots ol nanagonont and oducation into tho countiy.
Tho low oainings and tho low costs ol living inact this dovolonont ositivoly. China`s
ocononic dovolonont is not an unloiosoon ovont. Tho nonloishi in tho WTO was an
oonoi to tho last dovolonont that can lo soon now.
With tho iaid ocononic dovolonont in China a signicant stiuctuial changos in tho
soctois has also haonod. Sinco i;8, tho iooition ol onloynont in tho agiicultuial soctoi
sank lion 8o% to o%, whilo onloynont in tho soivicos soctoi incioasod lion io% to noaily
o% and in tho industiy soctoi lion io% to alout zo%. Sinco zooo, tho industiy soctoi nakos
io i z q o ; 8 zooo oi oz o oq zoo
o,oo%
z,oo%
q,oo%
o,oo%
8,oo%
io,oo%
iz,oo%
iq,oo%
io,oo%
4
u noio than o% ol tho Gioss Donostic Pioduct (GDP at zooq: % (soo guio z. It can lo
soon cloaily that tho stiuctuial changos aio iolound, as tho WTO oois tho ooitunitios to
oon tho soivicos soctoi to loioign conanios. It loads to iostiuctuiing ol onloynont and
hunan iosouico dovolonont (soo ilid zoo, iz.
Figuio z: Stiuctuial Changos in GDP (Soo ilid zoo, iz
As has loon oxlainod alovo, China oxoiioncod a ioloin iocoss with tho goal to tiansloin
tho agiaiian countiy into an intoinational, conotitivo industiy and soivicos socioty. Stato
iooitios and lannod oconony woio ioloinod in a socialistic naikot oconony. Tho
dovolonont has load to tho lact that today o% ol all conanios and o% ol all onloyoos
woik in tho iivato oconony soctoi (soo guio and is thoioloio ono ioason loi thoso high
giowth iatos ol tho last yoais (soo Holoioi zoo, q. Anothoi ioason is tho high loioign
invostnont (soo Woinoi zooq, io.
42%
31%
27%
53%
32%
15%
Year 1990 Year 2004
ndustry
Services
Agriculture

Figuio : Giowth ol nunloi iivato ownois and invostois in China

(Soo Huang P., Fiank N. Pioko, zoo
Souico: National Statistical Buioau, zooi
In tho last yoais a lot ol dioiont joint vontuios woio aiiangod. Many dioiont nultinational
conanios luilt thoii nanulactuiing and ioduction lacilitios in China. Also dioiont contios
ol iosoaich and dovolonont woio ostallishod. Tho Chinoso stato oconony tiiod to uso wostoin
concots ol nanagonont and conany systons to nodoiniso thoii conanios and to stait tho
oconony noving.
In tho couiso ol now joint vontuios also nodoin tochnology and oquinont woio inoitod
to China. Tho Baoshan stool conany in Shanghai, which intioducod tho nodoin concots ol
nanagonont and tho nodoin tochnology, is just ono oxanlo. Today it is ono ol tho nost
conotitivo conanios in China. A lot ol Goinan invostois also ostallishod joint vontuios in
China, as loi oxanlo Volkswagon, Sionons, Bosch, BASF, Bayoi, Thysson and a lot noio (soo
Xu zoo, ql.
Thoso joint vontuios havo lod to highly-dovolood tochnologios and ioducts, lut in nany
olds standaids aio still nissing. In this iogaid tho govoinnont staitod iogiannos to
suoit contios ol dovolonont and iosoaich (soo Fischoi zoo, i.
Thoioloio, tho Chinoso syston is conliontod with a now iollon tho oducation ol tochnicians
in thooiotical and iactical know-how. Tho iaid dovolonont ol tho oconony goos togothoi
with a stiuctuial chango, which also aocts tho laloui naikot and tho donand on
onloyoos.
o
ooooo
ioooooo
iooooo
zoooooo i Poison
Yoai
zooooo
oooooo
ooooo
qoooooo
iz i iq i io i; i8 i zooo
Nunloi ol Invostois
6
1.8.8. Issucs and Proh|cms
Lack of csourccs and LnvronmcnIa| proh|cms
Tho gioat donand loi goods (o.g. oil, coal, cooi and honatito and onoigy loads to a lig
iollon. In nany aits ol China tho suly ol thoso goods is not assuiod. Thoioloio, China is
olligatod to inoit thoso iosouicos lion othoi countiios, which loads to highoi iicos loi such
goods on tho intoinational naikot and tho ioducts on tho naikot in tho hono countiy (soo
ilid zoo, ii. Anothoi iollon tho Chinoso govoinnont ointod out is tho inooctivo uso ol
such goods. It loconos cloai that tho ocononic giowth is lasod on an inooctivo uso ol goods
and onoigy. As an answoi, tho govoinnont staitod a lan to ioduco tho uso ol goods and onoigy
in a iostiictod aioa ly alout zo oicont (soo Liu]Jiang]Tiowo zooo, 8. Anothoi answoi was
to dovolo now loins ol onoigy gaining, which has lod to now iollons.
In tho intoinational ioss, tho luilding ol lig dans was highly iocognisod. Thoy woio to
hol gaining onoigy, lut tho olitics ol iosottlonont ol oolo living in this aioa and tho way
ol luilding was shaily ciiticisod (soo ilid, .
Not only tho iollon ol a lack ol iosouicos, lut also tho onviionnontal iollons incioaso.
Tho iollon ol tho danagod onviionnont and ol oisonod iivois, aii and giound is a
consoquonco ol China`s ocononic loon. Snog ovoi tho lig ocononic citios soons to lo a
noinal aoaianco duo to tho now ocononic dovolonont. It noods to lo ointod out that this
is a sign loi hoavy ollution and is a hoalth iisk. Liu, Jiang and Tiowo nado cloai that it is also
in tho iosonsilility ol vocational oducation to shaion tho undoistanding and to iniovo tho
oducation iogaiding tho onviionnont.
MgraIon Issucs
Accoiding to a suivoy in zooo, thoio woio ii nillion nigiations in China, who lolt thoii
lacos ol housohold iogistiation and novod to niddlo and uilan citios. (soo Boyd.zoo, z.
A iocont a iooit in tho nagzino ol Chinoso Acadony ol Social Scioncos ostinatod tho nunloi
ol iuial nigiants to io nillion (soo Tang Jun, zoo. Tho shiinking agiicultuial soctoi and
oxanding industiial and soivico soctois, togothoi with tho olitical ioloin in tho last dacados
load not only nunoious stato-ownod conanios to lankiut, thiough which lotwoon qo and
zoo nillion suilus laloui loico onoigod (soo Hosso zoo, lut also conol 8o-io nillion
non-tiainod suilus woikois lion iuial aoias tiy to nd onloynont in uilan aioas with tho
oxoction ol low salaiios (soo Fischoi zoo, iq.
Accoiding to tho i% annual giowth iato in uilanization, it is loliovod that tho nigiation
oulation will incioaso to oo nillion in tho noxt zo yoais. Cuiiontly tho uilanization iato is
i.q% and it iovoals that oach yoai alout zo nillion lainois locono uilan iosidonts (soo Liu
Ho, zooo.
7
Figuio q: Ruial-uilan oulation iatio in tho zooo national consus (Huang P., Fiank N. Pioko, zoo
Souico: National Statistical Buioau, zooz
LducaIona| 8ackground
Accoiding to a suivoy in i, nost nigiants had a junioi high school dilona, oltainod altoi
conloting tho nino yoais ol conulsoiy oducation, only low ol thon havo iocoivod vocational
skills tiaining in vocational oducation schools (soo Figuio . It is an indox that hunan caital
ol nigiants in China is lai not onough to noot tho ocononical and tochnical challongo.
Figuio : Educational lackgiound ol iuial laloui nigiants, i (Huang P., Fiank N. Pioko, zoo
Souico: Enloynont and Migiation ol Ruial Lalouiois in China, i
Illitoiacy Piinaiy Scool Junioi High School High School TVET Collogo and Alovo
o,oo%
io,oo%
zo,oo%
o,oo%
qo,oo%
o,oo%
Poi cont
ioo%
o%
8o%
;o%
oo%
o%
qo%
o%
zo%
io%
o%
ioq
Yoai
zooo io i8z i
Ruial Poulation
Uilan Poulation
8
Though thoii light was ovoilookod loi nany yoais, inioving oducational ooitunitios and
conditions loi nigiant woikois has now loon ionotod to tho to ol tho national agonda.
Thiough tho ooning olitical noasuios and tho oxoiioncos gainod lion intoinational co-
ooiations, China and Chinoso conanios havo lonotod lion Wostoin industiial countiios.
At tho sano tino, tho Chinoso TVET syston is conliontod with now ioquiiononts.
1.4. Po|Ica| framcwork of Ihc JvLJ sysIcm n 0crmany
1.4.1. Po|Ica| framcwork - nIroducIon
Tho Fodoial Roullic ol Goinany is a countiy in niddlo Euioo with a oulation (zooo ost.
ol 8z. nillion oolo (Das Doutschland-Poital zooo. As tho nano ol tho countiy inlios, it
is iulod and olitically oiganisod ly tho concot ol lodoialisn. Tho iulos, iogulations and laws
usually loin a guiding lianowoik, which tho io Lndoi (lodoial statos that constituto tho
Fodoial Roullic ol Goinany havo to conlonont with socic laws accoiding to tho iight ol
tho lodoial stato. Whilo in sono casos and olds tho olitical owois and iulo-giving
iosonsililitios aio shaiod lotwoon tho lodoial govoinnont and tho io lodoial statos, othoi
olds (such as oducation lall within tho lono juiisdiction ol tho Lndoi.
Goinany`s tochnical and vocational oducation and tiaining (TVET syston, and osocially
tho dual syston, is ono ol tho olds in which govoinnont and Lndoi shaio iosonsililitios.
Hoio, dioiont iulos, iogulations, actois, goals and onhasos lay a signicant iolo in tho
histoiical dovolonont and dosign ol tho syston.
Ovoiall it can lo statod that tho Vocational Education Law (Boiulslildungsgosotz BBiG,
ist assod in io and ioloinod and anondod in zoo, covois iogulations loi tho vocational
oducation syston as a wholo loi all ol Goinany (a noio dotailod intioduction to tho law will
lo givon latoi. Howovoi, any ait ol vocational oducation dolivoiod in vocational schools is
iogulatod ly school laws (Schulgosotzo undoi tho juiisdiction ol tho Lndoi, sinco thoy aio
autononously iosonsillo loi school-iolatod issuos. An ovoiviow ol tho dioiont vocational
athways will lo givon latoi in this aoi. Tho lollowing guio shows tho actois in tho vocational
oducation syston ol Goinany on tho vaiious lovols.
0
Figuio o: Rosonsililitios in tho Goinan syston ol vocational oducation (own chait, takon
lion Bundosninistoiiun lui Bildung und Foischung zoo;
Thus, in Goinany`s dual syston ol tochnical and vocational oducation and tiaining thoso aits
ol vocational oducation dolivoiod in conanios is iogulatod ly govoinnont law, whilo tho
contont dolivoiod in vocational schools night lo iogulatod ly io dioiont laws and iogulations
loi tho sano iolossion.
1.4.2. 0crmany and Ihc Luropcan unon and Ihc rcform of Ihc cconomc moIor
At tho loginning ol tho zist contuiy, Goinany logan to ioloin its syston to lo ioaiod loi
tho now glolal ocononic situation. Tho Agonda zoio and tho lollowing ioloins woio
nilostonos on tho way ol tho dovolonont. Tho goals aio to ioloin tho ocononic syston, tho
nancial syston and tho laloui naikot, lut thoy also havo oocts on tho oducation, osocially
on tho vocational oducation syston. Tho ioloin was to onsuio that Euioo and osocially tho
ocononic notoi Goinany go thiough an ocononic giowth again and that tho lovol ol
onloynont loconos highoi again, lut tho quality ol oducation ionains at tho sano high
ResponsibiIities in the German system of vocationaI education
National Level
State Level
Regional Level
Level of the
Learning Venues
- Companies and
Vocational Schools
- Responsible Departments
- State Ministries
- Conference of the
State Ministers for Education
- Federal Ministry of Education
and Research
- Federal nstitute of Vocational Education
- <Fachministerien>
10
standaid. Thoioloio, tho quostion ol thoso ioloins is not how Goinany can giow dosito tho
lact ol glolalisation, tho quostion is how Goinany can giow with tho glolalisation.
Tho ioloins woio to ioaiiango tho taxos, tho social socuiity contiilutions and tho conditions
at tho laloui naikot, so that Goinany was allo to locono conotitivo to tho othoi countiios
in tho woild.
Tho ioloins aoct dioiont aioas. Concoining tho oconony a now lianowoik has loon
lannod, so that tho tiado iulos aio allo to lo changod and tho qualication ol woikois aio allo
to lo iniovod. Anothoi ain was to suoit and stiongthon tho ocononic niddlo class, which
is voiy inoitant loi tho Goinan oconony. By changing tho salaiy chaigos, this niddlo class
is to locono noio onloyallo and noio conotitivo. Fuithoinoio, tho lowoiing ol taxos loi
conanios is to suoit this sto.
With iogaid to vocational oducation social iogiannos loi young oolo havo loon
cioatod. Thoy aio to stiongthon tho oducation and hol to iniovo tho lad situation at tho
laloui naikot duo to a lack ol qualiod oisonnol. Fuithoinoio, tho iactical and thooiotical
contont ol vocational oducation has loon iovisod, which is to hol guaiantooing tho high
oducation standaids.
This ioloin ol tho vocational oducation, osocially tho ioloin ol tho Vocational Education
Law (Boiulslildungsgosotz BBiG, is tho lasis ol a nodoin and intoinationally accotod
oducation syston.
Tho cioation ol lasics loi a iooiganisation ol oducation and tiaining is inoitant.
Fuithoinoio, now iocoduios loi tosts and oxans, lottoi notwoiks ol oducation and luithoi
oducation, installing instiunonts ol quality assuianco and incioasing ossililitios loi going
alioad aio to givo tho oducation and tiaining tho quality it noods to conoto on a high lovol
intoinationally.
Fuithoinoio, tho lasic oducation, which is inoitant loi vocational oducation, was
suoitod.
Tho sonding on oducation was iaisod and tho lacilitation ol oducation ol young oolo
was iniovod. Thoioloio, tho lull-tino day schools woio ionotod in oidoi to ooi a lottoi
lasic oducation.
Fiist iosults soon to show tho succoss ol thoso ioloins, as loi oxanlo in tho docioaso ol
tho nunlois ol unonloyod oisons.
1.4.8. Jhc cha||cngcs of Ihc 0crman cconomc dcvc|opmcnI
Ono ol tho issuos tho govoinnont lacos iogaiding tho Goinan laloui naikot is tho high cost
loi social socuiity contiilutions. It soons that thoy aio iosonsillo loi highoi iicos and
highoi costs ol ioduction. Thoy also soon to lo an olstaclo loi tho cioation ol now jols.
11
Tho unonloynont iato is anothoi iollon concoining tho Goinan ocononic
onviionnont. Ono ol tho consoquoncos ol this issuo is that additional nonoy noods to lo
iaisod thiough highoi taxos and chaigos. Tho conanios aio also aoctod locauso thoy aio
luidonod ly thoso duos. Thoioloio, tho iollon ol high unonloynont also slows down
inoitant dovolononts which aio noodod in tho naikot, locauso stato and conanios nood
to uso thoii owoi and caital to solvo this iollon. Foi ovoi a yoai now tho dovolonont has
loon going into a now diioction and tho unonloynont iato has docioasod, and thoioloio
thoio is saio caacity loi now dovolononts.
Now dovolononts and now ocononios also nood tho lost qualiod woikois. Howovoi, tho
nunloi ol qualiod woikois on tho laloui naikot in Goinany doos not always noot tho
donands ol coitain lianchos in industiy and tiado, which in tuin iosults in vacancios that
cannot lo llod duo to a lack ol woikois with iolovant qualications loi thoso vacancios on tho
naikot. Novoitholoss, tho Goinan syston ol vocational oducation oois a vaiioty ol ossillo
solutions to this asoct.
Sono iosoaich also shows that a snall oicontago ol an ago giou lacks knowlodgo in
coitain aioas ol gonoial oducation. Not ovoiy young oison who ontois tho vocational oducation
syston has tho lasic knowlodgo that is noodod as a staiting oint loi a good vocational
oducation. Goinany`s vocational oducation syston stiivos to ooi ioaiatoiy athways loi
thoso in nood ol additional gonoial oducation in ioaiation loi a vocational tiaining couiso.
1.5. Jwo markcIs- Iwo possh|c so|uIons?
Undoi thoso conditions tho two statos tiy to nd thoii lost way to solvo tho iollons. It soons
to lo ovidont that a good oducation and a good qualication aio tho lasis loi lottoi chancos in
thoso laloui naikots. Tho naikots nood tho lost qualiod oisonnol loi noio succoss that
soons to lo suio.
But what oxactly do tho naikots nood? What is thoii donand? And how do tho dioiont
oducation systons ioact to this donand? Tho noxt soctions ol this aoi will tiy to givo answois
to thoso quostions, will oint out tho dioioncos in thoso answois and tiy to oxlain what ono
is allo to loain lion thon.
iz
2. Lahour markcIs and
cmp|oymcnI acccss sysIcms
n Lhna and 0crmany
2.1 Lahour markcIs n Lhna
Tho iaid ocononic dovolonont iosults in onviionnontal issuos, incono disaiitios and tho
iostiuctuiing ol tho industiial soctois. Moanwhilo tho changing iocoss lion laloui intonsivo
to high-oidoi ioduction has haonod giadually. In zooq tho shaio ol woikois onloyod in
tho agiicultuial soctoi anountod to o%, in tho soivico soctoi to o% and in tho industiial
soctoi to zo% (soo Fischoi zoo, iz. Tho nood to iniovo intoinational conotition and adot
nodoin tochnologios in nany lianchos ol industiy donands incioasingly tochnicians,
nanually skillod woikois and adninistiativo oisonnol. Tho quality and quantity ol tho laloi
loico has a gioat inact on tho ocononical dovolonont. This noans that tho connoction
lotwoon oconony and vocational oducation in China is closoi than loloio.
Howovoi, duo to tho undoidovolood vocational oducation syston, tho qualication
ioquiiononts ol skillod woikois in China havo incioasod iaidly and onoinous iollons
havo onoigod on tho laloui naikot. Foi instanco, tho donand loi high-qualiod woikois is lai
highoi than tho suly. Both quality and quantity ol nanowoi aio ly lai not onough to noot
tho donand ol tho naikot. At iosont thoio aio ;o nillion skillod woikois in China, ol which
tho soni-skillod woikois ioiosont oo% and tho intoinodiato woikois %, whilo tho high-
qualiod woikois (sonioi skillod woikois only anount to %. Tho last nunloi is aiound o
qo% lowoi than in tho dovolood countiios (soo guio ;. Tho low-qualiod woikois load to a
low ioductivity. At iosont tho ioductivity ol oach woikoi in China anounts to only i]zoth
conaiod to Jaan and i]zth to tho USA (soo Yuan, Chao, zooz.
i
Dovolood Countiios, % China, %
Figuio ;: Conaiison ol tho qualication stiuctuio ol skillod woikois in dovolood countiios
and China (Jiang zooo.
2.2 Lmp|oymcnI acccss sysIcms n Lhna
In oidoi to co-oidinato tho discioancy lotwoon tho qualication ol tho skillod woikois and tho
ioquiiononts ol tho laloui naikot, a National Vocational Qualications syston has loon
dovolood in tho last low yoais. This syston is a social vocational oxanination syston
(Catogoiisation Exanination, which ovaluatos and ioocts tho woik-iolatod, conotonco-
lasod skills and knowlodgo ol tho candidato (soo Evaluation ol National Vocational
Qualications, zooo. This oxanination is oon to ovoiyono at any ago oi stago ol thoii caiooi.
Acadonics, skillod woikois as woll as tho giaduatos ol vocational schools aio suosod to tako
ait in tho Catogoiisation Exanination" to got a Vocational Catogoiisation Coiticato", which
is awaidod ly tho Ministiy ol Laloui and has loon nationally uniod in tho last low yoais. Tho
Catogoiisation Coiticato is takon as alication ioquiionont loi nost stato authoiisod
iolossions (soo Zhao]Zhiqun zoo, i; and dioiontiatod into vo lovols (soo guio ; lion
tho soni-skillod woikoi lovol to tho high-qualiod and iolossional lovol (soo Ministiy ol
Laloui and Social Socuiity PRC, zooa. Each candidato is suosod to ll tho coiiosondont
loinal ontiy ioquiiononts accoiding to thoii acadonic oi iactical lackgiound. This vocational
coitication syston has loon iniovod giadually in iosonso to tho now ocononical and
tochnical challongo in tho glolalisation oia.
86
60
16
6
86
0
Senior skilled worker
Junior skilled worker
lnLernediaLe skilled worker
iq
Figuio 8: Fivo Lovols ol tho Catogoiisation Coiticato in China (own chait
In China, tho vocational classication" is issuod ly tho govoinnont in tho Laloui Law ol tho
P.R. ol China" and oiiontatos itsoll towaids concioto iolossions, which aio totally dioiont
lion tho Auslildungsloiulo"
i
in Goinany. ,Vocations Cataloguos in tho P. R. ol China
ioiosont tho concioto vocational classication that is jointly conilod and authoiisod ly tho
Contial Govoinnont and nunoious iosoaichois and oxoits. This Cataloguo was loinally
issuod in i and includos oight najoi catogoiios, oo catogoiios and qi sulcatogoiios.
Totally thoio aio i,88 snall catogoiios (vocations. Tho oight najoi catogoiios aio (soo
Vocations Cataloguos ol P.R. ol China, zoo:
stato oigans, tho iolation lotwoon tho iosonsillo oisons ol oiganisations, ontoiiisos
and institutions,
iolossional and tochnical oisonnol,
sta and associatod oisonnol,
connoicial, soivico oisonnol,
oisonnol woiking in agiicultuio, loiostiy, aninal huslandiy, shoiy and in tho watoi
Level 6
Seni-skilled
Worker
Level 8
Riqh-qualified
Worker
Level 2
Secialized Lechnical
and nanaqenenL !alenLs
Level 1
MasLer u
Professional Personnel
Level 4
Secondary u
lnLernediaLe Level
Five Levels of Lhe
CaLeqorisaLion
CerLificaLe
i
Tho concot ol ,Auslildungsloiulo will lo oxlainod luithoi in soction .i.i.
i
consoivancy industiy,
ioduction, tiansoit oquinont ooiatois and iolatod oisonnol,
nilitaiy oisonnol,
tho classications ol onloyoos not nanod.
Accoiding to tho iaid tochnical and ocononic dovolonont now vocations onoigo instantly.
In zooq, i; vocations woio issuod and nost onloynont accoss was diioctly iolatod to a
,national vocational qualication coiticato (soo Xinhua, zoo;.
Fion zoo; on, tho Catogoiisation Exanination" will lo nationally oiganisod in a uniod
way (soo China Laloui Maikot, zoo;, which noans tho oxanination contios lion all ovoi tho
countiy aio contially contiollod and aiiangod, tho ovaluation ciitoiia loi oach vocation and tho
Vocational Catogoiisation Coiticato aio contially issuod ly tho govoinnont and tho Ministiy
ol Laloui (soo Ministiy ol Laloui and Social Socuiity PRC, zool. Tho skills assossnont and
tho ovaluation ciitoiia aio lasod on loth tho vocational classication" and tho national
occuational qualication standaids. Thoso standaids aio statononts ol oiloinanco that
dosciilo what conotont oolo in a aiticulai occuation aio oxoctod to lo allo to do. Tho
skills assossnont standaids havo divoiso dinonsions and ioiosont thooiotic knowlodgo as
woll as iactical activitios ol tho candidato (soo Ministiy ol Laloui and Social Socuiity PRC,
zooo.
Until now thoio havo loon ii.8z nillion oolo aiticiating in tho Catogoiisation
Exanination" and .z nillion ol thon havo loon giantod a Vocational Catogoiisation
Coiticato". It is iosunod that in zoo; noio attontion will lo aid on dovoloing tho
ovaluation ciitoiia ol nodoin nanulactuiing, constiuction, onoigy, onviionnontal iotoction,
tiaditional industiios, oloctionic inloination, aoiosaco, now tochnology industiios and
soivicos soctois (soo Xinhua, zoo;.
2.8. Lahour MarkcIs and Lmp|oymcnI Acccss n 0crmany
In Goinany, tho onloynont iato ol cuiiontly o.q% is slightly alovo tho Euiooan Union
avoiago ol o.8 %. Tho najoiity ol thoso o.q% aio onloyod in tho soivicos soctoi (aiox.
zq.; nillion and within that soctoi iodoninantly in ullic and iivato soivicos (aiox. io.8
nillion. Tho industiios and tiado soctoi is tho socond laigost onloyoi in Goinany with
aiox. ;.z nillion onloyoos. Tho constiuction lusinoss is thiid with aiox. i.; nillion
woikois. Tho agiicultuial soctoi only has a snall (and doclining shaio in tho laloui naikot
with alout qq.ooo onloyoos (soo Bundosagontui lui Ailoit zooo.
Suly loi tho laloui naikot in Goinany is iinaiily socuiod ly two nain souicos. On
tho ono hand, thoio aio young oolo ontoiing tho laloui naikot altoi nishing toitiaiy
oducation at univoisitios oi univoisitios ol aliod scioncos. On tho othoi hand, thoio aio
studonts joining tho woik loico altoi nishing vocational oducation in tho dual syston oi in
lull-tino vocational schools (osocially loi hoalth caio iolossions loi an ovoiviow ol tho
Goinan oducation syston soo chatoi . z. i% ol an ago giou had achiovod a univoisity
io
dogioo in zooz (soo BMBF zooq.
Howovoi, tho donand loi socialisod skillod woikois is voiy high. Thoio is a docit in
nodical socialists as woll as highly socialisod onginoois (o.g. oloctiical onginoois with a
locus on nodical tochnology oi nochanical onginooiing (soo Bundosagontui lui Ailoit
zooo. Thus, as Schloichoi oints out, jol ontiy qualications oltainod in tho toitiaiy oducation
soctoi in Goinany havo liggoi iolativo advantagos conaiod to thoso oltainod in socondaiy
oducation than in nost ol tho othoi OECD-countiios (soo Schloichoi zooo, q, Koch i8, i.
This is locauso nanual and ioutino laloui, as Tossaiing (io aiguos, is loconing loss
inoitant in lavoui ol conlox woik tasks in highly socialisod woiking onviionnonts, at
oxillo industiial lacilitios as woll as in socialisod, consulting-intonsivo soivicos (soo Tossaiing
io, . Fion this aigunontation it can lo ioasonod that on tho Goinan laloui naikot, a
shilt in donands and a shilt in jol socications has loon taking laco.
Sono authois (Eichhoist]Piot]Thodo zooi, iz, Rotho zooq, z ovon aiguo that a
stiuctuial nisnatch" lotwoon suliod and donandod qualications on tho laloui naikot
can lo idontiod. Koch (i8 chaiactoiisos tho chango in jol socications and tho tondoncios
in qualication donands as lollows:
doclining donand loi onloyoos in ioduction-oiiontatod tasks and iinaiy soivicos
(such as gonoial oco woik,
doclining donand loi unskillod laloui locauso ol tho incioasing uso ol niciooloctionics
and tho shilt ol woik-intonsivo tasks to countiios with low vaiiallo costs,
incioasing donand loi highly skillod laloui locauso ol tho intioduction ol now ioduction
and woik concots loi dynanic naikots,
incioasing inoitanco ol tho alility to lan, cooidinato and suoiviso autonatod
ioduction iocossos,
incioasod ioquiiononts thiough tho uso ol inloination tochnology,
incioasod ioquiiononts in oisonal conotonco in doaling with custonois as woll as in
co-ooiating on tho jol (soo Koch i8, i.
Tho ain ol tho aoi, as intioducod in Chatoi i, is to discuss whothoi tho vocational oducation
systons in Goinany and China aio allo to coiiosond to this changod donand in qualications
and skillod laloui. Thoioloio, altoi tho intioduction ol tho laloui naikots and onloynont
accoss systons in China and Goinany woio intioducod, an ovoiviow ol tho (vocational
oducation systons ol loth countiios is givon in chatoi to lo allo to diaw a ciitical conaiison
in tho concluding chatois.
i;
8. JvLJ sysIcms n Lhna
and 0crmany
8.1 Lcga| Framcwork
8.1.1 0crmany
As alioady intioducod oailioi, tho Vocational Education Law (Boiulslildungsgosotz is tho
ovoiall law loi vocational oducation and tiaining, including tho dual syston, in Goinany. Aait
lion that, tho school laws (Schulgosotzo ol tho lodoial statos lay a signicant iolo in tho
dosign ol tho vocational oducation syston. Vocational Tiaining Diioctivos
(Auslildungsoidnungon dosciilo iulos and iogulations loi tho tiaining in socic iolossions
z
loi tho in-conany ait ol vocational oducation.
Tho Vocational Education Law iovidos loi tho lollowing olds ol vocational oducation:
Pait i: Gonoial iulos and iogulations,
Pait z: Vocational oducation (including iogulations on tho dual syston, luithoi oducation,
vocational oducation ioaiation otc.,
Pait : Oiganisation ol vocational oducation,
Pait q: Vocational oducation iosoaich,
Pait : Fodoial Instituto loi Vocational Education and Tiaining,
Pait o: Monotaiy no iogulations,
Pait ;: Tiansloi- and nal iogulations (soo Bundosinstitut lui Bildung und Foischung zoo.
Pait i ol tho law givos dotailod oxlanations alout tho ovoiall ain ol vocational oducation. In
i( it statos that vocational oducation and tiaining noods to suly (in a loinally stiuctuiod
vocational athway tho vocational knowlodgo, skills and conotoncios nocossaiy to caiiy out
a qualiod iolossion in an ovoi-changing woiking onviionnont. Fuithoinoio, it is to nako
tho acquisition ol woiking oxoiionco ossillo (soo ilid, .q. z distinguishos tho lacos whoio
loaining in tho syston ol vocational oducation takos laco (Loinoito. Thoso aio conanios loi
tho conany-lasod vocational tiaining and schools loi tho school-lasod ait. Tho two loaining
locations" nood to co-ooiato accoiding to z (, z ol tho Vocational Education Law.
z
Vocational oducation scionco in Goinany distinguishos lotwoon dioiont concots ol iolossion: jol"
(Eiwoilsloiul as a noans to oain nonoy as oosod to tiaining iolossion" (Auslildungsloiul as a loinally
stiuctuiod, ocially iocognisod sot ol skills and knowlodgo acquiiod thiough a vocational tiaining couiso.
i8
In , tho Vocational Education Law also iovidos iogulations loi tho dosign and contont ol
Vocational Tiaining Diioctivos (Auslildungsoidnungon.
As nontionod alovo, thoso olicios loinaliso iolossions that studonts in tho vocational
oducation syston can chooso to lo tiainod in and which concludo with a loinal oxanination
and a coiticato that is univoisally iocognisod all ovoi Goinany.
Accoiding to tho law, thoso olicios nood to includo tho lollowing oints loi ovoiy loinalisod
iolossion to lo oltainod thiough vocational tiaining:
nano ol tho iolossion,
duiation ol tiaining (not noio than , not loss than z yoais,
tho knowlodgo and skills at loast to lo oltainod in tho vocational tiaining,
a guidolino loi tho lactual and tinoly stiuctuio ol tho dissonination ol tho skills and
knowlodgo ioquiiod,
oxanination ioquiiononts (soo ilid, .q
At tho tino ol wiiting, studonts ontoiing tho dual syston ol vocational oducation and tiaining
can chooso lion q ocially iocognisod iolossions loi which Vocational Tiaining Diioctivos
aio laid out (soo Bundosinstitut lui Boiulslildung zooo. It has to lo ointod out, howovoi,
that thoso diioctivos only covoi iogulations loi tho in-conany ait ol vocational oducation.
Sinco tho loaining locations (Loinoito in tho dual syston aio co-ooiating ly law,
iogulations havo to lo laid out loi tho school-lasod ait ol vocational oducation. Tho quostion
ol oducation in gonoial, as oxlainod oailioi, lalls within tho iosonsilility ol tho lodoial statos.
Thoioloio, socic iulos and iogulations on (vocational schools can lo lound in tho school
laws ol tho Lndoi. Sinco a laigo iooition ol studonts ontoiing tho vocational oducation
syston loavo socondaiy school at tho ago ol io, conulsoiy schooling (Schulicht still
alios. Tho nunloi ol yoais that studonts in Goinany havo to ionain in school vaiios in tho
dioiont statos. On avoiago, howovoi, tho nandatoiy tino in school is yoais. Thoioloio,
vocational schools in tho dual syston not only lull tho iolo ol a vocational oducation iovidoi,
lut also covoi conulsoiy schooling loi thoso studonts loaving socondaiy school. An ovoiviow
ol tho Goinan oducation syston in gonoial and tho vocational oducation syston socically
will lo givon in soction .z.i.
8.1.2 Lhna
Vocational oducation is ono ol tho nost inoitant conononts ol tho ontiio oducation syston
in China. In io, tho ist ,Vocational Education Law in China was loinally ionulgatod
and inlonontod, ioviding logal iotoction loi tho dovolonont and oiloction ol vocational
oducation.
Tho vocational oducation law in China is dicult to inlonont iogaiding tho concot ol
tho school nanagonont, tho co-ooiation lotwoon vocational schools and ontoiiisos as woll
as tho iogional divoision. In tho iocont yoais, vocational oducation and tiaining in China is
conollod thiough gigantic ocononical dynanics. Now it is tino to ioconsidoi and iooct on
i
tho inlonontation ol tho Vocational Education Law".
Tho Vocational Education Law includos tho lollowing inoitant olononts (soo Ministiy ol
Education PRC, io:
Pait i: Gonoial Piovisions ,
Pait z: Tho Syston ol Vocational Education ,
Pait : Tho Inlonontation ol Vocational Education ,
Pait q: Tho Guaiantoo ol Vocational Education ,
Pait : Sulonontaiy Piovisions.
Tho oducation adninistiativo doaitnont, tho laloui adninistiativo doaitnont and othoi
iolovant doaitnonts ol tho Stato Council aio jointly iosonsillo loi tho Vocational oducation
and tiaining schools (soo Ministiy ol Education PRC, io. At tho loginning ol tho i8os, tho
Chinoso Govoinnont aid alnost all tho costs ol vocational oducation. Today tho souico ol
lunds ol vocational oducation conos lion tho oducational ludgot ol tho Contial Govoinnont
as woll as stato and iivato nanco. Howovoi, tho Contial Govoinnont still lays tho nost
inoitant iolo loi tho nanco ol vocational oducation schools (soo guio .
Figuio : Souico ol lunds loi tho VET syston in China (Jiang, zooo
Howovoi, tho Vocational Education Law is suosod to lo llod with noio dotailod iogulations.
Conaiod with tho Goinan vocation oducation law, thoso iogulations and olicios aio iolativoly
ioughly statod. It iovidos noithoi tho iogulations loi tho dosign and contont ol Vocational
Tiaining Diioctivos (liko Auslildungsoidnungon in Goinany, noi socic olicios loi
loinaliso iolossions.
Sustontation Funds lion
Social Oiganisations,
Entoiiisos
Educational Suichaigos
Loviod on coitain Taxos
Studonts` Tuition
School Soll-nancing
Educational Budgot
Souico ol
Funds
zo
Anothoi oxanlo, in Chatoi z (iq statos that vocational tiaining includos tho lollowing
vaiious kinds ol tiaining loins: tiaining loi ainy oisonnol who is tiansloiiod to civil woik,
tiaining loloio onloynont, tiaining loi aionticos, on-tho-jol tiaining and othoi tiansloi
tiaining otc. Howovoi, in Chatoi (z it has no aiticulai iovisions loi tho conducting ol
vocational tiaining:
"In conducIng vocaIona| cducaIon, vocaIona| schoo|s and vocaIona| Iranng
nsIIuIons sha|| comhnc cducaIon wIh pracIcc, scrvc Ihc |oca| cconomc
consIrucIon, manIan c|osc Ics wIh cnIcrprscs and Iran pracIca| pcrsonnc| and
sk||cd workcrs. vocaIona| schoo|s and vocaIona| Iranng nsIIuIons may run
cnIcrprscs and Iranng p|accs rcgardng Ihc vocaIona| cducaIon.
And in Chatoi q (;:
"LnIcrprscs and nsIIuIona| organzaIons sha|| acccpI sIudcnIs and Icachcrs from
vocaIona| schoo|s and vocaIona| Iranng nsIIuIons Io do pracIcc; Ihosc dong
pracIcc on ccrIan posIs sha|| hc pad propcr|y. (scc MnsIry of LducaIon PL,
1008)
Although it is statod cloaily that tho acquisition ol vocational tiaining and aynont loi
iactical oisonnol and skillod woikois is ossillo thiough tho suoit ly ontoiiisos and
vocational tiaining institutions, without dotailod iovisions tho coooiation iolationshi
lotwoon conanios and vocational schools is tioullosono to lo inlonontod in China.
8.2. SIrucIurc
8.2.1 0crmany
Tho guio (soo Figuio 8 lolow givos an ovoiviow ol tho Goinan oducation syston. Tho
vocational oducation syston within that syston is highlightod.
As can lo soon lion tho guio, vocational oducation in Goinany staits altoi nishing
socondaiy gonoial oducation at tho oailiost. In Euioo, Rotho oints out, Goinany is soon as
tho countiy ol iinaiy vocational oducation, osocially in tho loin ol in-conany tiaining (soo
Rotho zooq, z8.
Howovoi, tho avoiago ago at which studonts joinod tho vocational oducation syston in
zoo was with i8. yoais (soo ilid zooq, z. This is duo to a vaiioty ol ioasons liko ontiy into
nilitaiy soivico iioi to continuing oducation, dosiio to oltain tho highost dogioo ossillo in
tho gonoial school syston (Alitui oi lack ol aionticoshi lacononts, to nano a low.
zi
Figuio io: Basic Stiuctuio ol tho Education Syston ol tho Fodoial Roullic ol Goinany
(own chait, soo Bundosninistoiiun lui Bildung und Foischung zoo;
Piinaiy
Edu-
cation
Kindoigaiton
Piinaiy Schools
Oiiontation Stago
Socondaiy Gonoial
Schools
SS
SN
IC
E
EC
&
FA
EC
TT
C
FV Socializod
Sonioi
Scholls
Dual Syston
Basic
Vocational
Tiaining
Yoai
V
E
S
Occuational
Woik
Fachhochschulon
Coniohonsivo
Univoisitios
Collogos ol ullic
Adninistiation
Univoisitios
Collogos ol Thoology
Collogos ol Education
Collogos ol Ait and Music
Coniohonsivo Univoisitios
Socializod
Giannai
School
Giannai
Schools
(Gynnasion

Classos
CS
Giannai
Schools
(Gynnasion

Classos
to io
Intoinodiato
Schools
Pio-
School
Continuing oducation
SES I
SES II
Cont.
Edu-
cation
Highoi
Edu-
cation
Education
Rango
Ago
z
zz
zi
zo
i
i8
i;
io
i
iq
i
iz
ii
io
o

Allioviations:
CS Coniohonsivo Schools
SS Social Schools
FV Full Tino Vocational Schools
SN Schools loi Nuisos
VES Vocational Extontion Schools
EC & FAEC Evoning Classos and Fulltino Adult Education Collogos
TTC Tiado and Tochnical Schools
ICE In-conany continuing oducation
SESI Socondaiy Education Stago I
SESII Socondaiy Education Stago II
zz
Following tho docision to ontoi vocational tiaining, dioiont vocational athways aio oon to
tho studonts. Thoy nay chooso to ontoi into tho dual syston, which is tho locus ol this aoi.
Piioi to this, sono studonts nay docido to attond a lasic vocational tiaining yoai. Othoi
athways aio: ontoiing a vocational oxtonsion school, oting loi lull-tino vocational oducation
(school-lasod only, attonding schools loi nuisos and nidwivos oi choosing to continuo
oducation with a vocational tiaining locus at a Facholoischulo. Tho lollowing tallo sunnaiisos
tho dioiont otions.
Tallo i: Vocational athways in Goinany`s vocational oducation syston
Vocational
athway
Dosciition Mininun
qualication loi ontiy
Qualication uon
conlotion
Dual syston Vocational tiaining is
iovidod in conanios
and schools. Moio than
oo% ol an ago giou aio
involvod in dual
vocational tiaining.
Socondaiy gonoial
school coiticato
Cialt coiticato
(Fachailoitoiliiol
Basic
vocational
tiaining yoai
Full-tino oi ait-tino
classos iovido lasic
gonoial knowlodgo oi
lasic vocational
knowlodgo iolating to a
coitain occuational
old"
(Bundosninistoiiun lui
Bildung und Foischung
zoo;
nono Socondaiy gonoial
school coiticato
oquivalont
Vocational
oxtonsion
school
Vocational oxtonsion
schools aio attondod ly
studonts who undoigo
vocational tiaining oi
who aio onloyod. Most
ol thoso schools aio
socialisod in coitain
suljocts. Tiaining
duiation is iz-i8 nonths.
Socondaiy gonoial
school coiticato
Coiticatos oquivalont
to intoinodiato school
coiticatos
z
Full-tino
vocational
schools
Full-tino vocational
schools ooi couisos ol
at loast iz nonths`
duiation. Attondanco is
voluntaiy altoi
conloting lull-tino
conulsoiy schooling.
Thoy ioaio loi an
occuation oi iovido
lull-tino vocational
tiaining
Socondaiy gonoial
school coiticato
Coiticatos oquivalont
to intoinodiato school
coiticatos]
qualication loi a
iocognisod iolossion
(accoiding to tiaining
diioctivo
Schools loi
nuisos and
nidwivos
Thoso schools iovido
tiaining loi non-
acadonic hoalth caio
iolossions.
Socondaiy gonoial
school coiticato
Qualication loi a
iocognisod iolossion
in tho hoalth caio
soctoi
Facholoi-
schulo
Full-tino attondanco loi
at loast ono yoai oi ait-
tino attondanco loi u
to yoais.
Intoinodiato school
coiticato oi
oquivalont
Qualication to study
at Univoisitios ol
Aliod Scioncos
(Fachhochschulon
Rogaidloss ol tho vocational athway choson ly tho studonts whon ontoiing into tho vocational
oducation and tiaining syston, tho ovoiall ain ol vocational oducation in Goinany always
ionains, notahoiically soaking, to suly tho studonts with a univoisal koy" to oon as
nany doois as ossillo on tho laloui naikot (soo Ellol]Laako zooi, io. This koy" is usually
tianslatod with tho concot ol docision-naking and iosonsilility conotonco
(Handlungskonotonz.
Docision-naking and iosonsilility conotonco as tho ain ol vocational oducation in
Goinany noans tho alility and willingnoss to nastoi iolossional ioquiiononts goal-
oiiontatod and indoondontly on tho lasis ol knowlodgo and oxoiionco as woll as own idoas.
In addition, it dosciilos tho alility to judgo lound solutions and to dovolo tho own skills and
knowlodgo luithoi (soo ilid zooi, io.
Skills assossnont in tho vocational oducation and tiaining syston lays a vital iolo in
dotoinining whothoi oi not tho studonts havo nastoiod tho loaining ioquiiononts as laid out
in tho vocational tiaining diioctivos in oidoi to oltain docision-naking and iosonsilility
conotonco.
Thoioloio, skills assossnont in Goinany`s TVET syston will lo dosciilod in soction ..
zq
8.2.2 Lhna
Tho vocational oducational syston in China is dividod into thioo stagos: junioi, sonioi and toitiaiy
vocational oducation. Tho sonioi vocational oducation is tho nost inoitant cononont in tho
ontiio vocational oducation syston (soo guio q.
In tho lollowing, all dioiont tyos ol schools ol sonioi vocational oducation will lo intioducod,
accoiding to accoss conditions, giaduation qualications and duiation oinoalility (hoiizontal
and voitical. Rolating to tho cuiiont social and ocononic tiansition iocoss as woll as tho vaiious
school tyos, tho iolovant ioloin tondoncy will lo considoiod. Tho toitiaiy vocational oducation is
ioiosontod ly vocational highoi collogos (soo Xu zoo, ;-8, and vocational shoit and advancod
tiaining with dioiont accoss ossililitios lay an incioasingly inoitant iolo in tho vocational
oducation syston in China.
1unor vocaIona| LducaIon
Tho junioi vocational oducation takos laco in tho vocational niddlo school. Tho adnission condition
loi studonts attonding tho vocational niddlo school is tho iinaiy school coiticato. Junioi vocational
oducation is ait ol tho -yoai conulsoiy oducation and lasts loi alout to q yoais. It is ainod at
tiaining lutuio woikois, oasants and onloyoos in othoi soctois with lasic iolossional knowlodgo
and coitain iolossional skills. In oidoi to noot tho donand ol tho laloui naikot iogaiding tho
dovolonont ol tho iuial oconony, junioi vocational schools aio nainly locatod in iuial aioas whoio
tho oconony is undoidovolood (soo Ministiy ol Education PRC, zooi.
Figuio ii: Stiuctuio tho school syston in tho P. R. ol China (soo Zhao zoo, ii
Laloui Maikot
Vocational shoit and advancod tiaining
Uni.
C.
HVC
SSS VHS SWS Gonoial MS
Sonioi Lovol
Gonoial Middlo Schools, Junioi lovol
VMS
Junioi Lovol
Piinaiy School
Kindoigaiton
Until
z
i
i
iz

o
i
School Yoais
Allioviation: C collogos, HVC Highoi vocational collogos, MS niddlo schools,
SSS socialisod socondaiy schools, VHS vocational high schools, SWS skill woikois
schools, VMS vocational niddlo schools.
z
Scnor vocaIona| cducaIon
Sonioi vocational oducation logins altoi tho -yoai conulsoiy oducation. Thoio aio thioo
dioiont school tyos ol sonioi vocational oducation: vocational high schools, socialisod
socondaiy schools and skillod woikois schools. Tho dioionco anong thoso school tyos has
loon ioducod in tho last yoais (soo Xu zoo, 8, a hoiizontal oinoalility ol dioiont school
tyos in tho sonioi (socondaiy vocational oducation is unknown.
vocaIona| hgh schoo|
Tho vocational high school iociuits junioi high school and vocational niddlo school giaduatos.
Noinally an accoss oxanination is also caiiiod out. Tho iogulai schooling lasts yoais. Its
nain task is to tiain socondaiy-iovol giaduatos, who aio iactico-oiiontatod, talontod and havo
coniohonsivo iolossional alilitios and all-iound qualitios and can lo onloyod in tho
loioliont ol ioduction, soivico, tochnology and nanagonont.
Accoidingly, tho socialist olds ooiod in vocational high schools aio nainly iolatod to
tho toitiaiy soctoi (soo Ministiy ol Education PRC, zooi.
In oidoi to ionoto tho aiticiation in vocational tiaining, tho alicants, osocially thoso
coning lion iuial aioas, do not havo stiict adnission ioquiiononts loi shoit tiaining couisos
in vocational high schools. Howovoi, thoso shoit tiainings do not diioctly load to an
acknowlodgod coitication (soo Xu zoo, 8.
In i8, thoio woio altogothoi i;,oo socondaiy vocational schools (including vocational
high schools, socialisod socondaiy schools and skill woikois school, having ii,qoo,ooo
studonts oniollod, whilo tho iociuitnont loi that yoai was at qzz,oo,ooo studonts (soo
Ministiy ol Education PRC, zooi
Spcca|scd sccondary schoo|s
Socialisod socondaiy schools consist ol socondaiy tochnical schools and noinal schools,
whoio gonoial junioi school giaduatos oniol. Schooling usually lasts q yoais, sonotinos also
yoais. A low socialist olds, in which schooling lasts z yoais, aio oon only to sonioi high
school giaduatos. Tho lasic tasks ol thoso schools aio to tiain socondaiy-lovol socialisod and
tochnically talontod giaduatos in oidoi to onloy thon in tho loioliont ol ioduction in sono
social olds, loi oxanlo nochanical and oloctiical onginooiing.
All studonts aio to nastoi tho lasic knowlodgo, thooiy and skills ol thoii socialist old in
addition to tho cultuial knowlodgo ioquiiod loi highoi school studonts (soo Ministiy ol
Education PRC, zooi. Tho socialisod socondaiy schools lay tho nost inoitant iolo in
sonioi vocational oducation with iolativoly advancod toaching sta and oquinont. Cuiiontly
thoy aio in a tiansition iocoss: Tho socialisod socondaiy schools and tho vocational high
schools will lo conlinod to ono school tyo nanod vocational-tochnical schools ol socondaiy
II". Tho Ministiy ol Education has alioady logun to dovolo a cohoiont and uniod olitical
lianowoik (soo Zhao zoo, iz.
zo
Sk||cd workcr schoo|s
Skillod woikoi schools accot gonoial junioi school giaduatos and ain at tiaining socondaiy-
lovol skillod woikois. Tho schooling lasts yoais. Having iactical skills, tho giaduatos will
diioctly lo onloyod in ioduction activitios. Usually laigo ontoiiisos, local adninistiations
oi tho Laloui Buioau aio iosonsillo loi skillod woikoi schools.
Tho tiaining iogiannos ol tho skillod woikoi schools aio nainly oiiontatod towaids
iolossions in industiy olds (soo Zhao zoo, iz.
Conaiod to tho vocational high schools, tho skillod woikoi schools aio noio iactico-
oiiontatod. Thooiy and iactico in skillod woikoi schools aio taught in tho iatio ol i to i (soo Xu
zoo, . Sinco tho ios, tho intako ol uils ly skillod woikoi schools olviously has
docioasod. As a consoquonco, vaiious tiaining iogiannos woio dovolood, such as vocational
advancod tiaining, io-oducation loi skillod woikois and shoit-tino tiaining loi unonloyod
adolosconts. Skillod woikoi schools havo incioasingly changod into tiaining contios loi shoit-
tino and advancod tiaining (soo Zhao zoo, iz.
Chinoso VET is oiganisod ly a nonooly adninistiation, i.o. that VET in China is nainly
school-lasod. Thoio aio dioiont kinds ol loaining vonuos (Loinoito: tho classioon loi
toaching thooiy and gonoial oducation, tho laloiatoiy]dononstiation woiksho loi loaining
vocational tochnologios and dononstiating tochnical iocoduios and nodiating innovativo
tochniquos, tho iactical tiaining lacos loi alying socic vocational knowlodgo, systonatic
tiaining ol conlox assignnonts and handling conlicatod tochnical dovicos. Duiing tho
loaining and woiking iocossos studonts can loain vocational iactico as woll as social
conotonco (soo Wang i, ;8.
Gonoially soaking, sonioi vocational oducation in China lasts thioo yoais. In tho ist and
socond yoai, studonts loain thooiy in vocational schools. In tho thiid school yoai studonts
conloto intoinshis in tho loioliont ol ioduction. Tho lossons in tho vocational school
consist to two-thiids ol tochnical instiuction and to ono-thiid ol thooiy and gonoial oducation
(soo ilid, ;.
JcrIary vocaIona| cducaIon
Toitiaiy vocational oducation nainly accots giaduatos lion iogulai high schools and
socondaiy vocational schools. Tho schooling lasts z to yoais. Toitiaiy vocational oducation is
ionotod ly tho glolalisation ol tho oconony. Most ol tho highoi vocational collogos aio
locatod in ocononically dovolood aioas, o.g. in laigo citios and tho coastal iogions. Accoiding
to tho Vocational Education Law, tho toitiaiy vocational oducation is caiiiod out ly vocational
univoisitios and vocational collogos. Tho ontianco ioquiiononts loi toitiaiy vocational
oducation aio tho succosslul giaduation lion sonioi vocational oducation oi gonoial niddlo
schools (sonioi lovol.
In addition, tho giaduatos lion sonioi lovol still havo to tako ait in tho National Collogo
Entianco Exanination to ontoi tho toitiaiy vocational oducational schools. Tho ontianco ioquiiononts
ol tho toitiaiy vocational oducation aio ioasonallo lowoi than thoso ol Bacholoi oducation.
z;
Toitiaiy vocational oducation ains at tiaining niddlo and highoi qualiod socialists ol
tho industiy and oconony as woll as adninistiativo onloyoos with good iactical conotoncios
(soo Xu zoo, oi. Tho taigot ol toitiaiy vocational oducation is to tiain high lovol socializod
tochnical and nanagonont talonts, who will lo noodod in tho ocononic constiuction. Toitiaiy
vocational oducation onhasizos tho iactico-oiiontod and cialt-oiiontod tiaining. In iocont
yoais, tho iooition ol giaduatos lion socondaiy vocational schools has incioasod. That
noans, tho link lotwoon socondaiy and toitiaiy vocational oducation is ostallishing giadually
(soo Ministiy ol Education PRC, zooi.
At iosont, institutions ioviding toitiaiy vocational oducation aio dividod into vo tyos:
Tho ist aio highoi vocational tochnology collogos, tho socond aio shoit-ciiclo iactico-
oiiontatod vocational univoisitios, tho thiid aio tho -yoai highoi vocational classos iovidod in
iogulai socialisod socondaiy schools, tho louith is tho toitiaiy vocational oducation iovidod
in sono iogulai highoi oducation institutions and adult highoi oducation institutions (soo
ilid., which has loon caiiiod out in ovoi io socialist olds in i8o institutions, tho last aio
tho ioloinod iogulai institutions, ooiing z to -yoai highoi oducation locussing on tho
tiaining ol iactico-oiiontatod talontod giaduatos, who aio also nanod high-lovol iolossional
tochnical talonts. It ains at ionoting tho talonts loi tho loioliont ol ioduction (soo Ministiy
ol Education PRC, zooi.
vocaIona| shorI and advanccd Iranng
Tho vocational shoit and advancod tiaining contains aiontico tiaining, on-tho-jol tiaining,
woik-lasod advancod tiaining and io-oducation couisos. At tho ond ol tho shoit tiaining tho
aiticiants aio oxoctod to tako ait in a Catogoiisation Exanination" (soo Chatoi z.z to
got tho Vocational Catogoiisation Coiticato. Tho vocational shoit and advancod tiaining is
nanagod and caiiiod out ly oducational institutions ol dioiont industiy soctois, laloui
doaitnonts, ontoiiisos, ullic and iivato oiganisations as woll as sono vocational schools.
In addition, it also includos tho tiaining iolatod to agiicultuial tochnologios and in-lant
tiaining. Tho vocational shoit and luithoi tiaining is naikot-oiiontatod and locusos on now
tochnologios (o.g. conutoi skills tiaining. It dovolos voiy last in iosonso to tho ocononic
loon (soo Zhao zoo, i;.
In i;, thoio woio z8oo luithoi oducational contios with tho caacity ol thioo nillion
uils oach yoai. In zooo, thoio woio zo.ooo in-lant tiaining contios with tho caacity ol o
nillion uils oach yoai (soo Xu zoo, oz.
z8
8.8 Sk||s AsscssmcnI
8.8.1 0crmany
As alioady dosciilod in soction .i, tiaining diioctivos dosciilo skills and knowlodgo to lo
dissoninatod ly vocational oducation iolossionals in conanios and to lo acquiiod ly
studonts in oidoi to lo loinally and ocially allo to caiiy out a coitain iolossion.
Staiting oint in ostallishing a now tiaining diioctivo always is a qualication nood
signalisod ly tho laloui naikot.
Tho iocoss ol cioating a now tiaining diioctivo involvos dioiont actois on vaiious
adninistiativo and govoinnontal lovols. In a ioosal to tho lodoial ninistiy in chaigo, usually
tho Ministiy loi Econony and Tochnology (Bundosninistoiiun lui Wiitschalt und Tochnologio
BMWI, coinoistonos ol tho diioctivo aio loing discussod and dotoininod lotwoon tho
Fodoial Ministiy ol Education and Rosoaich and woikois` as woll as onloyois` unions. Thoso
coinoistonos loin tho lasis loi tho dovolonont ol a dialt ol tho now diioctivo and its co-
oidination with tho lianowoik cuiiicula (loi tho school-lasod ait ol tho tiaining ol tho
Conloionco ol Goinan Cultuial Ministois (Kultusninistoikonloionz KMK (soo
Bundosinstitut lui Boiulslildung zoo;. Tho dialt (loi tho in-conany tiaining ait is loing
dovolood undoi tho load nanagonont ol tho Fodoial Instituto loi Vocational Education and
Tiaining in co-ooiation with oxoits lion onloyois` and woikois` oiganisations. Tho dialt
loi tho lianowoik cuiiiculun (loi tho school-lasod ait ol tho tiaining is dovolood ly oxoits
ol tho Lndoi which aio aointod ly tho Cultuial Ministois ol tho lodoial statos.
Tho co-oidination as iogaids contont and tino is acconlishod ly jointly taking ait in
nootings ol tho oxoits lion loth sidos (soo ilid zoo;. Anong othoi oints, as shown in
soction .i, tiaining diioctivos ut down oxanination guidolinos and ioquiiononts to lo assod
in oidoi to lo allo to caiiy out a loinalisod iolossion.
Tiaditionally, skills assossnont in vocational tiaining loi a coitain loinalisod iolossion
within tho dual syston ol vocational oducation was dono in two stos. Tho ist sto was an
intoinodiato tosting altoi tho ist ait ol tho tiaining couiso (which gonoially lasts yoais.
Tho ain was to chock tho studonts` iogioss duiing tho tiaining couiso. Tho intoinodiato
tosting did not inuonco tho nal oxan iosults. At tho ond ol tho -yoai vocational tiaining, a
nal oxanination had to lo assod ly tho studonts.
Tho ain ol tho nal oxanination was to chock whothoi docision-naking and iosonsilility
conotoncios had loon achiovod in tho iolossional old and loi tho iosoctivo iolossion in
quostion.
Roloins in tho oxanination syston in iocont yoais havo soon a chango lion this two-sto
syston towaids a stiotchod" oxanination syston.
Tho stiotchod" oxanination syston is an altoinativo to tho tiaditional skills assossnont
syston and is as such anchoiod in tho Vocational Education Law altoi tho ioloins in zoo (soo
z
Ellinghaus zoo, 8. Its nain chaiactoiistic is that tho nal oxanination is now slit u in
two aits (soo guio iz, sulstituting tho intoinodiato tosting loi tho ist ait ol tho nal
oxanination. This ait woighs in with qo% towaids tho nal iosult.
Figuio iz: Stiotchod oxanination syston in Goinany`s TVET syston (own chait, takon lion
Boich zoo;
Tho socond ait ol tho oxanination is takon at tho ond ol tho vocational tiaining couiso,
constituting loi oo% ol tho nal giado (ilid zoo, 8. Whon dovoloing now tiaining diioctivos
loi now loinal iolossions, it has to lo analysod ly law which loin ol skills assossnont
(tiaditional oi stiotchod" should lo inlonontod loi tho nal oxanination in that
iolossion.
Rogaidloss ol tho loin ol skills assossnont, sinilai tosting nothods can lo idontiod.
Tho nal oxan loi a najoiity ol iolossions in Goinany includos solving conlox tasks, .o.g.
a custonoi iolations issuo oi a snall-scalo iojoct. In thoso tasks, tho studonts aio askod to
dononstiato iollon-solving skills, incoioiating tho knowlodgo and skills loi thoii iosoctivo
iolossion acquiiod in tho vocational tiaining couiso.
0ART) 407 0ART) 607
-07
207
207
107
#ARRYINGOUTA
COMPLEXTASK
7ORKTASK
|nc|ud|n s|ua|on-deendend
conversa|on |ases 10 m|ns}
and
wr|en uues|ons
Coman,-uased as| rom 18-30 |rs}
or
rac|ca| as| 18 |rs}
120 m|ns}
120 m|ns}
60 m|ns}
3YSTEMDESIGN
"USINESSANDSOCIALSTUDIES
&UNKTIONANDSYSTEMANALYSIS
%XAMINATIONAREAS
o
Tho nal oxanination to oltain a cialt coiticato, onalling tho studont to ocially caiiy
out tho loinal iolossion, is oiganisod and conduct ly tho iosonsillo doaitnont"
(zustndigo Stollo, which is tho govoining lody loi that iolossion. Tho nal oxanination loi
a coitain iolossion is standaidisod nationally. Thoso iosonsillo doaitnonts" can lo tho
Chanloi ol Connoico, tho Chanloi ol Cialts oi any othoi lody loinally govoining and
stiuctuiing lusinoss, industiy and tiado.
Whilo thoio is an additional nal oxanination at tho vocational schools, tho linding
oxanination to oltain tho cialts coiticato is conductod ly tho iosonsillo doaitnont".
Thus, tho vocational oducation and tiaining couiso in tho dual syston onds with a cialt
coiticato (Fachailoitoiliiol, ioving a uniod and nationally acknowlodgod and accotod sot
ol skills loi a coitain iolossion. As Schnann oints out, jt|his suoits tho viow that
oducational ciodontials havo tho chaiactoi ol ioductivity indicatois to onloyois, lut tho
noio oolo havo thon, tho lowoi thoii valuo" (Schnann i;, . This aigunont will lo
ickod u and oxandod in tho noxt chatoi, doaling with stiongths and woaknossos ol tho
Goinan TVET syston in iosonding to laloui naikot noods.
8.8.2 Lhna
In China's vocational oducation law, Chatoi z (z statos that altoi assing tho oxanination ol
tho vocational school, studonts shall lo issuod acadonic ciodontials in accoidanco with iolovant
iovisions ol tho stato. Sinilaily, altoi assing tho oxanination ol tho vocational schools oi
vocational tiaining institutions, tho studonts who iocoivo vocational tiaining shall lo issuod
tiaining coitications in accoidanco with iolovant iovisions ol tho stato. Fuithoinoio,
acadonic ciodontials and tiaining coitications shall lo usod as coitications ol giaduatos and
tiainoos whon thoy soaich loi jols and aio onloyod (soo Ministiy ol Education PRC, io.
Howovoi, tho oxanination syston in vocational schools in China vaiios duo to tho lack ol
a national standaidisod cuiiiculun. Noinally, tho local oducational ocos and oach vocational
school iosoctivoly aiiango tho oxaninations loi tho ond ol oach sonostoi as woll as tho nal
oxanination.
Altoi assing tho nal oxanination oi tiaining, acadonic ciodontials oi tiaining
coitications aio giantod. But duo to tho out-ol-dato toaching natoiials and tho thooiy-
oiiontatod toaching nothods, thoso ciodontials and coitications cannot stand tho now
challongos in this iaid dovoloing tiansition tino and ossoss low iocognition in tho laloui
naikot.
In oidoi to co-oidinato tho discioancy lotwoon tho qualication ol skillod woikois and tho
laloui naikot noods, a Catogoiisation Exanination" is oon to ovoiyono at any ago oi stago
ol thoii caiooi (soo guio i. Skillod woikois as woll as tho giaduatos ol tho vocational schools
aio suosod to tako ait in tho Catogoiisation Exanination" to got a Catogoiisation
Coiticato" (soo Chatoi z.i, which is awaidod ly tho Ministiy ol Laloui and is nationally
uniod. Catogoiisation coiticatos hol giaduatos lion vocational schools signicantly with
i
thoii jol sooking. Tho oxanination contios all ovoi tho countiy aio contiollod contially and tho
ovaluation ciitoiia loi oach iolossion aio issuod contially ly tho govoinnont and tho Ministiy
ol Laloui. Both tho Acadonic Ciodontials (oi Tiaining Coitications" and tho Catogoiisation
Coiticato" aio callod Doullo Coiticatos", which aio nocossaiy loi vocational oducation
giaduatos and aio takon as alication ioquiiononts loi nost stato-authoiisod iolossions
(soo Zhao zoo, i;. Rogaidloss ol tho national conaiallo Catogoiisation Coiticato" syston,
tho qualication lovols ol skillod woikois aio still voiy dioiont duo to tho vaiious iolossional
and oducational lackgiounds. This is a laiiioi loi tho inlonontation and ostallishnont ol
nationally uniod qualication ciitoiia (national occuational standaids and hindois tho
nolility ol skillod woikois. As a iosult, toaching and loaining natoiial as woll as tho nal
oxanination in vocational schools aio to oiiontato towaids tho national Catogoiisation
Exanination" syston.
Figuio i: Stato's Skills Assossnont in P. R. ol China
Giatudatos
lion
Collogos
oi
Univoisitios
Succosslul
giaduation
lion Vocational
Highoi Schools
(Toitiaiy Lovol
Succosslul
giaduation
lion Vocational
Educational
Schools
(Sonioi Lovol
Altoi
Finishing
oducational
shoit &
advancod
Tiaining
Othoi
Skillod
Woikois
Lovol i Lovol z Lovol Lovol q Lovol
Exanination
(Thooiy & Piactico
loi Catogoiisation
Coiticato
Laloui Maikot
z
8.4 LomparaIvc Synopss:
JvLJ sysIcms n 0crmany and Lhna
As can lo soon lion tho iovious soctions, tho TVET systons ol loth countiios aio olviously
dioiont. Tho lollowing tallo shows cloaily tho nain dioionco ol tho loth vocational oducation
systons accoiding to a coitain ciitoiia (soo tallo z.
Tallo z: Systonatic Conaiison ol Vocational Education lotwoon Goinany and China
(soo Sun, Y. zoo;, o
Catogoiios Goinany China
Syston dual syston
(vocational school and conany
nonooly syston
(vocational oducation at school
Loaining vonuos loaining woikshos,
conany (ioduction, tiado,
adninistiation,
intoilant tiaining contios
(oxtoinal tiaining contios,
classioon,
socialist ioons.
classioon,
laloiatoiy,
tiaining woiksho,
woiklaco,
vocational tiaining contios.
Rosonsillo
lodios]nancing
conanios, ullic
adninistiation...
iosouicos: nunicialitios
oisonnol: lodoial stato
govoinnont,
conany (school loi skillod woikois
and tuition loos
Juiisdiction tho Fodoiation (conany
tho lodoial stato (school
iogulatod in dotail
govoinnont
no concioto inlonontation
noasuios
Rosonsilility loi
vocational oducation
hoiizontal and voitical
adninistiation
hioiaichical stiuctuio, voitical
adninistiation

Rogulations BBiG]HwO
tiaining diioctivos (loi tho in-lant
tiaining
school laws,
lianowoik cuiiicula ly tho KMK
iosoctivoly ly tho lodoial stato
(loi tho school-lasod tiaining,
iolossions that ioquiio tiaining
iogionally dioiont,
no standaid cuiiicula.
Each iovinco oi city inlononts own
syllalus, suljoct aioa (no iolossions
that ioquiio tiaining is tho quality
ciitoiion
Didactical
aioachos
lianowoik cuiiicula aio
stiuctuiod accoiding to loaining
olds, action conotonco is loing
dovolood, tiainoos aio to lan,
chock, coiioct and ovaluato
indoondontly
lossons aio stiuctuiod accoiding to
suljocts, thooiy-accontuatod ,chalk
and talk, tiainoos aio oljocts ol tho
iolossional action ly tho toachoi,
olton thoio is no connoction to
alication, oxisting iovious
knowlodgo is not loing intogiatod
Coiticato cialt coiticato]coiticato ol
aionticoshi]coiticato ol
nanagonont assistanco in
wholosalo and oxoit tiados
(chanlois, vocational school
qualication, school qualications
in couisos with doullo
qualications
school coiticatos (vocational school,
vocational classication coiticatos
(woik adninistiation, doullo
coiticato
Toachoi tiaining nino sonostois ol toachoi-tiaining
couiso, two stato oxaninations,
oach toachoi is iosonsillo loi
vocational socialist and gonoial
lossons
no uniloin sta stiuctuio loi
vocational school toachois,
thooiy and iactico lossons aio
soaiatod, thoio aio too nany thooiy
toachois lut insuciont iactico
toachois
Chaiactoiistics long tiadition iolating to tiados
and woll-known dual syston,
action conotonco, concioto
iogulations and dotailod law
conlucianisn, considoiallo ocononic
dovolonont, iogional dioioncos,
dovolonont ol quality and quantity,
stiong contial contiol and iogional
oxilility
q
Following this ovoiviow, thioo dioioncos lotwoon loth systons aio sunnaiisod:
Tho ist dioionco lios within tho vocational oducation systons thonsolvos. Goinany has
a dual syston, which is iulod and nancod ly two indoondont soctois tho govoinnont and
tho conanios. Conlox and vaiious toaching and loaining iocossos tako laco loth in
vocational oducation schools and conanios.
Vocational oducation schools and conanios caiiy out thoii soll-doondont aionticoshi
and vocational tiaining accoiding to tho lianowoik cuiiicula (Rahnonlohilno and tiaining
diioctivos (Auslildungsoidnungon, in oidoi to iovido an ooctivo conlination ol thooiy and
iactico.
China has a nonooly school syston which is iulod and nancod lasically ly tho
govoinnont. Vocational tiaining takos laco in tho classioon ol vocational schools without
stiong connoction ol thooiy and iactico. Only voiy low laigo conanios undoitako vocational
tiaining loi VET schools.
Tho socond dioionco iolatos to tho oiganisation and iosonsililitios ol tho VET systons.
VET in Goinany has dioiont iogulations and oiganisations which stiongly suoit tho
lanning, inlononting and contiolling ol vocational tiaining, whilo VET in China has not
loon ionotod in tho last docados and thoioloio has undoidovolood oiganisational
concots.
Tho Vocational Education Law in China just soivos as olitical inloination, thoioloio, tho
involvonont ol conanios (tho oconony will only lo logitinatoly suoitod, without conloto
inlonontation. Uniod and dotailod iogulations iolatod to cuiiicula, oxaninations, toachoi
tiaining and tho co-ooiation with conanios haidly oxist locauso ol tho iogional disaiitios
as woll as tho inconloto oiganisation concot.
Tho thiid dioionco iosults lion tho tiadition and tho loaining cultuio in loth countiios.
Goinany has a long histoiy and tiadition ol vocational tiaining and tho dual syston.
Tochnicians and qualiod skillod woikois laco a high iostigo in socioty. At tho sano tino,
indoondont loaining, ciitical thinking and innovation conotonco havo always loon
onhasisod in tho loaining iocoss. In China, thooiy lays a nuch noio inoitant iolo than
iactico locauso ol tho doo cultuial lundanonts. Thoioloio, vocational tiaining is not as
widosioad as gonoial oducation. Woiking iocossos aio always nogloctod duiing vocational
tiaining. This consoivativo loaining cultuio in China only ioaios loi iocalling tho givon
knowlodgo.

4. JvLJ sysIcm and |ahour

markcI n 0crmany and Lhna
4.1 0crmany
4.1.1 SIrcngIhs of Ihc sysIcm n rcspondng Io |ahour markcI nccds
Tho stiongth ol tho Goinan TVET syston and ol tho dual syston osocially lios undoultodly
in tho lact that it ioducos giaduatos in ossossion ol nationally uniod and univoisally
iocognisod and conaiallo qualications in tho loin ol tho cialts coiticato.
Fuithoinoio, tho iogulatoiy lianowoik loi tiaining iolossions in Goinany and its
docunonts (such as vocational tiaining diioctivos is tiiggoiod ly industiy noods (as laid out in
soction .. Thus, it could lo aiguod that tho TVET syston is oiiontatod towaids tho laloui
naikot thiough dosigning tiaining iolossions that ioiosont laloui naikot donands. Tho
lact that tho vocational athways in Goinany ooi a wido vaiioty ol dioiont tiaining
iolossions can also lo soon as a ositivo asoct ol tho syston in iolation to laloui naikot
noods. By having a highly divoisiod old ol tiaining it can lo onsuiod that tho syston can
iovido skillod woikois loi alnost any industiy oi tiado.
Sono authois also aiguo that tho vocational oducation syston ol Goinany has a gioat
inact on unonloynont iatios. Thodo oints out that tho ga lotwoon gonoial unonloynont
and youth unonloynont in Goinany is conaially snall (in iolation to othoi OECD
countiios. This is nainly duo to tho dual syston ol vocational oducation which, ovon though
it has loon lacing a lack in aionticoshi lacononts in tho last yoais, oons u good
ossililitios loi young adults to ontoi tho woild ol woik (soo Thodo zooo, zqo. Eichhoist]
Piot]Thodo suoit this aigunont ly oxlaining that tho lusinoss location Goinany"
lonots gioatly lion tho dual syston sinco it achiovos a high iato ol intogiation ol youth into
tho laloui naikot (soo Eichhoist]Piot]Thodo zooi, ii.
4.1.2 Wcakncsscs of Ihc sysIcm n rcspondng Io |ahour markcI nccds
Tho Goinan vocational oducation syston, as ointod out ly vaiious authois, is iosonding duo to
its voiy conlox stiuctuio - slowly to chango. This has an inact on tho oiiontation ol tho syston
on laloui naikot noods. Koch aiguos that tho stiuctuio ol tho vocational tiaining syston and tho
ooiing ol intoinshis and tiaining lacononts is chaiactoiisod ly tho oiiontation towaids tiaditional
o
cialts and industiy ol tho dual syston. In tho ast, tho syston has shown a woak alility to chango in
iosonding to tho ocononical and stiuctuial changos ol tho inloination socioty (soo Koch i8, i.
Fuithoinoio, tho concot ol lilo-long loaining is not incoioiatod thoioughly into tho Goinan
vocational tiaining syston. Stoo oints out that a succosslully conlotod vocational tiaining
couiso alono is not suciont loi a long iolossional caiooi (soo Sto io, i.
It has to lo ointod out, too, that tho tiaditional sotu ol tho vocational oducation syston in
Goinany was catoiing loi studonts nishing lasic oducation (soo soction .z.. This aioach to tho
qualications dissoninatod and tho oducational lovol choson as tho staiting oint in tho syston has
soon sono changos in tho ast yoais. As Rotho oxlains, tho dual syston with its ocially iocognisod
tiaining iolossions has loon attachod to an oducational lovol which is lasod on tho socondaiy
gonoial school coiticato. Howovoi, nowadays a laigo iooition ol studonts ontoiing tho dual
syston havo alioady achiovod an intoinodiato school oi giannai school coiticato (soo Rotho zooq,
o. This lact shows that tho vocational tiaining syston is in nood ol a noio loinally stiuctuiod and
intogiatod luithoi qualication cononont This has loon ioalisod (anong othoi ioloins ly shilting
lion tho tiaditional, suljoct socic cuiiiculun to tho aioach ol olds ol loaining" which allows
loi a noio intogiatod and conlox knowlodgo dissonination. Fuithoinoio, studont-contiod toaching
aioachos aio usod to involvo tho studonts noio in classioon sottings. Thiough this noasuio,
intoidiscilinaiy tasks can lo assignod and dioiont aioas ol conotonco can lo dovolood.
Sunnaiising it can lo statod that tho vocational oducation and tiaining syston in Goinany cloaily
naiks a conotitivo advantago loi tho countiy. Novoitholoss, as discussod ly Eichhoist]Piot]Thodo, tho
slow iato ol adatation to chango as woll as tho lack ol ooning u suciont ossililitios loi luithoi
vocational oducation and tiaining aigually naiks tho gioatost woaknoss iogaiding laloui naikot noods.
4.2 Lhna
4.2.1 SIrcngIhs of Ihc sysIcm n rcspondng Io |ahour markcI nccds
In tho last yoais, tho Chinoso govoinnont has nado gioat ooits to ionoto tho dovolonont ol
VET and has cono to a lot ol docisions to oxand tho aiticiation in VET schools in loth ocononically
dovolood and undoidovolood aioas. Young oolo lion iuial aioas havo nuch noio ooitunitios
loi vocational tiaining. It is lannod that lion zooo to zoio, iq lillion c will lo invostod in tho
vocational oducation and tiaining in China (soo Won, zooo. Moanwhilo, a lot ol ioloins iolating to
tho VET syston aio on tho way, iosonding to tho iaid social and ocononical chango.
Now iolossions, now skills assossnonts and now cuiiicula aio iniovod instantly in iosonso
to tho donands ol tho industiy and laloui naikot.
At iosont, nany vocational schools dovoto thonsolvos to study tho national occuational
standaids and Catogoiisation Exanination in oidoi to udato thoii cuiiiculun (soo Xinhua, zooo.
Tho vaiious olitical docisions alout VET, which took laco in tho last low yoais, ioiosont tho
;
anlitions ol tho Chinoso govoinnont to ionoto VET, considoiing tho cuiiont social and ocononic
conditions.
In addition, tho dovolonont ol a National Vocational Qualications syston ioocts tho
iniovonont ol tho connoction lotwoon laloui naikot and industiy oi tiado. Tho lact that tho
Catogoiisation Coiticato" is takon as alication ioquiionont loi nost stato-authoiisod iolossions
and that tho Catogoiisation Exanination" is oon to ovoiyono at any ago oi stago ol thoii caiooi,
havo gioatly oncouiagod tho oxanding aiticiation anong skillod woikois and giaduatos in
vocational schools. Tho Catogoiisation Exanination" is oiganisod nationally in a uniod way, which
noans tho oxanination contios all ovoi tho countiy aio contiollod and aiiangod contially. This
uniod National Vocational Qualications syston is advantagoous loi tho standaidisation ol
conaiallo qualication ioquiiononts on tho laloui naikot and it also soivos as inulso to udato
tho toaching and loaining natoiials in vocational schools.
Moioovoi, tho oxanination contonts aio tiiggoiod thiough intoinational vocational qualication
standaids which includo not only thooiotic knowlodgo lut also iactical skills. This oxanination
aioach loads to a now tondoncy ol qualication ovaluation and iniovos tho tiaditional assossnont
syston in China.
4.2.2 Wcakncsscs of Ihc sysIcm n rcspondng Io |ahour markcI nccds
Duo to tho lack ol co-ooiation with conanios, tho studonts ol vocational schools do not havo
suciont ooitunitios to iactico thoii thooiotical knowlodgo in tho loioliont ol ioduction oi
soivico soctois. Moanwhilo, it always has loon ciiticisod that tho toaching and loaining natoiials in
vocational oducation schools aio only thooiy-oiiontatod and not oquivalont to tho ioquiiononts ol tho
laloui naikot and tho industiy. As a consoquonco, skillod woikois lack woik-iolatod, conotonco-
lasod skills and knowlodgo, which aio nocossaiy to stand tho now tochnical and social tiansition
challongos (soo Xu zoo, ;q.
Moioovoi, iogaidloss ol tho govoinnont`s ooits ionoting VET in China, a gioat nunloi ol
non- oi soni-skillod jol sookois aio suosod to got tho ooitunity ol taking ait in luithoi oducation
and tiaining, osocially social disadvantagod gious (thoso noving lion iuial aioas to lig citios.
Tho unqualiod disadvantagod gious olviously hindoi tho social stalilitios and could aigually
lo soon as a wasto ol hunan iosouico. This honononon ioquiios tho govoinnont to ut advancod
ooits on oxanding tho scalo ol VET in China. A luithoi iollon is tho hugo disaiity ol tho iogional
social and ocononic dovolonont and tho quality and lovols ol vocational schools. Thoso woaknossos
havo ovidontly hold lack tho dovolonont ol national uniod cuiiicula loi vocational schools.
Although tho Catogoiisation Exanination" syston oiiontatos itsoll towaids tho laloui naikot
and is conaiallo nationally, tho qualication lovols ol tho candidatos aio voiy unoqual duo to tho
vaiious iolossional and oducational lackgiounds. This is a laiiioi loi tho inlonontation and
ostallishnont ol nationally uniod qualication standaids and hindois tho nolility ol skillod
woikois. Moioovoi, tho oxanination contonts in vocational schools aio still not iolovant to thoso ol tho
Catogoiisation Exanination". As a iosult, tho cuiiicula in vocational oducation nood to lo udatod,
8
toaching and loaining natoiials as woll as tho nal oxanination in vocational schools aio to lo
iostiuctuiod and ioloinod accoiding to laloui naikot noods. Tho Vocational Education Coiticato"
is to lo incioasingly tiiggoiod ly tho ioquiiononts and standaids ol tho national Catogoiisation
Coiticato" syston (soo Xinhua zooo.
Shoitly soaking, considoiing tho iogional dioioncos, VET in China is to catch u with tho
dovoloing sood ol tho industiy and oconony. Moio and noio iactical-oiiontatod skillod woikois
and tochnicians aio suosod to lo ionotod in vocational schools in oidoi to noot tho dovoloing
ocononical and social donands.
4.2.8 SpcccaIon
Po|Ica| rcform and appca| Io vocaIona| cducaIon
Tho tiaditional and tho cultuial lackgiound havo stiongly inuoncod tho undoistanding and tho way
ol thinking ol tho Chinoso. Tho Chinoso Govoinnont has caiiiod out nany olitical ioloins and
noasuios duiing tho last yoais in oidoi to ionoto vocational oducation in China.
In i;8, China lacod a now oia, which glolally oonod tho countiy doois. Duiing tho i8os, tho
VET syston was on tho uswing duo to tho tochnical-ocononic chango, which nado a stiongoi logal
ostallishnont ol vocational oducation within tho oducation syston nocossaiy (soo Zhao zoo, 8. In
i8o, a iooit alout tho stiuctuial ioloin ol socondaiy oducation" was wiitton ly tho Chinoso
Cultuial Ministiy. It was indicatod that tho ain was a nodoinisation ol socioty. Socondaiy oducation
was to lo iostiuctuiod and vocational oducation was to lo gioatly ionotod and dovolood luithoi
(soo Ministiy ol Education PRC, zooil.
In i8o, tho Contial Connission ol tho Paity ointod out tho inoitanco ol tho dovolonont ol
VET within thoii iosolution loi tho ioloin ol tho oducation syston. Tho dovolonont ol nodoinisation
not only noodod highly qualiod sciontic and tochnical oxoits, lut also nany onginoois with
iinaiy and nodiun qualications, adninistiation oisonnol, skillod woikois and othoi woikois
with a good and sound vocational oducation (soo Xu zoo, o.
On tho ist ol Sotonloi io, tho Chinoso Govoinnont ullishod tho law loi vocational
oducation: Vocational oducation law ol tho PR ol China". Tho law donos tho lasis loi tho osition
and lunction ol VET ly stiulating tho way ol school oiganisation, tho iosonsilility iogulations, tho
adninistiation oidois, tho olitical guidolinos as woll as tho nancing channols. It also is a sign loi
tho io-ovaluation ol vocational oducation (soo Zhao zoo, 8.
In zooz, tho Counsol ol Stato assod a Rosolution loi tho ionotion and accoloiation ol
vocational oducation. Within tho contoxt ol VET in China, in tho tino liano ol tho ioth vo-yoai lan
(zooi zoo ovoi zo nillion skillod woikois woio tiainod and noio than qoo nillion woikois in tho
citios took ait in luithoi oducation noasuios (soo N.N zooo.
In tho couiso ol a conloionco in zoo (Chinoso oducation olicy loi tho zist contuiy it was
lannod that ly zoio, tho nunloi ol studonts adnittod at niddlo schools ioviding vocational
oducation was to lo 8 nillion, aioxinatoly as nuch as at niddlo schools ioviding gonoial
oducation. Tho nunloi ol adnissions at highoi vocational oducation institutos aio to oxcood that at

toitiaiy institutos ioviding gonoial oducation. In tho tino liano ol tho iith vo-yoai lan (zooo zoio,
z nillion giaduatos ol niddlo vocational schools and ii nillion giaduatos ol highoi gonoial oducation
institutos aio to lo oducatod. Annually, ioo nillion iuial and uilan woikois aio to lo tiainod. Thoso
noasuios will ovidontly iniovo tho quality ol tho Chinoso woikloico (soo Wu, Qidi zoo.
Foui iojocts woio lannod ly tho Ministiy ol Education in Novonloi zoo in oidoi to
iostiuctuio tho oconony (soo Ministiy ol Education PRC zoo:
Tho national iojoct loi tho tiaining ol skillod woikois,
Tho national iojoct ol io-oiiontation loi iuial woikois,
Tho national iojoct ol tiaining ol iactico woikois loi iuial aioas,
Tho iojoct ol luithoi oducation and io-onloynont tiaining loi adults.
Fuithoinoio, tho Govoinnont docidod to invost iq nillion c in vocational oducation in tho tino
liano ol tho iith vo-yoai lan (soo Won, Jialao zooo. Tho stiuctuio ol tho niddlo oducation
(socondaiy school lovol II will gioatly iniovo thiough that. Nowadays, VET is an inoitant olonont
ol tho national oducation syston.
All thoso olicios, iogulations and laws havo not only cioatod an uniocodontod good social
onviionnont loi tho dovolonont ol vocational oducation, lut also show tho diioction loi tho ioloin
and dovolonont ol vocational oducation in tho zist contuiy.
Altoi having joint tho WTO, China has loon lacing a tiansloination iocoss oocting dioiont
social and ocononic lactois, which initiatod tho ionotion ol vocational oducation in China. All
aoals, iosolutions and iogulations nontionod alovo havo cloaily iniovod tho iosocts ol tho
dovolonont ol vocational oducation in China in tho zist contuiy. yy
Jhc rapd cxpanson of vocaIona| cducaIon n Lhna
In tho lollowing, tho cuiiont situation ol tho dovolonont ol VET in China is dosciilod in
dotail. Ovoi tho last yoais, tho nunloi ol studonts in niddlo schools which iovidos gonoial
oducation has iison lastoi than that ol studonts in vocational schools whoio tho nunloi ol
iogistoiod studonts loll in tho yoai zooo (soo Zhao zoo, i;. (soo tallo .
Tallo : nunloi ol iogistoiod vocational school studonts in tho socondaiy school lovol II
lion io to zooo (soo Zhao zoo, iq
yoai in total
socialisod
niddlo schools
skillod woikoi
schools
vocational
niddlo schools
io ioiooo qzz;oo ii8ioo ;oo
i; io8ioo qoqioo iiooo qioooo
i8 iizooooo q8o8oo i;oooo qqzoo
i iiioo iooo ioooo qq8qoo
zooo ioqqzioo q8zoo iqoioo qiqooo
qo
Tho iush to univoisitios is giowing stoadily. At tho sano tino tho Chinoso socioty tonds to nogloct
tho ossililitios ol vocational and skillod woikoi tiaining. Tho studonts attonding vocational schools
aio soon as lailuios. In a low iogions in China, this has alioady lod to a lack ol tochnicians.
Duo to tho considoiallo ocononic loon and tho lack ol skillod woikois, VET is hoavily ionotod
ly tho stato and tho oducation connission. Statistic data lion zooo to zooo shows that tho nunloi
ol now studonts in vocational school has iison lion q.iz nillion to ;.z nillion (soo guio io. ;;
It is lannod that tho caacity ol studonts in vocational niddlo schools is to coniiso 8 nillion
studonts in tho yoai zoo; and with that o,ooo studonts noio than in zooo and alout tho sano
nunloi as at gonoial niddlo schools. Tho scalo ol caacity ol studonts at highoi oducation institutions
is to oxcood tho adnission ol studonts to toitiaiy oducation institutions ioviding gonoial oducation
(soo Ministiy ol Education PRC zoooa.
Figuio iq: Tho iatio ol adnission nunlois lotwoon studonts and vocational studonts (soo
Yang Jintu zoo
PromoIon of Ihc dsadvanIagcd
Duo to iogional dioioncos and tho iiiogulai ocononic dovolonont ol tho wholo countiy, tho
injustico ol tho Chinoso oducation syston is still stiong.
In tho citios, tho school syston is iolativoly conlotoly dovolood ooiing a lioad suly
ol vocational tiaining ossililitios that ioach to olito oducation at univoisitios. In tho undoi-
qi
dovolood iuial iogions, tho school syston is chaiactoiisod ly a lackwaid oquinont, lad
toachois and low nancing. School oducation in China is still stiongly inuoncod ly tho
histoiic soloction syston. Tho national univoisity ontianco oxanination is standaid lut thoio
is a voiy unjust ovaluation iocoduio. In a lig and highly dovolood city, liko loi oxanlo
Boijing oi Shanghai, tho univoisity ontianco ciitoiia aio nuch lowoi than in ooioi iogions.
In nany ocononically undoi-dovolood iogions nunoious adolosconts havo no ossilility to
nd an aionticoshi. Evoiy yoai nunoious adolosconts ontoi woiking lilo diioctly altoi
socondaiy school lovol I and II without loing tiainod (soo guio ii.
Figuio i: Adnission nunloi ol studonts iogaiding tho school loins in tho oducation
syston in China in tho yoai zooo (soo Xu zoo, oz
univoisity and
collogo alout z.o
nillion
highoi vocational
oducation alout
o.z nillion
gonoial and
vocational adult
oducation alout
i.o nillion
tiansition to univoisity
oi highoi vocational oducation
(z.%
tiansition to
onloynont ]unonloynont
(o;,i%
gonoial niddlo
school
alout
q.;z nillion
(8.o %
vocational
school
alout
i.o nillion
(i8.o %
socialisod
niddlo school
alout
i. nillion
(io.o %
skillod woikoi
school
alout
o.o nillion
(o.z %
gonoial and
vocational adult
ocudation
alout
i.oo nillion
tiansition to
socondaiy school lovol II
(alout i.i%
transition to
employment/ unemployment
(about 48.9 %
giaduato nunloi accoiding to dogioo altoi tho -yoai conulsoiy school attondanco (lowoi
lovol ol niddlo school i;.8 nillion, ol which alout o.o nillion giaduatos ol tho lowoi lovol at
vocational niddlo schools
qz
As can lo soon in tho guio, noaily hall ol all studonts did not luithoi attond any school
altoi tho -yoai conulsoiy school attondanco (socondaiy school lovol I in tho yoai zooo, altoi
tho socondaiy school lovol II o;.i% ol all studonts woio unonloyod oi ontoiod tho laloui
naikot diioctly. Evoiy yoai nillions ol adolosconts do not got a laco at univoisitios oi collogos
altoi tho uoi lovol ol niddlo school. Without any luithoi oducation ooitunity tho
adolosconts havo no chanco to gain vocational skills, which loads to a wasting ol ocononic
iosouicos (hunan caital. Most nigiant woikois lolong to this giaduato giou. Thoioloio,
tho tiaining and luithoi oducation ooitunitios aio nocossaiy. Accoidingly, tho Chinoso
oducation connission assod a now iogulation: With a dogioo ol tho uoi lovol ol niddlo
school, ovoiyono gots an aionticoshi at a vocational school. Altoi ono yoai ol tiaining and a
qualication oxan tho vocational oducation coiticato is awaidod (soo Ministiy ol Education
PRC. zoool.
Fuithoinoio, tho Ministiy ol Financo docidod to invost luithoi q nillion c ol tho iith vo-
yoai lan (zooo zoio in tho adolosconts living in ocononically undoi-dovolood iogions in
oidoi to got thon an aionticoshi in a vocational school. In tho yoai zooo alono, tho iogional
tax ocos sulsidizod 8o nillion ouios loi oo,ooo ooi tiainoos. Fion zooo to zoio, iz
lillion c will lo invostod ly tho iogional tax oco in tiainoos coning lion ooi lanilios (soo
Ministiy ol Education PRC. zoooc. Tho alolition ol injustico in tho oducation syston in
China is ono ol tho nost inoitant tasks ol tho ioloin ol tho Chinoso oducation syston.
q
5. Lonc|uson
In China, thoio woio aiox. loui nillion giaduatos lion vocational schools on tho niddlo
lovol, lut locauso ol lacking qualications, tho giaduatos lacod gioat dicultios in nding
onloynont. It has loon ciiticisod loi quito sono tino now that vocational oducation in China
is not oiiontatod towaids laloui naikot noods. Tho oducation connission as woll as tho
Ministiy ol Laloui havo thoioloio dovolood tho Doullo Coiticatos" syston. This syston
was inlonontod in China as a nandatoiy ioquiionont in oidoi to ontoi tho woild ol woik.
Tho inlonontation has soon sono ositivo inact on tho oiiontation ol tho VET syston
towaids tho laloui naikot. Howovoi, thoio aio still gioat olstaclos to ovoicono. Ono ol tho
nost sovoio is tho lact that thoio aio still no nationally uniod cuiiicula in vocational schools.
Tho discioancy lotwoon tho contont ol tho oxaninations and tho ioquiiononts ol tho laloui
naikot loads to gioat dicultios in judging tho qualication lovol ol vocational school giaduatos.
In oidoi to solvo this iollon, tho ain was to oxtont tho lunction ol tho Doullo Coiticatos"
(soo soction .. In addition, tho lollowing oljoctivos aio suosod to lo dovolood:
co-oidination ol tho qualication lovols ol tho school coiticato" and tho vocational
catogoiisation coiticato",
dovolonont ol an intoidiscilinaiy cuiiiculun to adat tho toaching and oxanination
contont to tho ocononic and tochnological chango,
loi tho Catogoiisation Exanination" an oxaninois loaid is to lo aointod, in which tho
ovaluatois aio choson ly vocational schools, conanios, dodicatod ninistiios as woll as tho
Ministiy ol Laloui. Tho authoiity ol this oxaninois loaid is to lo iogulatod ly laws. Hoio,
a vocational oducation oxaninois loaid with distinct qualication ciitoiia is ioquiiod.
In Goinany, tho vocational coiticato onjoys a gioat ioutation and socuios vocational
qualications. Tho connoction lotwoon tho laloui naikot and tho vocational coiticato is
oxlicitly constitutod. To onsuio sustainalility ol tho dovolonont ol vocational oducation and
tiaining in China, tho lundanontal coitication constiaint noods to lo dissolvod.
Il tho iocognition ol tho vocational coiticato socuios tho vocational qualication ol tho
studonts and connocts it with tho diioct laloui naikot ontiy, aionts will sond thoii childion
to vocational schools autonatically.
Tho ugiading ol a vocational oducation coiticato would dislaco tho inloiioiity ol
vocational oducation and can lo soon as a najoi innoi stinulation loi tho sustainallo
dovolonont ol vocational oducation in China.
Tho loost ol VET in China has not takon laco duo to tho logitinatoly issuing ol vocational
oducation lut duo to tho dynanic ocononic iogioss sinco tho ontianco into tho WTO. Tho
iaidly incioasod qualication donands on tho laloui naikot uigo io-ovaluation and ioloins
ol VET ly oxanding tho intako ol studonts and intogiato tho oconony into tho VET syston.
qq
Conanios and tho Chanloi ol Industiy and Connoico aio oxoctod to lay an incioasingly
inoitant iolo in tho VET syston. Moanwhilo, tho onviionnontal iollons, incono disaiitios,
iostiuctuiing ol tho industiy soctois and changing iocossos lion laloui intonsivo to high-
oidoi ioduction aio tho nain ioasons loi China to nd its social way to dovolo VET. By tho
conaiison ol tho vocational oducation systons ol China and Goinany it can lo shown that
tho Goinan oxoiionco in vocational oducation with its olononts (such as iogulatoiy noasuios,
loaining olds otc. is quito valuallo loi tho Chinoso situation. Howovoi, accoiding to tho
cultuial, olitical and ocononic lackgiound, a diioct tiansloi ol tho syston is not ossillo.
China will havo to nd its own aioach and its own way loi tho nodoinisation ol vocational
oducation.
It also noods to lo statod that in toins ol lossons loaint lion tho conaiativo analysis ol
vocational oducation systons and laloui naikots in China and Goinany, no oiloct" syston
can lo ostallishod. Thoio aio advantagos and disadvantagos on loth sidos in toins ol iogulating
lianowoiks, syston dosign as woll as cultuial and histoiical asocts. Whilo China`s TVET
syston is voiy oxillo, loi oxanlo, tho Goinan syston is quito iigid and iosonding slowly
to changos. In tho Chinoso contoxt, this oxilility is alsolutoly nocossaiy and has dovolood as
a iosult ol iaid ocononic giowth. Tho lack ol oxilility in tho Goinan syston also is a iosult
ol histoiical dovolononts, sinco tho TVET syston has its ioots in nodioval tinos and has
loon giowing and dovoloing ovoi tino.
Howovoi, dosito lundanontal dioioncos, sono connon giound as iogaids syston
dosign can lo idontiod.
On tho ono hand, it locano olvious that nationally and univoisally iocognisod vocational
tiaining coiticatos aio a lasic ioquiionont loi a vocational tiaining syston to lo allo to
coiiosond to laloui naikot noods.
Tho tiaining couisos to lo conlotod in oidoi to achiovo such a coiticato havo to lo
dosignod accoiding to inulsos lion industiy and tiado.
Fuithoinoio, a national iogulatoiy lianowoik and a national govoining lody loi tho
vocational oducation and tiaining syston nood to lo in laco.
Finally it can lo statod that in oidoi loi a vocational tiaining syston to lunction accoiding
to laloui naikot ioquiiononts, a coitain lovol ol autonony noods to lo giantod on tho local
lovol in oidoi to lo allo to iosond quickly to socic local lianowoik conditions.
Ovoiall, tho conaiativo analysis ol tho situation in China and Goinany has shown two
voiy dioiont systons, lut systons which also ooi valuallo insights into ioloin tondoncios
and lasic challongos that hold tiuo loi loth countiios.
q
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Chinosischo Bildungsolitik lui das zi. Jahihundoit, Ministiy ol Education doi Volksioullik
China: htt:]]www.hss-kooid.cn]KOORD]Aktuollos]PDF]WuQidiDt.dl , zo.iz.zooo iq:q
Xinhua (zooo: htt:]]nows.xinhuanot.con]onloynont]zooo-io]z;]contontz;z.
htn, oz.oo.zoo;, zo:o.
Xinhua (zoo;: htt:]]nows.xinhuanot.con]olitics]zoo;-o]io]contont88.htn,
iz.o.zoo;, i8:z.
Xu, S. (zoo: Von Buchwisson zui Handlungskonotonz Ein Loinkonzot lui dio
chinosischo Boiulslildung an Boisiol doi Zoisannungslachailoit. Aachon: Shakoi
Voilag, zoo.
Yuan, C. (zooz: China lacks ol skill woikois. In Nowsaoi: Education in China": htt:]]
www.jyl.con.cn]gl]jylzt]zoozzt]zyjy]i;.htn, zo.oz.zoo;, zi:zo.
Yang Jintu (zoo, Pisontation lui dio Konloionz ,Boiulslildung in China, Changzhou,
oo, zoo.
Zhao, Z. (zoo: Boiulslildung in China aul don Wog zui Piolossionalitt. Biololold:
W. Boitolsnann Voilag, zoo.
ImprnI
Pullishod ly:
InWEnt - Intoinationalo Woitoilildung und Entwicklung gGnlH
Caacity Building Intoinational, Goinany
Fiiodiich-Eloit-Alloo qo
ii Bonn, Goinany
Phono +q zz8 qqoo-o
Fax +q zz8 qqoo-i;oo
www.inwont.oig
Altoilung q.oz Modoino Modion und Cuiiiculunontwicklung in doi loiuichon Bildung
Schollingstiao -q
ioq Magdoluig
Phono: +q i ;i-oo
Fax: +q i ;i-z
Juli zoo8
Dosign:
Rugo Konnunikationsnaikoting
aiugoQsis-sys.do
PhoIo crcdIs
Pago: hotogiahoi ] agoncy ] conany:
Titlo F. Bunning ] Otto-von-Guoiicko-Univoisitt Magdoluig
InWEnt Intoinationalo Woitoilildung und Entwicklung gGnlH
Caacity Building Intoinational, Goinany
Fiiodiich-Eloit-Alloo qo
ii Bonn, Goinany
Phono +q zz8 qqoo-o
Fax +q zz8 qqoo-i;oo
www.inwont.oig
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InWLnI - 0ua|cd Io Shapc Ihc FuIurc
InWEnt Caacity Building Intoinational, Goinany, is a non-iot oiganisation with
woildwido ooiations dodicatod to hunan iosouico dovolonont, advancod tiaining, and
dialoguo. Oui caacity luilding iogiannos aio diioctod at oxoits and oxocutivos lion
olitics, adninistiation, tho lusinoss connunity, and civil socioty.
0ur Programmcs
oo oicont ol all oui iogiannos aio inlonontod at tho ioquost ol tho Fodoial Ministiy
loi Econonic Coooiation and Dovolonont (BMZ. In addition, wo conduct iogiannos
loi othoi Goinan lodoial ninistiios and intoinational oiganisations. Wo aio also woiking in
coooiation with tho Goinan lusinoss soctoi in ullic iivato aitnoishi iojocts that can
lo dosignod to incoioiato ocononic, social, and onviionnontal goals.
Tho iogiannos loi oolo lion dovoloing, tiansition and industiialisod countiios aio
tailoiod to noot tho socic noods ol oui aitnois. Wo ooi iactico-oiiontod advancod
oducation and tiaining, dialoguo sossions, and o-Loaining couisos. Altoi tho tiaining
iogiannos, oui aiticiants continuo thoii dialoguo with oach othoi and with InWEnt via
activo alunni notwoiks.
By ooiing oxchango iogiannos and aiianging scholaishi iogiannos, InWEnt also
iovidos young oolo lion Goinany with tho ooitunity to gain iolossional oxoiionco
alioad.
0ur 0fccs
InWEnt gGnlH is hoadquaitoiod in Bonn. In addition, InWEnt naintains louitoon Rogional
Contios thioughout tho Goinan Lndoi, ioviding convoniont oints ol contact loi all iogions.
Oui loioign ooiations in Boijing, Caiio, Hanoi, Kiov, Lina, Managua, Manila, Moscow, Now
Dolhi, Piotoiia, So Paulo, and Dai os Salaan aio usually aliatod with othoi oiganisations
ol Goinan Dovolonont Coooiation.