MEI Mathematics in Education and Industry

MEI Structured Mathematics

Module Summary Sheets

Mechanics 2
(Version B: reference to new book)

Topic 1: Force

A Model for Friction

Moments of Force

Freely pin-jointed light frameworks

Topic 2: Work, Energy, Power

Topic 3: Momentum and Impulse

Topic 4: Centre of Mass

Topic 5: Using Experimental Results

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© MEI October, 2005

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Summary M2 Topic 1: (A) A Model for Friction
References: Coulomb's Laws E.g. a block is placed on a rough surface where μ = 0.8.
Chapter 1
Pages 1-3 1. Friction opposes relative
(1) The surface is flat. RN
motion between two surfaces
in contact. There are no horizontal
Example 1.1 forces acting and
Pages 4-5 2. Friction is independent of the so there will be no friction.
relative speed of the surfaces. Mg N
3. The magnitude of the frictional
force has a maximum value
which depends on the normal (2) The surface is a slope of angle 200.
RN FN
reaction between the surfaces
and the roughness of the surfaces Resolving perpendicular
in contact. to the slope:
R = 10gcos20 = 92.1
10g N
4. If there is no sliding between the The maximum value of F is μR 0
F = 92.1 ×0.8 = 73.7 (3 s.f.). 20
surfaces F ≤ μR where F is the
Exercise 1A frictional force and R is the
Q. 4 normal reaction. μ is called the The component of weight down the slope is 10gsin20 = 33.5
coefficient of friction. Since 33.5 < 73.7, there will be no motion and so
F = 33.5 (3 s. f.).
Example 1.2
Page 5 5. When sliding is about to occur,
friction is said to be limiting and (3) The slope is θ 0 such that sliding is about to occur. Find θ 0.
F =μR.
As before: R = 10gcosθ
Exercise 1A
6. When sliding occurs F =μR. No motion along slope means RN
Q. 2 FN
that
7. For any pair of surfaces, μ is 10gsinθ = F
constant.
As sliding is about to occur, 10g N
F = μR θ0

⇒ 10 g sin θ = μ 10 g cos θ
⇒ tan θ = 0.8
References: Modelling with friction
Chapter 1 ⇒ θ = 38.7 0.(3 s. f.).
Pages 4-8 It is often satisfactory to model a
situation as having negligible (4) The slope is 400. Find the acceleration.
friction. We then describe the
Example 1.3 surfaces as ‘smooth’. Otherwise the RN
Page 6 FN
surfaces are described as ‘rough’.
As before: R = 10gcos40
Note that ‘smooth’ surface and a
Exercise 1A ‘smooth’ curve are not the same Maximum F = μR 10g N
Q. 8, 9 thing. = 0.8 ×10gcos40 =8gcos40. 400

So applying Newton's 2nd law

10 g sin 40 − 8g cos 40 = 10a

Note: If a turns out to be
⇒10a = 63.0 − 60.1 = 2.9
negative at this stage you
Mechanics 2 ⇒ acceleration is 0.29 m s -2 (2 s.f.) know there is no sliding,
Version B: page 2 a = 0 and F ≠ μR ;
Competence statements d 1, 2, 3, 4 F = 10gsinθ
© MEI
Summary M2 Topic 1: (B) Moments of Forces
References: Rigid bodies E.g. Paul has mass 42 kg , Lewis 40 kg and
Chapter 3 The models used so far assume that a body is a particle Clare 30 kg. They are playing on a see-saw.
Pages 25-27 (i.e. has no dimensions) so that all forces acting on it pass
through a single point. This is not always satisfactory and 1. Paul sits 2 m from the fulcrum. Where
a development of the model is to assume that the body does Lewis need to sit in order to balance
has size and is rigid (is not deformed when acted on by a the see-saw? O P L
force). The weight of the body is taken to act through a
point called the centre of mass. 2m xm

42g N 40g N
References: Moments
Chapter 3 If a force does not act through a point then it has a M(O) a.c.: 42 g × 2 − 40 gx = 0
Pages 27-29 turning effect - or moment - about that point. ⇒ x = 2.1 Lewis sits 2.1 m from O.
The moment of a force about a point is defined as :
2. Paul sits 2 m from the fulcrum. Lewis sits
Exercise 3A Moment = Fd on the other side, 0.9 m from the fulcrum.
Q. 2 Where does Clare have to sit to balance
where d is the perpendicular distance of the point from the see-saw?
the line of action of the force, F. In two dimensions, mo- P O L C
ments can be clockwise or anti-clockwise.
2m 0.9 m
References: Couples 42g N 40g N 30g N
Chapter 3 If there is no overall resultant force, then the body will
Page 29 xm
have no linear acceleration. Two forces equal in magni-
tude, opposite in direction and acting along parallel but M(O) c.w.: 40g × 0.9 + 30gx − 42g × 2 = 0 ⇒30gx = 48g
different lines will have a turning effect called a couple. ⇒ x =1.6 Clare sits 1.6 m from O.

References: Equilibrium E.g. A bar of length 40 cm and weight 30 N is

Chapter 3 When all the forces on a body act through a point, the supported horizontally by two supports, 10 cm
Pages 29-32 body is in equilibrium if there is zero resultant force. from reach end. The centre of mass of the bar
When the forces do not all act through the same point, the is 18 cm from the left-hand end.
body is in equilibrium only if the total moment about Find the reaction forces on the supports.
Exercise 3A
Q. 7 every point is also zero.
R1 N R2 N
When the resultant force is zero, if the moment of all the
forces about any one point is zero then it will also be zero
References: about every other point. 10 cm 8 cm 12 10
Chapter 3 C D
Page 40-45 30 N
Moment of a forces at angles
When d is the distance from a point A R( ↑ ): R1 + R2 = 30
Exercise 3B to some point B on the line of action of
Q. 1, 7 M(D) c.w.: 20R1 − 12 × 30 = 0
the force F such that AB makes an an-
gle of θ with F, the moment of F about ⇒ R1 = 18 and R2 = 12
A is Fx = Fdsinθ.
E.g. A uniform bar AC of mass 12 kg and
Note that this is equivalent to considering the moments length 80 cm is freely hinged on a wall. It is
about A of the resultant parts of F in directions parallel held horizontally by a wire fixed to the wall
and perpendicular to AB. 60 cm above the hinge. Find the tension in the
wire.
References: Sliding and toppling
Chapter 3 M ( A) c.w.: 40 ×12 g − Td = 0
Two surfaces slide when the limiting frictional force
Pages 53-55 is insufficient to maintain equilibrium. d = 80 × sin α = 48
⇒ 48T = 480g
(*) The resultant normal reaction, N , between two ⇒ T = 98
surfaces must pass through a point of contact of the
surfaces. The tension is 98 N.
Exercise 3C
If the set-up is slowly changed and limiting friction is Mechanics 2
Q. 2, 5
reached while the condition (*) holds, sliding takes place Version B: page 3
first. If not the body topples first. Competence statements d 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
© MEI
Summary M2 Topic 1: (C) Freely pin-jointed light frameworks

References: Frameworks E.g. The framework ABC as shown is in a vertical

Chapter 7 A framework is an arrangement of rods or plane and is made up of three light rods freely pin-
Pages 143-147 struts hinged (or "pin-jointed") at the ends of jointed at A, B and C. A mass of 10 kg is hung
the rods. from C. Taking g = 10 m s-2, find the normal
reactions at A and B. Find also the forces in the rods
and determine whether they are in tension or in
Example 7.2 Simplifying assumptions thrust.
Page 146 1. All parts of the framework are light. C
2. All the pin-joints are smooth. R1 N 16 cm
3. Any loads or other external forces are 10g N 12 cm
R2 N
attached at the pin-joints.
θ X
A 20 cm
B
The result of these assumptions is that all inter-
nal forces are directed along the rods. The
forces are tension or thrust (compression). There will be upward forces at A and B, R1 N and
R2 N respectively. The angle at C is 900 because
12:16:20=3:4:5

R( ↑ ): R1 + R2 = 100
M(A) c.w.: 100. AX − 20 R2 = 0
Method of solution 16
AX = 16cosθ with cosθ = ⇒ AX = 12.8
20
1. Label all the internal forces. They may be 1280
marked as tensions or thrusts but you may ⇒ R2 = = 64 and R1 = 36
20
find it better to mark them all as tensions; C
any negative values will be thrusts. T1
36 N T3
100 N 64 N
2. By resolving and taking moments, as far as θ
possible calculate the external forces on T2
A B
whole system.
Finding internal forces by looking at each point:
3. Take each pin-joint in isolation and find
At A:
horizontal and vertical equilibrium
equations for all the forces acting R( ↑ ): 36 + T1 sin θ = 0
36 T1
(including the internal forces) . ⇒ T1 = −60 (i.e. thrust of 60 N)
R( → ): T2 + T1 cosθ = 0 θ
A T2
Plan the order of visiting the pin-joints to keep
⇒ T2 = 48 (i.e. tension of 48 N)
the number of unknown forces to a minimum
at each stage.
At B:
T3
4. When up-dating your diagram, remember R( ↑ ): 64 + T3 cosθ = 0 64
keep the sign of each force relative to the θ
⇒ T3 = −80 (i.e. thrust of 80 N)
direction marked.
T2 can be found by resolving T2 B
5. In general there will be a redundant point horizontally as a check of the above.
i.e. to find all the forces it will be
necessary to work at all but one of the T3 is found without looking at C,
pin-joints. The values already found may C
Exercise 7A but this can be a useful check.
be checked for this point.
Q. 2, 8
At C:
T1 θ T3

R( ↑ ): 100 = 60sin θ + T3 cosθ 100

Mechanics 2
⇒ T3 = 80
Version B: page 4
Competence statements d 10, 11 ⎛ Alternatively: ⎞
⎜ ⎟
© MEI ⎜ R( → ): 60cosθ = T3 sin θ ⎟
⎜ ⇒ T = 80 ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
Summary M2 Topic 2: Work, Energy and Power
References: Energy and Work Examples
Chapter 5 The energy of an object is changed when it is 1. Work done by a force of 200 N in moving an
Pages 87-94 acted on by an unbalanced force. object 3 m = 600 Joules.
When a force moves an object, the force is said to
do work. 2. A body increases speed due to a force of 30 N
Exercise 5A acting for 3 m.
Q. 1(i), 2(ii), 4 Work done = force × distance moved in Kinetic Energy gained = 30x3 = 90 J
direction of force
3. If the body above has mass 4 kg and was at rest
The SI unit of work is the joule, J (N m). then
1
Kinetic Energy = × 4× v2 − 0 = 90
Kinetic energy is energy possessed because of 2
motion. For the linear motion of a body of mass ⇒ v = 45. Final speed is 6.71 m s -1 (3 s. f.)
m and speed v.
1 4. A car of 1.5 tonnes is brought to rest in 100 m
Kinetic Energy = mv2
2 from a speed of 30 m s-1 by the brakes exerting a
constant force. Find the force.
The work-energy principle
Work done by resultant force Work done = Final K.E. − Initial K.E.
= increase in kinetic energy of object
1
⇒ 100 F = × 1500 × 302 − 0
2
References: Potential Energy 15 × 900
Chapter 5 Potential energy is energy stored because of posi- ⇒F= = 6750. Force is 6750 N
2
Pages 96-100 tion. In this unit it is the work done against grav-
ity when an object is raised and the work done by Examples
gravity when it is lowered. 1. A sledge carrying a child, with a total mass of
P.E. = mgh 50 kg, slides from rest down a smooth snow slope
of length 20 m. The slope drops 8 m vertically.
References: Conservation of mechanical energy Find the speed at the bottom of the slope.
Chapter 5 When gravity is the only force which does work,
Page 97 mechanical energy is conserved and F = 0, u = 0 and h = 8.
20 m
Kinetic energy + Potential energy = constant 1 2 1 2
mv − mu = mgh R F
2 2
References: Work and kinetic energy for 1 2 8m
Chapter 5 ⇒ mv = 8mg ⇒ v2 = 16g
2-dimensional motion 2 θ0

Pages 101-102 A force acting at right angles to the direction of ⇒ v ≈ 12.5 m s-1. 50g
motion does no work.
If a force is acting at an angle to the direction of
Exercise 5B motion then resolve into two forces, along the 2. The snow slope is not smooth and μ = 0.3. What
Q. 8 direction of motion and perpendicular to it. now will be the speed at the bottom of the slope?
NB The work done is calculated as
either force × dist moved in direction of force F = μ R and R = mg cos θ
or dist moved × component of force in 8
direction of displacement. ⇒ F = μ mg cos θ where sinθ = .
20
1
References: Power ⇒ ( mg sin θ − μ mg cosθ ) × 20 = mv 2 − 0
Chapter 5 2
Power is the rate at which work is done.
Pages 109-111 1 2
⇒ 8 g − 6 g cos 23.58 = v
Fs 2
P= = Fv
Exercise 5C t ⇒ v ≈ 49 ⇒ v ≈ 7. Speed ≈ 7 m s -1 .
2

Q. 3, 9 for a constant force, F.

E.g. A mass of 10 kg is being raised at 2 m s-1.
Mechanics 2 What is the power required?
Version B: page 5 F = 10g: power = 10g×2 = 20g = 196 W
Competence statements w 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
© MEI
Summary M2 Topic 3: Impulse and momentum − 1
References: Impulse and Momentum Magnitude of momentum of
Chapter 6 The impulse given by a constant force is defined
Pages 118-123 as (a) a car of 1.2 tonnes moving at 3 m s –1 is
Impulse = Force × time 1200 × 3 = 3600 N s,

Exercise 6A The linear momentum of a body is defined as mv. (b) a of hockey ball of 0.18 kg moving at
Q. 1(i), 2(i) (In this unit linear momentum is simply called 20 m s –1 is 0.18 × 20 = 3.6 N s.
momentum.)
A force acting on a body changes its velocity and Magnitude of impulse of force of 500 N acting for
hence its momentum. 2 sec is 1000 N s.

If a force acts for time t and changes the velocity A hockey ball of mass 0.18 kg is slowed
from u to v, then down by resistance to the ground from
20 m s –1 to 10 m s –1 in 4 seconds.
Impulse = final momentum − initial momentum Take J , the impulse and F , the friction, to be in the
J = Ft = mv − mu. direction of motion:
Exercise 6A J = 0.18 × 10 − 0.18 × 20 = −1.8
Q. 8, 10 Impulse and momentum are both vector quanti-
Now 4 F = −1.8 ⇒ F = −0.45 N.
ties.
Resistance opposes motion with a force of 0.45 N.
The impulse of a variable force is given by
T
E.g. The direction of a hockey ball of 0.18 kg is
∫ F dt = mv − mu changed by a force acting for 1.2 sec. The original
0 velocity was (12i + 13j) m s –1 and the final
References: velocity is (24i + 5j) m s –1 . Find the magnitude,
The units of momentum and impulse are the N s.
Chapter 6 F N, of the force.
Pages 128-134
Conservation of momentum 1.2 F = 0.18 ( (24i + 5 j) − (12i + 13 j) ) = 0.18(12i − 8 j)
When there are no external forces, the total ⇒ F = 1.8i − 1.2 j
Exercise 6B momentum of the system is conserved.
Q. 2 ⇒ F = 1.82 + 1.22 = 2.16 N (3 s. f.)
mA vA + mB vB = mAuA + mBuB
1. A railway truck of mass 25 tonnes is moving
References: Coefficient of restitution along a horizontal track at 7 m s –1 when it collides
Chapter 6 Newton's Experimental Law (Law of Impact) for with a stationary truck of mass 10 tonnes. They
Pages 138-142 direct impact: join and move on along the track together. With
what speed do they move?
Before uA uB Momentum is conserved so:
Exercise 6C A B 35 v = 25 × 7 + 10 × 0 ⇒ v = 5
Q. 5
After vA vB ⇒ speed is 5 m s − 1 .

speed of separation (Notice that the units of mass are unimportant so

= constant.
speed of approach long as they are consistent.)
v −v
We write B A = −e. 2. If it is the lighter truck that is moving at 7 m s –1
uB − uA
and it collides with the heavier truck which is sta-
The constant, e, is called the coefficient of restitution. tionary, then with what speed do they move?
For all pairs of surfaces, 0 ≤ e ≤ 1 35v = 10 × 7 + 25 × 0 ⇒ v = 2

References: ⇒ s p e e d is 2 m s − 1 .
Direct impact with a fixed surface
Chapter 6 The speed of the fixed surface before and after the
Page 139 impact is 0. Mechanics 2
Version B: page 6
i.e. v = eu. Competence statements i 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Exercise 6C
Q. 3 © MEI
Summary M2 Topic 3: Impulse and momentum − 2
References: Direct collision in a straight line E. g. Two balls of mass m moving in opposite
Chapter 6 See diagram on previous sheet. directions at 2 m s-1 and 1m s-1 hit each other
Page 131 By Newton’s experimental law directly. The coefficient of restitution is 0.5.
vB − vA Before 2 1
Example 6.10 = −e.
uB − uA m m
Page 131 e = 0.5
If A catches up with B then uA > uB but after the
After v1 v2
collision vB > vA .
By conservation of momentum N.E.L: v2 − v1 = −0.5( −1 −2) = 1.5
Exercise 6C
Cons. of momentum: mv2 + mv1 = 2m + (−1)m
Q. 9 mA vA + mBvB = mA uA + mBuB
⇒ v2 + v1 = 1
Given sufficient information, the two equations Solving simultaneously: v1= − 0.25, v2 = 1.25
may be solved simultaneously. The directions of motion are reversed and the
second ball now moves faster.
References: Oblique Impact with a smooth plane
Chapter 6 When an object hits a smooth plane there can be no If, in the case of the two trucks (see previous page),
Pages 137-139 impulse parallel to the plane so velocity is the coefficient of restitution between the two trucks
unchanged in this direction. is 0.5 then find the velocities in the two cases above
Newton's experimental law (NEL) applies to the after the collision.
Exercise 6D 1.
components of velocity in the direction
Q. 5, 10
perpendicular to the plane.

When a ball is travelling with speed u at an angle

of α to the plane:
Original velocity perp. to the plane = usinα (as before) 25v1 +10v2 = 25× 7 +10× 0 (Cons. of mom.)
Final velocity perp. to the plane = uesinα v2 − v1 = −0.5( 0 − 7) = 3.5 (NEL))
Original velocity parallel to the plane = ucosα so 25v1 +10v2 =175
Final velocity parallel to the plane =ucosα
and v2 − v1 = 3.5
⇒ v2 = 7.5, v1 = 4
2. Before 0 m s-1 7 m s-1

25v1 + 10v2 = 25 × 0 − 10 × 7
v2 − v1 = −0.5(−7 −0) = 3.5
⇒ v1 = −3, v2 = 0.5 (The lighter truck rebounds.)
In the second case:
Impulse on 10000 kg truck
= 10 000 (0.5−(−7)) Ns
If angle of incidence = α , angle of reflection =β = 75000 Ns towards the right.
uesinα tanβ K.E. lost on impact
tanβ = = etanα ⇒ e =
usinα tanα
Impulse = Final momentum - initial momentum
1
( 1
)
= × 25000 02 − 32 + × 10000 × (72 − 0.52 )
2 2
Since the velocity parallel to the plane is = 131250 J ≈ 1.31 KJ (3 s. f.).
unchanged the momentum in this direction is
unchanged and so Impulse = 0. E.g. a ball is moving at 3 m s-1 and bounces off a
smooth wall. The angle of incidence is 400 and the
Perpendicular to the plane the impulse is coefficient of restitution is 0.7.
meusinα − ( − usinα ) = (1 + e)musinα Find the speed after the bounce and the angle of
reflection.
tanβ = etanα ⇒ tanβ = 0.7 × tan40 = 0.5874
⇒ β = 30.4 0 .
Mechanics 2
v= ( 3cos 40 )2 + ( 3 × 0.7 × sin40 )2 = 2.67
Version B: page 7
0
Competence statements i 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 The angle of reflection is 30.4
© MEI and the new speed is 2.67 m s -1 (3 s.f.).
Summary M2 Topic 4: Centre of Mass
References: Centre of mass (c. m.) E.g. A light rod has masses attached as shown.
Chapter 4 This is the point through which the weight of the Find the centre of mass.
Pages 63-67 whole body may be considered to act.
For the particle model this is the point through which B
all the forces on the body act. A 2 kg 4 kg 2 kg 4 kg
Example 4.3 For the rigid body model, the centre of mass is the 2m 2m 2m 2m
Page 66 ‘balance point’.
For particles on the x-axis, the position, x , of the
centre of mass relative to a point O is such that the
Total mass = 12
moment of the total mass about the point O is equal
If centre of mass is at x from A, then
to the sum of the moments of the separate masses
12x = 2 × 2 + 4 × 4 + 2 × 6 + 4 × 8
about O.
⇒ 12x = 64
⎛ ⎞
Exercise 4A ∑
i.e. ⎜ mi ⎟ x =
⎝ all i ⎠
∑m x
all i
i i ⇒x=
16
3
Q. 2, 4

Uniform bodies Centre of mass for some shapes

A uniform body is one made from identical material 1
throughout. It follows that the centre of mass will be Solid cone or pyramid h from base.
4
at a point of symmetry, if there is one.
1
e.g. a rectangular sheet with constant thickness and Hollow cone or pyramid h from base.
density will have its centre of mass where its 3
diagonals intersect. 3
Solid hemisphere r from base.
8
Exercise 4A Laminas 1
Q. 6, 8 Hollow hemisphere r from base.
A lamina is a layer (or sheet) whose thickness is 2
negligible. 4r
Semi-circular lamina from base.
3π
Centre of mass for two and three-
dimensional bodies See the handbook.
References: Suppose a body consists of point masses mi at
Chapter 4 points (xi, yi)
E.g. Find the centre of mass, referred to the
Pages 70-72 The centre of mass will be at ( x , y ) axes in the diagram, of the given uniform
where Mx = ∑ m x , My = ∑ m y
i i i i and M = ∑m .
i
lamina, L. y

Similarly for 3 dimensions.

A C
The centre of mass may also be thought of as the
Exercise 4B mean position vector of the particles ‘weighted’ by the B
x
Q. 2, 5 masses.
A B C L
m 4 3 3 10
x 0.5 2.5 4.5 x
Composite bodies
y 2 0.5 1.5 y
1. If there is a line of symmetry then the centre of
mass will lie on that line. 10 x = 4 × 0.5 + 3 × 2.5 + 3 × 4.5 ⇒ x = 2.3
2. If the body consists of separate parts then the 10 y = 4 × 2 + 3 × 0.5 + 3 × 1.5 ⇒ y = 1.4
c. m. of the whole body can be calculated from
point masses with the masses of the parts at the Mechanics 2
centres of mass of the parts.
Version B: page 8
_ _ _ Competence statements G 1, 2, 3, 4
M B +C r = M B r + MC r
B C
© MEI
Summary M2 Topic 5: Using Experimental Results
This topic relates to the former coursework component of this unit and has been E.g. John drops a ball down a stairwell.
retained because of its general importance and interest. There are no competence (1) He notes that it takes 2 seconds to hit the floor.
statements as such, but elements of the ideas of modelling and testing against Taking the time as exact and the value of
experimental results will pervade the examination.
g = 9.8 m s -2, find the height of the stairwell.
1
References: Using an experiment to test a model s = gt 2
2
Chapter 2 A model is a mathematical description of a situa- 1
Pages 14-16 tion in the real world in which assumptions are ⇒ s = × 9.8× 4 = 19.6 m
2
made to enable the problem to be solved mathe-
matically.
(2) In fact, the time of 2 seconds is only correct to
When a solution is found it has to be checked
the nearest second. Find the upper and lower bounds
against reality.
for s.
If the match is not good then it may be possible
1
to amend (or refine) the model. Maximum s = g ( 2.5) = 30.625 m
2
This process uses the MEI modelling flowchart. 2
(Students should ask their teacher for this.) 1
Minimum s = g (1.5) =11.025 m
2
2

N.B. given this variation in the timing of t note that

References: Variation in measurements the value of s found cannot even be given to 1 signifi-
Chapter 2 When a model is tested with an experiment,
cant figure.
Pages 16-17 measurements will be taken. Because of error in
measurement and/or variability in the situation
(3) John uses the experiment to find a value for g.
there will be some variation in these measure-
He measures the depth of the drop to be 19.5 m cor-
ments. This variation may be random or system-
rect to the nearest 0.1m and the time to the nearest
atic.
second.
Consequently, if the experiment is repeatable, a
Find the error bounds for g.
number of measurements should be taken and the
mean value found. The maximum and minimum 2s 39.1
g= ⇒ Maximum g = 2 = 17.4 (3 s. f.)
values should be used to estimate the error t2 1.5
bounds. 38.9
Minimum g = 2 = 6.22 (3 s. f.)
2.5
References: Comparing with the model i.e. 6.22 < g < 17.4
Chapter 2 The solution for the model will give a set of pre-
Pages 18-19 dicted results. These values have to be compared
with experimental values, and this is often done E.g. The length and breadth of a rectangular room are
most conveniently using graphs. measured as 3 m by 4 m, each to the nearest 10 cm.
Find the error bounds for the perimeter and area.
References:
Chapter 2
Errors related to significant figures
Greatest perimeter = 2(3.05 + 4.05) = 14.2 m
Pages 20-21 and decimal places Least perimeter = 2(2.95 + 3.95)= 13.8 m
Care has to be taken with the precision of meas- i.e. perimeter is 14m ± 20 cm
urements and also the values assumed to be con-
Example 2.1 stant. e.g. masses assumed to be as stated by the greatest area = 3.05 × 4.05 = 12.3525 m2
Page 20 makers or taking g = 9.8 m s -2 . Least area = 2.95 × 3.95 = 11.6525 m2
i.e. 11.65m2 < Area < 12.35 m2 (3 s. f.)
It may be that the predictions from the model
Exercise 2A would remain consistent with increased precision
Q. 1 in the measurements made.
E.g. Jane measures a stick to be 159 cm when the
true length is 160 cm. What is the percentage error?
References: Percentage error 100(160 − 159)
Chapter 2 If x is the true value of a measurement and X is Percentage error = = 0.625%
Page 21 160
the approximated (measured) value then
error is given by ε where ε = x − X Mechanics 2
Exercise 2A 100ε Version B: page 9
Percentage error =
Q. 5, 9 x © MEI