03 FT48923EN02GLA0 General Topics

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General Topics
Content
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 LAN and VLAN: some considerations Definitions Domains in a traditional LAN Domains in a VLAN Traffic separation by VLAN Tagging VLAN Aware / Unaware Links Types Q-in-Q Spanning Tree Protocol (802.1d) Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol RSTP (802.1w) Multiple Spanning Tree Protocol MSTP (802.1s) Carrier Ethernet: Some Concepts What is Carrier Ethernet MEF: Metro Ethernet Forum Cooperation with Other Standard Bodies IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IETF: The Internet Engineering Task Force ITU: International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector Carrier Ethernet Terminology Basic Components Carrier Ethernet Service Types Circuit Emulation Services over Packet (CESoP) FlexiPacket EVC and Services Quality of Service in the HUB QoS Mechanism Classifier and Packet Marker Policer 3 4 5 9 12 13 21 22 25 29 32 33 39 39 40 42 42 42 43 45 46 63 64 71 75 76 79 83
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4.4 4.5 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 9 9.1 9.2 10 10.1 10.2 10.3
Buffer Manager: Congestion Avoidance Queue Scheduler Quality of service in the FlexiPacket Radio Rel.1.3 EP1 Quality of Service Mechanism Classification Egress Scheduling Quality of service in the FlexiPacket MultiRadio Rel 2.1 Quality of Service Mechanism QoS Classification Criteria Egress Scheduling Ethernet OAM OAM Definition OAM Layers Ethernet Link Fault Management OAM (EFM OAM) 802.3ah Connectivity Fault Management (CFM) 802.1ag Performance Monitoring - ITU-T Y.1731 E2E OAM Ethernet AIS Remote Defect Indication (RDI) Network Synchronization Introduction Physical Layer Synchronization Synchronous Ethernet (SyncE) Timing-over-Packet (ToP) IEEE1588 v2 (official Title: Precision Time Protocol) IEEE-1588 and Synchronous Ethernet FlexiPacket Synchronization CESoP Clock Recovery Clock Recovery CESoP with Differential Clock Recovery Digital Radio Relay Signals Quadrant Amplitude Modulation (QAM) Filtered Spectrum Adaptive Modulation
86 89 99 99 100 102 103 103 104 104 105 106 107 111 112 120 124 125 127 128 129 136 146 148 151 152 153 155 156 160 166
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0BGeneral Topics
LAN and VLAN: some considerations
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1.1
Definitions
A LAN or Local Area Network is a computer network (or data communications network) which is confined in a limited geographical location. A Virtual (or logical) LAN is a local area network with a definition that maps workstations/PCs on some other basis than geographic location (for example, by department, type of user or primary application)
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1.2
Domains in a traditional LAN
In a traditional Ethernet LAN, stations connected to the same media, share a domain. In this domain, every station hears broadcast frames transmitted by every other station. As the number of stations grows, contention and broadcast traffic increase a lot. At some point, the Ethernet becomes saturated. To operate efficiently, the LAN must be divided into smaller pieces. In a traditional LAN, stations are connected to each other by means of HUBS or REPEATERS.
One collision Domain One Broadcast Domain HUB HUB
Fig. 1 Domains in a traditional LAN (1)
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A BRIDGE (or a L2 SWITCH) is able to divide one collision domain in different collision domains.
Two collision Domains One Broadcast Domain
HUB
BRIDGE
HUB
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A BRIDGE (or a L2 SWITCH) do not forward collisions, but allows broadcast and multicast passing through. Broadcast domain refers to a part of network where a single broadcast packet is transmitted to all segments of the network (i.e. ARP request, NETBIOS name request). This type of traffic, affects the whole network because each device receiving a broadcast frame must analyze it. If broadcast frames increases in frequency, available bandwidth decrease up to be exhaust (BROADCAST STORM).
SWITCH = MULTIPORT BRIDGE
L2 SWITCH
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A ROUTER may be used to prevent Broadcast and Multicast from traveling through the network because it is able to segment a LAN in different Broadcast domains.
Two collision Domains Two Broadcast Domain
HUB
ROUTER
HUB
Fig. 4 Domains in a traditional LAN
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1.3
Domains in a VLAN
VLANs allow a network manager to logically segment a LAN into different broadcast domains without using routers. Bridging software is used to define which workstations are to be included in the broadcast domain.
VLAN Broadcast VLAN 11 Broadcast Domain Domain
VLAN Broadcast VLAN 22 Broadcast Damain Damain
L2 SWITCH
L2 SWITCH
Fig. 5 Domains in a VLAN (1)
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ROUTERS are necessary only to make possible communication between different VLANs. VLAN IS A LOGICALLY DEFINED BROADCAST DOMAIN.
VLAN 1 Broadcast VLAN 1 Broadcast Domain Domain
VLAN Broadcast VLAN 22 Broadcast Damain Damain
L2 SWITCH ROUTER
L2 SWITCH
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The advantages of VLANs as regards to traditional LANs are shown in Fig. 7.
PERFORMANCE VIRTUAL WORKGROUPS SIMPLIFIED ADMINISTRATION REDUCED COSTS SECURITY
Better control of broadcast Independent from the physical wiring Simply moves, adds and changes Routers are only used to interconnect different broadcast domains Periodically, sensitive data may be broadcast on a network. Placing only those users who can have access to have access to that data on a VLAN can reduce the chances of an outsider gaining access to the data
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1.4
Traffic separation by VLAN
With VLANs it is possible to separate different logical networks on one physical infrastructure supporting the traffic separation. Figure Fig. 8 shows a Traffic Separation Example by VLAN.
Flexi BTS Nr.1
RNC Ethernet Network
Flexi BTS Nr.2
Traffic over same physical port separated by VLAN.
VLAN1 -> Voice from Flexi BTS Nr.1 to RNC VLAN3 -> Voice from Flexi BTS Nr.2 to RNC
VLAN2 -> Data from Flexi BTS Nr.1 to RNC VLAN4 -> Data from Flexi BTS Nr.1 to RNC
Fig. 8 Traffic separation by VLAN
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1.5
Tagging
Tagging is a process used to identify the VLAN originating. The VLAN tagging scheme in 802.1q results in four bytes of information being added to the frame following the source address and preceding the type/length field. This increases the maximum frame size in Ethernet to 1522 bytes. Fig. 9 reports a IEEE 802.3 untagged frame Fig. 10and Fig. 11 explain the TAG fields.
Basic IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame: minimum length 64 bytes, maximum length 1518 bytes
Preamble +SD 8 bytes
MAC DA 6 bytes
MAC SA 6 bytes
Length/Type Payload FCS 2 bytes 46-1500 bytes 4 bytes

VLAN tags may be added here
Interframe Gap 12 bytes
64-1518 bytes Destination & Source MAC Addresses:
The Destination MAC Address field identifies the station or stations that are to receive the frame. The Source MAC Address identifies the station that originated the frame. A Destination Address may be a unicast destined for a single station, or a "multicast address" destined for a group of stations. A Destination Address of all 1 bits refers to all stations on the LAN and is called a "broadcast address". Length/Type: If the value of this field is less than or equal to 1500, then the Length/Type field indicates the number of bytes in the Payload field. If the value of this field is greater than or equal to 1536, then the Length/Type field indicates protocol type. Payload (MAC Client Data): This field contains the data transferred from the source station to the destination station or stations. Frame Check Sequence: This field contains a 4-byte cyclical redundancy check (CRC) value used for error checking.
Fig. 9 IEEE 802.3 Untagged Frame
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802.1Q VLAN (single tagged)

4 bytes are added in the Ethernet frame between the MAC Source Address and the Type-Field.
IEEE 802.3 Frame without VLAN Tag Header
MAC DA 6 bytes
MAC SA 6 bytes
IEEE 802.3 with 802.1Q 4-Byte VLAN Tag Header

MAC DA 6 bytes
MAC SA 6 bytes
TPID TCI 4 bytes
TPID TAG Protocol Identifier

2 bytes TAG Protocol Identifier TPID 0x8100 16 bits
TCI Tag Control Identifier

2 bytes
Priority F
I C
VLAN ID 12 bits VLAN ID <= 4094)
3bits 1bit
User priority (Priority Code CFI (Canonical Point PCP) format identifier)
Fig. 10 802.1Q Single Tagged Frame (1)
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TC FIELD
DESCRIPTION
Tag Protocol IDentifier
It Indicates that it will follow a 802.1q TAG and not the payload; the Default TPID value in IEEE 802.1Q, is 0x8100 It allows priority information to be encoded in the frame. Eight levels of priority are allowed
Priority Code Point (PCP)
Canonical Format Indicator
Always 0 if Ethernet.It is used to make compatibility between Ethernet and Token Ring
Vlan IDentifier
Is used to uniquely identify the VLAN to which the frame belongs. There can be a maximum of 212 -1 VLANs. Zero is used to indicate no VLAN ID
Fig. 11 802.1Q Single Tagged Frame (2)
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1.5.1
Class of Service (CoS) IEEE 802.1p
The IEEE 802.1p provides a standard and interoperable way to set the priority bits in a frames header and to map these settings to TRAFFIC CLASSES. There are 8 TRAFFIC CLASSES (3 Bits) according to the table reported in Fig. 12.
NETWORK CONTROL TRAFFIC VOICE TRAFFIC VIDEO TRAFFIC CONTROLLED LOAD TRAFFIC EXCELLENT EFFORT TRAFFIC RESERVRD FOR FUTURE USE BACKGROUND BEST EFFORT
NC VO VI CL EE R BK BE
111 110 101 100 011 010 001 000
Fig. 12 Quality Of Service IEEE 802.1p (1)
WARNING Of course, network operators may choose to implement traffic differentiation on a per VLAN-ID basis rather than using the three CoS bits.
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The TRAFFIC CLASSES are assigned to separate queues with different priorities.
Priority bits
map to
Traffic classes
queues
outgoing
Fig. 13 Quality Of Service IEEE 802.1p (2)
If a switch provides 8 queues for the 8 priorities settings, each queue will store frames with a specific priority setting to provide complete differentiated services.
Fig. 14 Switch with 8 queues; each priority has one queue
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FlexiPacket First Mile 200, HUB 800 and FlexiPacket MultiRadio have 8 queues and the association between PCP and Priority Queue is reported in Fig. 15.
PCP
FPFM-200/HUB800/FPMR Priority Queue
Fig. 15 FPFM-200/HUB 800/FPMR PCP - Priority queues association
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To minimize costs, however, fewer queues may be provided in such switches. Frames from several priority settings may be stored together in one queue.
Fig. 16 Switch with less than 8 queues; more than one priority in one queue
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When 4 queues are available, like in the FlexiPacket ODU, the 8 PCPcodes could be associated to four priority values as reported in Fig. 17 (FlexiPacket ODU default).
PCP 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Queue Priority Value 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 3
Fig. 17 FlexiPacket ODU Priority Code Point Configuration
When 5 queues are available, like in FlexiPacket HUB 2200/1200, the 8 PCP codes could be associated to five priority values as reported in Fig. 16 (HUB 1200/2200 configuration).
PCP 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Queue Priority Value 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 4
Fig. 18 FlexiPacket HUB (2200/1200) Priority Code Point Configuration
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1.6
VLAN Aware / Unaware
VLAN AWARE If the data is to go to a device that knows about VLAN implementation (VLAN Aware), the VLAN identifier is added to the data. VLAN UNAWARE If it is to go to a device that has no knowledge of VLAN implementation (VLAN Unaware), the BRIDGE sends the data without the VLAN identifier.
TAG added/removed
VLAN aware Bridge/L2-Switch
L2-Switch
TAG TAG Frame
TAG TAG Frame
TAG TAG Frame Frame
TAG added/removed
VLAN aware Bridge/L2-Switch
L2-Switch
Frame Frame
Frame Frame
Frame Frame
Frame Frame
Frame Frame
Frame Frame
VLAN unaware stations
Fig. 19 VLAN Aware/Unaware
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1.7
Links Types
Devices on a VLAN can be connected in three ways based on whether the connected devices are VLAN Aware or VLAN Unaware as reported in Fig. 20, Fig. 21, Fig. 22. Recall that a VLAN aware device is one which understands VLAN memberships (i.e. which users belong to a VLAN) and VLAN formats.
LINK TYPE Trunk Link
DESCRIPTION
All the devices connected to a trunk link, including workstations, must be VLAN Aware. All frames on a trunk link must have a special header attached. These special frames are called TAGGED FRAMES.
Access Link
An access link connects a VLAN Unaware device to the port of a VLAN Aware Bridge.
Hybrid Link
This is a combination of the previous two links. This is a link where both VLAN aware and VLAN Unaware devices are attached. A hybrid link can have both tagged and untagged frames, but all the frames for a specific VLAN must be either tagged or untagged.
Fig. 20 Link Types
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VLAN-aware Workstation
Trunk Link
L2-Switch VLAN-aware Bridge/L2-Switch
Trunk Link
Fig. 21 Trunk Link
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VLAN-unaware Device
Access Link
Fig. 22 Access Link
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1.8
Q-in-Q
In the VLAN tag field defined in IEEE 802.1Q, only 12 bits are used for VLAN IDs, so a device can support a maximum of 4,094 VLANs. In actual applications, however, a large number of VLAN are required to isolate users, especially in metropolitan area networks, and 4,094 VLANs are far from satisfying such requirements. The so called Q-in-Q (IEEE 802.1ad) feature enables the encapsulation of double VLAN tags within an Ethernet frame, with the inner VLAN tag being the customer network VLAN tag while the outer one being the VLAN tag assigned by the service provider to the customer. In the backbone network of the service provider (the public network), frames are forwarded based on the outer VLAN tag only, while the customer network VLAN tag is shielded during data transmission. The Q-in-Q feature enables a device to support up to 4,094 x 4,094 VLANs.
Bytes
6 DA
6 SA
2
LEN/ Etype
46 to 1500 Data
4 FCS Untagged Ethernet Frame
2 DA SA TPID
2 TAG
LEN/ Etype
Single Tagged Ethernet Frame Data FCS
2 DA SA TPID
2 TAG TPID TAG
Double Tagged Ethernet Frame

LEN/ Etype
Data
FCS
Service Provider Customer Tagging Tagging
Fig. 23 Untagged, Single Tagged and Double Tagged Ethernet Frames
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Double TAG VLAN Tag Control Identifier (TCI) is reported in Fig. 24
2 DA SA TPID
2 TCI TPID TAG
Double Tagged Ethernet Frame

LEN/ Etype
Data
FCS
3 bits
1 bit
12 bits
User Priority Priority Code Point
DEI
S-VID Service V-LAN Identifier
1 bit Drop Eligible Indicator drop first, if congestion occurs
Fig. 24 Double TAG VLAN Tag Control Identifier
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Double Tag Example
B A
1
S-VLAN 2 C-VLAN 2 S-VLAN 2 C-VLAN 2
S-VLAN 2 C-VLAN 2
S= Service Provider C= Customer
2 3
S-VLAN1 4 C-VLAN 2
A-Port 1
VLAN Inner Tag 2
VLAN Outer Tag 2
Forwarding Decision Swap outer with 4 and forward to D- port 2
Fig. 25 Double TAG Example
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1.8.1
Q in Q TPID
The QinQ frame contains the modified tag protocol identifier (TPID) value of VLAN Tags. By default, the VLAN tag uses the TPID field to identify the protocol type of the tag. The value of this field, as defined in IEEE 802.1Q, is 0x8100. The device determines whether a received frame carries a service provider VLAN tag or a customer VLAN tag by checking the corresponding TPID value. After receiving a frame, the device compares the configured TPID value with the value of the TPID field in the frame. If the two match, the frame carries the corresponding VLAN tag. For example, if a frame carries VLAN tags with the TPID values of 0x88a8 and 0x8100, respectively, while the configured TPID value of the service provider VLAN tag is 0x88a8 and that of the VLAN tag for a customer network is 0x8200, the device considers that the frame carries only the service provider VLAN tag but not the customer VLAN tag. In addition, the systems of different vendors might set the TPID of the outer VLAN tag of QinQ frames to different values. For compatibility with these systems, you can modify the TPID value so that the QinQ frames, when sent to the public network, carry the TPID value identical to the value of a particular vendor to allow interoperability with the devices of that vendor. The TPID in an Ethernet frame has the same position with the protocol type field in a frame without a VLAN tag.
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1.9
Spanning Tree Protocol (802.1d)
In order to increase the availability may be useful to introduce redundancy. In presence of simultaneous alternative paths, copies of frames are created producing the so called LOOPS. In order to avoid loops, a SPANNING TREE algorithm must be implemented to disable some bridge interfaces. Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is a link manager protocol that provides path redundancy while preventing loops in the network. STP algorithm creates a tree topology, and loop free path from the root to all of the nodes in the LAN.
1.9.1
Spanning Tree Root bridge selection
The bridges exchange Configuration Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDUs) in order to learn the topology of the network. A root bridge is selected according to MAC or priority. A lowest cost path to the root is chosen, and redundant links are blocked.
Root Bridge
= blocked links
Fig. 26
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In case of link failure, BPDUs are again exchanged in the network to notify tree of the topology change. Redundant routes are enabled.
Root Bridge
Fig. 27
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1.9.2
Spanning Tree Port roles
Spanning Tree port roles are:
Root port: pointing towards the root bridge. Designated port: active ports that arent root ports. Alternate port: one side of a blocked link (the other side is designated).
Root Bridge
R D D D R D R A R A D D
Fig. 28
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1.9.3
Spanning Tree Port states
Spanning Tree Port states are:
Forwarding: all frames are forwarded on the port. Discarding: all user data is dropped. BPDUs are forwarded. Learning: Port is still inactive, but learns MAC addresses.
Port role: Root Port state: Forwarding
Root Bridge
Port role: Alternate Port state: Discarding
Port role: Root Port state: Forwarding
Fig. 29
1.10
Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol RSTP (802.1w)
Regular STP (802.1d) provides very slow failure recovery time: 30-60 sec. Thus the STP mechanism was improved, and a new protocol was published: RSTP (802.1w). RSTP offers ~1 sec failure recovery time.
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1.11
Multiple Spanning Tree Protocol MSTP (802.1s)
The 802.1D and 802.1w spanning tree protocols operate without regard to a networks VLAN configuration, and maintain one common spanning tree throughout a bridged network. These protocols map one loop-free, logical topology on a given physical topology. In a VLAN environment, the problem could be put in evidence considering the Fig. 30. The figure shows a network of two switches with two configured VLANs. If the switches are running STP or RSTP, all the links for VLAN 2 would be blocked. This is because both STP and RSTP support only a single spanning tree for the whole network and block the redundant links. The above situation can be rectified by using MSTP. The 802.1s Multiple Spanning Tree protocol (MSTP) uses VLANs to create multiple spanning trees in a network, which significantly improves network resource utilization while maintaining a loop-free environment.
VLAN 1
VLAN 2 Switch 1 (root Bridge)
X X
4 5 6 7 8 Switch 2
Fig. 30 Example of two switches with two configured VLANs FT48923EN02GLA0
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1.11.1
Multiple spanning tree concepts
MST Instance (MSTI) MSTP enables the grouping and mapping of VLANs to different spanning tree instances each with a different root bridge. A MST Instance (MSTI) is a particular set of VLANs that are all using the same spanning tree.
Root Bridge Root Bridge
Root Bridge
Spanning tree of MSTI= 1 containing vlans 1, 2, 3, 4 Spanning tree of MSTI= 2 containing vlans 5, 6, 7, 8 Spanning tree of MSTI= 3 containing vlans 9, 10, 11, 12 Same Physical connection
Fig. 31 Different spanning trees created by different MSTIs on the same physical layout
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Regions A MST region is a set of interconnected switches that all have the same values for the following parameters:
MST configuration name: the name of the MST region Revision level: the revision number of configuration (The revision level is an
arbitrary number that you assign to a MST region. It can be used to keep track of the number of times that MST configuration has been updated for the network. If the revision level is not set explicitly by the command, the default revision level value will be 0.
Configuration Digest: the mapping of which VLANs are mapped to which MST
instances Each MST instance created is identified by an MSTI number. This number is locally significant within the MST region. Therefore, a MSTI will not span across MST regions.
Same Physical Connection
MSTI1 MSTI2
Region 1
Region 3
MSTI3 MSTI4
MSTI2 MSTI4
Region 2
The MSTI2 in Region 1 is unrelated to the MSTI2 in Region 3 and the MSTI4 in Region 2 is unrelated to the MSTI4 in Region 3.
Fig. 32 MSTIs in different regions
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Common and Internal Spanning Tree (CIST) The CIST is the default spanning tree instance of MSTP, i.e. all VLANs that are not members of particular MSTIs are members of the CIST. Also, an individual MST region can be regarded a single virtual bridge by other MST regions. The spanning tree that runs between regions is the CIST. The CIST is also the spanning tree that runs between MST regions and Single Spanning Tree (SST) entities. So, in Fig. 33, the STP that is running between the regions, and to the Single Spanning Tree bridges, is the CIST.
Switch non MSTP capable
MSTP Region 1
MSTP Region 3
MSTP Region 2
= CIST
Fig. 33 Common and Internal Spanning Tree (CIST)
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Returning now to the example of Fig. 30, the problem can be solved mapping VLAN 1 and VLAN 2 to different MSTIs. The MSTP configures separate spanning tree for VLANs 1 and 2 and blocks the redundant links for VLAN 2.
VLAN 1
VLAN 2 Switch 1 (root Bridge)
X
4 5 6 7 8 Switch 2 MSTI1= VLAN1 MSTI2= VLAN2
Fig. 34 Active topologies for MSTI 1 and MSTI 2
1.11.2
Load Balancing
We have seen that with MSTP, each spanning tree instance can include one or more VLANs and applies a separate, per-instance forwarding topology. This means that where a port belongs to multiple VLANs, it may be dynamically blocked in one spanning tree instance, but forwarding in another instance. This achieves load-balancing across the network while keeping the switchs CPU load at a moderate level (by aggregating multiple VLANs in a single spanning tree instance).
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2
2.1
Carrier Ethernet: Some Concepts

What is Carrier Ethernet
Carrier Ethernet is the use of high-bandwidth Ethernet technology for Internet access and for communication among business, academic and government local area networks (LANs). The use of Carrier Ethernet technology within a metropolitan area network (MAN) is known as Metro Ethernet.
Fig. 35 What's Carrier Ethernet
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2.2
MEF: Metro Ethernet Forum
The Metro Ethernet Forum (MEF) is a global industry alliance comprising more than 145 organizations. Nokia Siemens Network is part of the MEF The MEF develops technical specifications and implementation agreements to promote interoperability and deployment of Carrier Ethernet worldwide.
Fig. 36 MEF
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Fig. 37 Nokia Siemens Networks is part of the MEF
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2.3
Cooperation with Other Standard Bodies
The goal of the MEF is to create Implementation Agreements (IAs) that leverage existing standards defined by other organizations such as IEEE, ITU-T and IETF rather than creating competing standards. Where necessary, the MEF will:
make recommendations to existing standards bodies. MEF has liaisons to IEEE

and ITU-T. MEF also works closely with IETF.
As a last resort, create standards that are not being developed by other standards
bodies.
2.4
IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
The IEEE, a non- profit organization, is the world's leading professional association for the advancement of technology. The IEEE is a leading developer of international standards that underpin many of today's telecommunications, information technology and power generation products and services.
2.5
IETF: The Internet Engineering Task Force
The IETF is the principal body engaged in development of new Internet standard specifications. It is a large open international community of network designers, operators, vendors and researchers concerned with the evolution of the Internet Architecture and the smooth operation of the Internet. Its mission includes:
identifying and proposing solutions to operational and technical problems in the

Internet;
specifying the development or usage of protocols and near-term architecture to

solve such technical problems for the Internet;
making recommendations to the Internet Engineers Steering Group (IESG)

regarding the standardization of protocols and protocol usage in the Internet;
Providing a forum for the exchange of information within the Internet community
between vendors, users, researchers, agency contractors and network managers.
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2.6
ITU: International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector
The ITU is an international organization under the United Nations within which government and the private sector coordinate global telecom networks and services. ITU-T: Telecommunication Standardization Sector The main products of ITU-T are the Recommendations. At present, more than 3,000 Recommendations (Standards) are in force. Recommendations are standards that define how telecommunication networks operate and interwork. ITU-T Recommendations are non-binding, however they are generally complied with due to their high quality and because they guarantee the interconnectivity of networks and enable telecommunication services to be provided on a worldwide scale.
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Carrier Ethernet Terminology
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3.1
Basic Components
UNI, EVC and NNI are the Fundamental Constructs of an Ethernet Service
3.1.1
The User Network Interface (UNI)
The UNI is the physical interface or port that is the demarcation between the customer and the service provider. The UNI is always provided by the Service Provider The UNI in a Carrier Ethernet Network is a physical Ethernet Interface at operating speeds 10Mbs, 100Mbps, 1Gbps or 10Gbps.
Carrier Ethernet Network
CE CE
UNI UNI
CE: Customer Equipment, UNI: User Network Interface.

products
MEF certified Carrier Ethernet
Fig. 38 User Network Interface
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3.1.2
Network to Network Interface (NNI)
NNI is the demarcation between carrier Ethernet networks operated by one or more carriers
Subscriber Site
UNI UNI CE CE
Service Provider 1
Service Provider 2
Subscriber Site
UNI UNI CE CE
I-NNI I-NNI
E-NNI E-NNI
I-NNI I-NNI
ETH ETH UNI-C UNI-C
ETH ETH UNI-N UNI-N
ETH ETH E-NNI E-NNI
ETH ETH E-NNI E-NNI
ETH ETH UNI-N UNI-N
ETH ETH UNI-C UNI-C
UNI: User Network Interface, UNI-C: UNI-customer side, UNI-N network side NNI: Network to Network Interface, E-NNI: External NNI; I-NNI Internal NNI
Fig. 39 UNI and NNI Interfaces
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3.1.3
FlexiPacket UNI / NNI ports
In the FlexiPacket Indoor Unit, each Ethernet port (both copper and fiber) can be configured either as UNI (User to Network Interface) or NNI (Network to Network Interface). As default, all ports are configured as NNI. Fig. 40 illustrates a generic network scenario in which UNI and NNI interfaces are highlighted.
Access to Network
Network to Network
Network to Access
3rd party
UNI
IDU --1
NNI
network
NNI
IDU - N
UNI
3rd party
End-to-end connection
Fig. 40 User to Network and Network to Network Interfaces
In order to provide end-to-end connections, mapping criteria are required at each interface boundary: Incoming packet arriving at the UNI port is mapped to a specific connection, which is identified by VLAN. The mapping operation is done once per packet in the network. After packet is mapped and tagged (VLAN), it already has its association to the service, and on the next hopes (NNI port) mapping is not needed.
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FlexiPacket Radio ODUs are connected to A2200/A1200/First Mile IDUs by either UNI or NNI ports, as illustrated in Fig. 41, Fig. 42 and Fig. 43.
A2200/1200 network NNI IDU UNI

3 rd party
NNI IDU UNI

3 rd party
NNI
NNI IDU UNI

3rd party
NNI
Fig. 41 FlexiPacket Radio IDU connections by UNI/NNI ports (1)
FPR
FPR
FPR
UNI NNI
3rd party
IDU
UNI
3rd party
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FPR
FPR
UNI IDU BTS NNI network
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UNI Interface functions Here below are reported the UNI functions
Mapping: performed on the incoming traffic in order to identify the connection it is

associated to. Mapping functionality allows associating to all incoming traffic a specific VLAN ID identifying the EVC. The mapping is based on configurable mapping rules, different for each equipment and software releases. WARNING Please refer yourself to the "HUB Structure chapter" for further details about mapping TIP Once the mapping has been performed, all the incoming traffic has been associated to a specific EVC. This means that the VLAN tag associated to the Carrier Ethernet service is appended to each frame and it is used across the entire Carrier Ethernet network for delivering the frame towards the destination. This tag is called S-tag.
Manipulation: Manipulation is configurable per EVC. The configuration foresees

two options: VID preservation: transparent transport of the incoming frames; no modifications are performed on the incoming frame; in egress the S-VID is removed thus the frame come out the original C-tag; VID translation: removal of the C-tag of the incoming traffic (if present): in case of tagged frames the tag of the incoming frames is overwritten by S-tag; this functionality allows modifying the frame format from that one received at the UNI to a new one suitable for the treatment inside the network. WARNING Please refer yourself to the HUB Structure chapter for further details about Manipulation
Marking / Policing: the ingress traffic is marked by using 3 bits (Priority Code
Point) for defining priority and color. WARNING Please refer yourself to the HUB Structure chapter for further details about Marking and Policing.
Congestion Management: mechanism used for congestion avoidance by

randomly dropping packets according to congestion level (queue fill level), color and priority. WARNING Please refer yourself to the QoS chapter for further details about Congestion Management
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Queuing, Shaping (per port) and Scheduling

5 queues per port in A1200/A200 and 8 queues in FPFM 200/HUB 800 both Strict Priority (SP) and Weighted Round Robin (WRR) are mixed for scheduling WARNING Please refer yourself to the QoS chapter for further details about Queuing and Scheduling
Per Hop Behavior decoding: by configuration it is possible to replace Priority

Code Point bits with new values in order to give different marking.
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NNI Interface functions Here below are reported the UNI functions:
Congestion Management Queuing, shaping (port) and scheduling Per Hop Behavior (PHB) Decoding: by configuration it is possible to replace PCP
bits with new values in order to give different marking. The egress traffic flowing from the network to the access is already mapped to a specific service. Therefore the mapping function is no more needed.
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3.1.4
Ethernet Virtual Connection (EVC)
The EVC is the Logical representation of an Ethernet service as defined by the association between 2 or more UNIs. It permits to transfer Ethernet Frames from one site to another one. The EVC prevents data transfer between sites that are not part of the same EVC They are typically distinguished by VLAN tags or Q-in-Q. Three types of EVCs are defined by MEF as reported in Fig. 44, Fig. 45 and Fig. 46:
Point-to-Point, Multipoint-to-Multipoint, Rooted Multipoint (Point-to-Multipoint)
Storage Service Provider
UNI UNI UNI UNI CE CE UNI UNI CE CE Carrier Ethernet Network

ISP POP
Internet
Point-to-Point EVC
UNI UNI CE CE
Fig. 44 Point to Point EVC
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CE CE
UNI UNI
UNI UNI Multipoint-to-Multipoint EVC CE CE
Fig. 45 Multipoint to Multipoint
Service Multiplexed Ethernet UNI
UNI UNI
UNI UNI CE CE
Carrier Ethernet Network CE CE UNI UNI UNI UNI
Point-to-Multipoint EVC
CE CE
Fig. 46 Point to Multipoint EVC
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3.1.5
EVC Basic Service Attributes
Details regarding the EVC include:
Bandwidth profiles Class of Service (CoS) Identification Service Performance Frame Delay (Latency) Frame Delay Variation (Jitter) 3.1.5.1 Definition Bandwidth Profiles parameters for policing
4 main parameters are defined to determine the Bandwidth Profiles: two bandwidth limitsCIR and EIRand two burst sizes CBS and EBS. CIR Committed Information Rate: the average rate up to which Service Frames are delivered per the service performance parameters. The CIR is an average rate because all Service Frames are always sent at the UNI speed, e.g., 10Mbps, and not at the CIR, e.g., 2Mbps. EIR Excess Information Rate specifies the average rate up to which Service Frames are admitted into the providers network. The EIR is an average rate because all Service Frames are sent at the UNI speed, e.g., 10Mbps, and not at the EIR, e.g. 8Mbps. PIR Peak Information Rate: = CIR + EIR CBS Committed Burst Size: is the maximum number of bytes (e.g. 2K bytes) allowed for incoming packets to burst above the CIR, but still be marked green. EBS Excess Burst Size: is the maximum number of bytes (e.g. 2K bytes) allowed for incoming packets to burst above the EIR and are marked yellow. When the burst size has been exceeded, packets above the EIR are marked red.
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3.1.5.2
Color Marking
A way to describe Service Frames when their average rate is in profile or out of profile is using the colors according to the Fig. 47
Green = conformant to CIR bandwidth profile

Yellow = conformant to EIR bandwidth profile. Yellow packets have higher drop elegibility (will be dropped first in case of congestion).
Performance requirements delay, jitter and loss are not applied to yellow packets within transport network
Red = not conformant and discarded immediately.
CIR Conformant Traffic CIR
EIR Conformant Traffic CIR
No traffic Traffic EIR
Fig. 47 Color Marking
TIP See more in MEF10.1, section 7.11
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EIR
EVC-1
CIR
EVC-2 EIR
C IR
EIR
CIR
EVC-3
Fig. 48
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3.1.6
Three Types of Bandwidth Profiles
MEF defines three Bandwidths profiles as reported in the example of Fig. 49
Fig. 49 Bandwidths Profiles
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3.2
Carrier Ethernet Service Types
Using the EVCs it's possible to support the Ethernet Services Three Ethernet Service types are available as reported in Fig. 50:
E-Line Service Type E-LAN Service Type E-Tree Service Type
E-LINE
E-LAN
E-TREE
Fig. 50 Carrier Ethernet Service Types
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3.3
Circuit Emulation Services over Packet (CESoP)
Circuit Emulation Services Enables TDM Services to be transported across Carrier Ethernet network, re-creating the TDM circuit at the far end. They run on a standard Ethernet Line Service (E-Line).
TDM Circuits (e.g. T1/E1/STM Lines)

Circuit Emulated TDM Traffic
TDM Circuits (e.g. T1/E1/STM Lines)
Fig. 51 Circuit Emulation Services
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3.3.1
Standards
Different standards are available to provide the transport of a TDM service, typically an E1/T1, through a bridged/routed packet network:
IETF RFC5086 (CESoPSN). IETF RFC5087 (TDMoIP), IETF RFC4553 (SAToP) MEF8 (CESoETH).
The standard adopted by the 1st release of the FlexiPacket Radio product family was the RFC5086. WARNING FM200 and HUB800 release 2 are able to support CESoPSN and SAToP NSN FlexiPacket IDUs provide the Interworking Function (IWF) to support the initiation and termination of a CESoPSN / SAToP service. The ODU just provide prioritized transport of the packet flows related to the CES service.
CESoPSN Internet Working Function (IWF)
Fig. 52 Internet Working Function
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3.3.2
Pseudowire
Pseudowire is a mechanism that emulates the attributes of a TDM service such as an E1, T1 or a fractional nx64 TDM service over a Packet switched network (PSN) TDM pseudowire has to support:
Packetization and Encapsulation of TDM Traffic Packet Delay Variation (PDV) attenuation Frame Loss and Out-of Sequence Packets Clock recovery and Synchronization
Packetization and Encapsulation Packetization refers to the process of converting the PDH or SONET/SDH bit stream into Ethernet frames. Specific packet connectivity information is dependent on the type of PSN: Ethernet, MPLS or IP. The encapsulation process places a pseudowire control word in front of the TDM data in order to define the format identifier, to support error flags, length and sequence number (see "Frame Loss and Out-of Sequence Packets" point).
E1/T1 Frame
Ethernet Frames
Ethernet Frames
E1/T1 Frame
Packet Switched Network
Header
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Packet delay variation (PDV) is mainly due to the variable load conditions of network elements and interfaces, randomly occurring in the network. Although priority-based schedulers are implemented in each network element of the FlexiPacket products, still a delay variation is present for high priority packets (such as CESoP packets) passing through a network element. The packet delay variation is compensated by the playout buffer located in the receiving IWF. The basic criterion for dimensioning the playout buffer is to estimate the overall packet delay variation of the network between the initiating and the terminating CESoPSN IWF and to assign the receiving IWF a buffer size more than twice the estimated packet delay variation. Actually the packet delay variation is defined as the difference between the maximum delay of the CESoP packets to be supported without impairments (i.e. without errors or out-of-service conditions on the E1 stream) and their minimum delay. For what concerns the estimation of the total E1 end-to-end delay this will correspond to the network delay of CESoP packets added to the delay provided by the playout buffer.
WARNING The "playout buffer" dimensioning is calculated by means of a proper tool. Please refer yourself to the Annex for detailed information about that.
Frame Loss and Out-of Sequence Packets Frames may occasionally not arrive in the order in which they were sent out. In some cases, the frames may arrive very late or not at all, resulting in frames being discarded. TDM and SONET/SDH networks don't have the concepts of resending frames hence such frames are considered lost if they are not received within the window of the jitter buffer at the destination. The destination must have the ability to re-sequence the arriving frames. This is achieved through the use of sequence numbers within the headers.
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Clock recovery and Synchronization In the PDH network, the difference between in clock frequencies between TDM links is compensated for using bit stuffing technologies. With a packet network, that connection between the ingress and egress frequency is broken, since the packets are discontinuous in time. The consequence of a long-term mismatch in frequency is that the queue at the egress of the packet network will either fill up or empty. For this reason particular techniques such as "Differential Clock Recovery" and "Adaptive Clock Recovery" must be implemented.
WARNING About Clock recovery and synchronization please, refer to the chapter "Synchronization"
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Different pseudowires are available according to the different standards: CESoPSN (Circuit Emulation over PSN) Pseudowire CESoPSN Pseudowire is able to transmit emulated structured TDM signals. That is it can identify and process the frame structure and transmit signaling in TDM frames A benefit of CESoPSN is that unused timeslots are not transported in the payload, thereby saving on bandwidth. CESoPSN provides three encapsulation modes:
IP/UDP (IP over User Datagram Protocol : solution actually adopted in

FlexiPacket
MPLS (Multi-Protocol Label Switching) L2TPv3 (layer 2Tunneling Protocol Version 3: alternative protocol to MPLS)
TDMoIP Pseudowire The main difference between TDMoIP and CESoPSN is that the first packetizes TDM data in multiples of 48 bytes while the second uses multiples of the TDM frame itself. TDMoIP provides the same encapsulation modes as CESoPSN and the pure Ethernet encapsulation SAToP (Structure Agnostic TDM over Packet) Pseudowire SAToP differs from the previous Pseudowires technologies because it treats the TDM traffic as a data stream and ignores the framing or the timeslots. SATOP provides the same encapsulation modes as CESoPSN CESoETH (CES over Ethernet) Pseudowire CESoETH define TDM Circuit Emulation packets encapsulated by bare Ethernet. Emulated TDM CS data is distinguished based on the Emulated Circuit Identifier (ECID).
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3.4
FlexiPacket EVC and Services
NSN FlexiPacket IDUs provide Ethernet Virtual Connections (EVC), each one associated to a service. Each service initiates at the ingress and terminates at the egress of a network, running over both NNI and UNI ports.
WARNING Since the mapping of traffic into connections / services is performed on UNI ports only, both the initiation and termination of a service is possible on UNI ports only (see Fig. 54).
Access to Network
Network to Network
Access to Network
3rd party
UNI
FlexiPacket IDU
NNI
network
NNI
FlexiPacket IDU
UNI
3rd party
End-to-end connection
Fig. 54 User to Network and Network to Network Interfaces
Three types of Services are supported by FlexiPacket IDU:
CESoP (Circuit Emulation Service over Packet) SAToP (Structure Agnostic TDM over Packet; it's implemented in FM200 R2.0 and
HUB800 R2.0)
E-line
it is based on point-to-point EVC, running end-to-end between UNI ports. A unique VLAN ID is reserved in the network to identify each Eline service.
E-LAN
it is based on multipoint-to-multipoint EVC. In A1200 and A2200 Release 4.5, only one management E-LAN can be defined and it identifies the management domain between FPR and A2200/A1200 devices. A unique VLAN ID, VIDMGT, is reserved for the management ELAN service (default value = 127). Forwarding is based on bridge functionality. Destination MAC address is used to reach the target.
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WARNING In FPH-A1200 Release 5.0 drop 2, only one E-LAN can be configured and it is reserved for the management/DCN service. By default, this service is identified by (VLAN ID=127). In FPH-2200 Release 5.0 is also possible to manage E-LAN services via CLI and Web UI. WARNING In FPFM-200 and HUB 800, both E-Lines and E-LANs can be configured; one ELAN is reserved for the management/DCN service. By default, this service is identified by (VLAN ID=127).
In Fig. 55, E-Lines and E-LAN (management) examples are shown. At UNI:
Mapping of traffic to the Service Assignment to a Class of Service Policing (CIR /EIR) according to SLA CE-VLAN manipulation (transparent/translation)
At NNI:
Traffic of a Service is identified by a VLAN ID
NMS
E-LAN
DCN
NNI NNI NNI NNI
Packet network
Untagged frames
UNI
IDU
UNI
IDU
UNI UNI
IDU
untagged frames
3 rd party
3 rd party
3rd party
E-line 1 E-line 2 E-line 3 E-line 4
Fig. 55 FlexiPacket E-Lines and E-LAN Example
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In Fig. 56, FlexiPacket CES and E-Line Services are shown.
3G CES : Circuit Emulation Service Tail Site 3G

E1 over Ethernet via Pseudo Wire Emulation Higher priority in the network
2G UNI 3G UNI MW Hub Site E-Line

Point to point service for Ethernet traffic Configurable Committed and Peak data Rate
Tail Site 2G+3G 2G 3G 3G 2G
Basic entity for traffic provisioning and monitoring
Chain Site 2G+3G Packet i/f
TDM i/f
Fig. 56
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Quality of Service in the HUB
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4.1
QoS Mechanism
Quality of Service Mechanism implemented in the HUB includes (Fig. 57):
Classifier and Packet Marker

a) Classifier makes the association EVC CoS based on settable "Classification Rules". b) Packet Marker marks QoS level at packet header (Green = conformant to CIR bandwidth profile; Yellow = conformant to EIR bandwidth profile; Red = not conformant and discarded immediately).
Policer:
Protecting network resources by preventing usage in excess of guaranteed bandwidth (bps), i.e. compare incoming traffic rate with Traffic Profile
Buffer manager:
Congestions avoidance mechanisms
Queue Scheduler:
decide which packet forward first based on its priority
WARNING A way to describe Service Frames when their average rate is in profile or out of profile is using the colors. Packet colors are: Green = conformant to CIR bandwidth profile Yellow = conformant to EIR bandwidth profile Red = not conformant and discarded immediately Green or yellow color is marked into packet (Priority Code Point PCP bits) and it will be carried to next phases in network.
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Meter
Policer Dropper #1
Meter
Marker
Packet Marker
Policer Dropper #2
Meter
Marker
Buffer Manager
Q1 Q2 Q3
Output Port
Policer Dropper #3
Marker
.....
Qn
Scheduler
.....
Meter
Policer Dropper #N
Marker
Queue Scheduler
Fig. 57 QoS Process Internal View
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4.2
Classification is based on the Service Level Agreement (SLA) set up between the service provider and the user. Traffic is classified in different priorities. FlexiPacket Hub A1200/2200 Classification Criteria are characterized as following:
Only one per-EVC basis criterion: each EVC is associated to a Class of Service
(CoS). The same classification criteria foreseen for the EVC mapping are still valid for the CoSs mapping.
Apply Customer Priority (ACP): this feature allows the user to flow traffic of
different priorities over the same service, all sharing the service's BW. When enabled, packets for the service should be assigned with a Priority Code Point (PCP) according to the C-Tag priority value and the customer priority decode table. FlexiPacket FirstMile-200 and HUB 800 also support two types of classification criteria:
Per EVC: each EVC is associated to a CoS. Multi-CoS: traffic belonging to the same EVC can be split in several CoSs.
Once the CoS has been identified, the PCP field of the VLAN tag associated to the service is properly marked. The PCP values will be used by the schedulers to select the proper queue. PCP values to be associated to the CoSs are configurable in FPFM200 and HUB 800. The association between CoS and PCP in FlexiPacket First Mile 200 and in the FlexiPacket HUB 800 is reported in Fig. 58. The association between CoS and PCP is fixed in A1200/A2200 and is reported in Fig. 59. Each queue is associated to a specific identification string (reported in the following pictures); such identification string derives from the standard nomenclature associated to the Differentiated Services (DiffServ) architecture specified by the IETF. IETF defines a set of six CoSs (in order of decreasing priority): EF, AF4, AF3, AF2, AF1, BE.
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Some considerations about FPH-x200 respect to IETF architecture FPH-x200 does not consider the entire set of identifiers: It does not foresee the AF4 ID; It foresees the additional EF1 ID; FPH-x200 uses an opposite order of priorities for AFx classes: AFx ID is associated to an higher priority with respect the AFx+1ID (i.e. in order of decreasing priority AF1, AF2, AF3);
WARNING In FPH-x200, traffic associated to the same CoS is handled in the same queue, but with different discarding eligibility as reported in Fig. 59.
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Identification String
EF2 EF1 EF AF1 AF2 AF3 AF BE
Service
Delay Sensitive CES Control Control Business Critical Normal control Best Efforts
Treatment (programmable)
Queue 7: SP/WFQ Queue 6: SP/WFQ Queue 5: SP/WFQ Queue 4: SP/WFQ Queue 3: SP/WFQ Queue 2: SP/WFQ Queue 1: SP/WFQ Queue 0: SP/WFQ
PCP
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
EF= Expedited Forwarding AF= Assured Forwarding

Fig. 58 association between CoSs and PCP in FlexiPacket First Mile 200 and FlexiPacket HUB 800
Identification String
EF1 EF2 AF1 AF2 AF3
Service
CES Delay Sensitive Management Business Critical Best Efforts
Treatment (Fix)
Queue 4: SP Queue 3: SP Queue 2: WFQ Queue 1: WFQ Queue 0: WFQ
PCP
7 (green) 6 (green) 5 (green) 4 (yellow) 3 (green) 2 (yellow) 1 (green) 0 (yellow)
EF= Expedited Forwarding AF= Assured Forwarding

Fig. 59 association between CoSs and PCP in A1200/A2200
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The characteristics of the classes are:
EF1
Lowest delay and delay variation No packet loss Similar to DiffServ Expedited Forwarding Usually reserved for Circuit Emulation Service (TDM services) May be used for Voice
EF2
Low delay, delay variation, and no packet loss Used for Voice, Video, other real-time application
AF1
Low packet loss Reserved for internal network control traffic (OSPF, configuration, download etc.)
AF2
Lower delay and packet loss than Normal Data Better excess BW treatment than Normal Data Similar to DiffServ Assured Forwarding
AF3
Not just Best effort may still have guaranteed BW
BE
Best Effort
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4.3
Policer
The Meter (Fig. 60) measures incoming traffic (bps), compares it with traffic profile and sends the results (Conform, Exceed, Violate) to the "Policer Action". Policer Actions decisions are:
Pass: Forwarding packet Mark : Change value of L2 802.1p (Marker block in Fig. 60 ) Drop: Discarding packet (Dropper block in Fig. 60)
Packet In
Meter Marker
Packet Out
Policer
Fig. 60 Policer
Dropper
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4.3.1
Meter Algorithm: Two rate - three color marker (trTCM)
A token bucket analogy is used to describe the algorithm that performs the metering. The algorithm decides which particular packets are within the bandwidth limits, and which are in excess the limit. Two buckets are used, one with a volume equal to the CBS (C bucket) and one with the volume equal to the EBS (E bucket). How does it works (see Fig. 61)
The token buckets C and E are initially (at time 0) full, i.e.:
respectively. the token count Tc(0) = CBS the token count Te(0) = EBS.
Tokens are dropped into the buckets at rates equal to the CIR and EIR Simultaneously, every time a packet comes past, a set of tokens equal to the size
of the packet are taken out of the buckets.
As long as the C bucket is not empty, packets are market green. When the C bucket is empty, but the E bucket is not, packets are marked yellow. If both buckets are empty, packets are marked red When the source remains idle (no incoming frames) tokens accumulate in the
bucket.
The idle credits can be recovered by the source via sending packets later at a
speed faster than CIR bits/sec. The value of CBS will depend upon the type of applications or traffic that the service is targeting to support. For example, for a service designed to support bursty TCP-based data applications, CBS will be much larger than for a service supporting more constant rate UDP-based applications.
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Metering: Two rate - three color marker Algorithm (trTCM)

Check packet size against number of tokens in Bucket If OK, go on and subtract packet size. If not OK, drop packet. Incoming Frames
New token added CIR/8 times/second
Outgoing Frames at a regular rate with controlled burst Conforming Frames (within CIR)
One token = one byte
c
Committed Rate Bucket
.
New token added EIR/8 times/second
Exceeding Frames between CIR and PIR Bucket size according to CBS
E
Excess Rate Bucket
Conforming Frames (within EIR)
Violating Frames (above EIR)

Dropped
Bucket size according to EBS
CIR - Committed Information Rate, CBS - Committed Burst Size, PIR - Peak Information Rate, MBS Maximum Burst Size, EIR: Excess Information Rate
Fig. 61 Metering algorithm
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4.4
Buffer Manager: Congestion Avoidance
RED Algorithm Random Early Detection (RED) is an algorithm which simply drops packets if too many are being received. This causes the devices which are sending the packets to notice a problem and reduce their transmissions. This mechanism is especially useful in TCP traffic where the TCP can adjust its BW according to the network congestion levels. The key to this policy is the hypothesis that a packet randomly drop from all incoming traffic will belong to a particular user with a probability proportional to the average rate of transmission of that user. The design idea of RED is very simple: two preset thresholds are used to detect incipient congestion and control the average queue size. Fig. 62 illustrates the general idea of RED. According to the estimated average queue length, there are three different working states.
When the average queue length is less than the minimum threshold, all incoming
packets are processed and forwarded properly, and no packet is dropped.
When average queue length is between the minimum and maximum thresholds,
arriving packets are randomly dropped with a probability that is a function of the average queue length.
When the average queue length is greater than the maximum threshold, every
arriving packet is discarded. However, the probability of packet discard when the queue depth equals the maximum threshold is 1/ (MPD) where MPD is the so called Mark Probability Denominator For example, if the mark probability denominator was set to 10, when the queue depth reached the maximum threshold, the probability of discard would be 1/10 (that is, a 10 percent chance of discard).
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RED Drop Profile

RED: Random early detect Idea: Throw away certain packets before the buffers run completely full.
Drop Probability 100% 100%

No dropping random dropping probability of discard at the maximum threshold Equal to 1/MPD) full dropping
0 0
Queue filling Max level
0 0 Max
Without RED (Tail Drop)
With RED
Fig. 62 RED general Idea
WARNING Red Algorithm is implemented inside the First Mile 200 and HUB 800 and it only works for yellow packets. The green packets will be dropped only when the buffer becomes full. All the red packets are dropped.
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WRED Algorithm Unlike RED, Weighted Random Early Detection (WRED) has a profile for each priority marking. For example, a packet marked "yellow" might have a minimum threshold of 25 packets, whereas a packet marked "green" might have a minimum threshold of 30 packets. In this example, "yellow" packets start to be discarded "before" green.
100%
Drop Probability
0 0 Max
Queue filling
Lower class is treated with a more aggressive Drop-Profile

Fig. 63 WRED general idea
WARNING WRED Algorithm is implemented inside the A1200/A2200
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4.5
Queue Scheduler
By means of scheduling algorithms is possible to decide which frames forward first based on its priority and how to manage the shared available bandwidth in case of congestion. Five strategies can be considered: 1) Without QoS management: FIFO (First In First Out) queuing (Fig. 64)
Only one queue Frames are transmitted in the same order they arrive
In case of congestion:
All frames experience queue delay irrespective of their class of service Frames may be discarded irrespective of their class of service
First In First Out
Fig. 64 FIFO Queuing
WARNING FIFO could be implemented inside FPFM200 and HUB 800
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2) Strict priority queuing (Fig. 65)
One queue for each class Queues are processed in descending order (highest to lowest). Queues assigned as high priority are serviced until they are empty.
Low priority queues potentially can be starved; in order to avoid it, high priority traffic should be kept small.
Strict Priority Queuing (SPQ)

SPQ Uses multiple queues Allows prioritization Always empties higher priority queue before going to the next queue: Empty Queue Q3 If Queue Q3 empty, then dispatch from Queue no. 2 If both Queue Q3 and Queue Q2 empty, then dispatch from Queue Q0
Queue Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0 Priority 7 6,5 3,4 1,2
Until Queue 3 is emptied Queues

Q3
7 6
7 6 3 1
7 1 3 6 6 7 7 7
Q2
Q1
Q0
Direction of Data flow
Fig. 65 Example of Strict Priority Queuing
Strict Priority is implemented inside A1200, A2200 and First Mile 200 FlexiPacket A1200/A2200 has 5 queues FPFM200 and HUB 800 have 8 queues
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3) Weighted Round Robin (WRR) (Fig. 66)
The weight is a variable that indicates how many packets have to be sent in each
cycle from each queue.
A sequence of scheduling is generated automatically according to this value. If a queue has fewer packets than the value of the weight, the WRR scheduler
outputs the existent number of packets and begins to serve the next queue.
The WRR scheduler does not take the size of the transmitted packets into
account.
Weighted Round Robin (WRR)

Allows prioritization Assign a weight to each queue Dispatches packets from each queue proportional to an assigned weight
Queue Q3 Q2 Q1
Priority 7 6 3
Weight 3 2 1
Queues
Q3
Q3 7 6 Q3 Q3 Q1
Direction of Data flow
7 6
Q2
Q2 6 7 3 7 6 7
Q2 Q1
Fig. 66 Example of Sequence of Scheduling in a Weighted Round Robin
Weighted Round Robin is implemented inside A1200/A2200/ First Mile 200/HUB 800
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4) Deficit Round Robin (DRR) An inherent limitation of the WRR mode is that bandwidth is allocated in terms of packets. WRR works well if the average packet size of each coarse-grained CoS queue flow is known. In most instances, however, this attribute is traffic-dependent and can vary over time. DRR provides a bandwidth allocation scheduler mode that takes into account the variably sized packet issue by maintaining sufficient state information when arbitrating across the CoS queues. According to the DRR algorithm, each queue "I" has a counter associated called Deficit Counter (DCi), which indicate the amount of resources (bytes) the flow can use in a round. Flows are visited in a round robin fashion. Each flow is visited only once during each round. Upon each visit the flows deficit counter DCi is increased by a fixed quantity Q called quantum. A packet is sent only if its length is smaller than the deficit counters current value, otherwise the flow is skipped. After a packet is sent the deficit counter is decreased by the size of the transmitted packet. Let's consider one example in which there are 4 queues with the same "quantum" in order to simplify the example. The example is reported from Fig. 67 to Fig. 70. As reported in Fig. 67 the "Quantum" is equal to 500 bytes. As you can see in the example, the packet is sent only if it's respect to the "Deficit Counter's current value". The "Deficit Counter's current value" may include a "Credit" coming from the previous "round".
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Initial State
2packet
1packet
Queue 1
700
500
Queue 2
3packet 2packet 1packet 500 2packet 500 1packet 400 200
Queue 3
Queue 4
600
Empty space
x..x
Bytes of the packet
Round Robin
Quantum = 500 bytes for all queues (may have different quantum for each queue)
Fig. 67
1 Round
Quantum size
Deficit Counter Current Value Credit Packet Sent
Queue 1
700
500
500
Q1
Queue 2
Queue 3
500
500
200
500
300
Q3
Queue 4
600
400
500
100
Q4
Empty space
Bytes of the packet
Packet sent
Round Robin
Packet 1 of queue1 gets served (500 500) => credit = 0 Packet 1 of queue3 gets served (500 200) => credit = 300 Packet 1 of queue4 gets served (500 400) => credit = 100
Fig. 68
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2 Round
Quantum size
Queue 1
700
500
500
Queue 2
Quantum size+ 1 round credit
Queue 3
500
500
800
300
Q3
Queue 4
600
600
Q4
Empty space
Bytes of the packet
Packet sent
Round Robin
Packet 2 of queue1 not served (500 < 700) => credit = 500 Packet 2 of queue3 gets served (300+500 > 500)=> credit = 300 Packet 2 of queue 4 gets served (600 =>600 credit = 0
Fig. 69
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3 Round
Quantum size+ credit
Queue 1
700
1000
300
Q1
Queue 2
Empty queue
Queue 3
500
800
300
Q3
Queue 4
Empty space
Packet sent
Round Robin
Packet 3 of queue1 gets served (500 + 500 > 700) => credit = 300 Packet 3 of queue3 gets served (300 + 500 > 500) => credit = 300
Fig. 70
WARNING A reset operation avoids outstanding packets. No accumulate credits for a long period
WARNING Quantum may be different for each queue introducing a different "weight" for each queue FlexiPacket First Mile 200 and HUB 800 give the possibility to select the DRR Scheduling mode
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5) Multi stage: two strategies can be combined together Example: Weighted Round Robin Queuing + Strict Priority (Fig. 71)
WARNING Weighted Round Robin + Strict Priority Multi Stage is implemented inside A1200/A2200/FPFM200 and HUB 800. In A1200/A2200 there is a fix Multi stage: 2SP+3WRR (Fig. 71). In First Mile 200/HUB 800 the Multi stage is fully programmable (Fig. 72). Deficit Round Robin + Strict Priority is implemented inside FPFM200/HUB800
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A1200/A2200 QoS Classes Summary
Fig. 71 A1200/A2200 QoS Classes Summary
Fig. 72 FPFM 200 WRR/DRR and Strict Priority scheduling
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Quality of service in the FlexiPacket Radio Rel.1.3 EP1
WARNING Please, skip this chapter and jump to the chapter 6 if the course is about the FlexiPacket MultiRadio
5.1
Quality of Service Mechanism
Quality of Service Mechanism implemented in the FlexiPacket Radio includes (Fig. 73):
Classification Egress scheduling
IDU Side
Classification
Egress Scheduling
ODU Side
Fig. 73 FlexiPacket Radio Quality of Service (1)
FPR SVR1.x supports QoS mechanism in only one direction: from the gigabit Ethernet side towards the radio side. This derives from the fact that the bandwidth available on the gigabit interface is much bigger than the capacity over the radio link (1 Gbps versus about 400 Mbps). This implies that there is no need to apply QoS to traffic coming from the radio interface towards the Ethernet one. Moreover, frames coming from the radio have been already scheduled and properly enquired on the remote FPR where QoS has been applied. The QoS suite foresees a scheduler whose characteristics are described in the following.
WARNING As you can see in Fig. 73 metering function is not supported since FPR SVR1.x does not support the UNI interface, where traffic is metered and marked accordingly.
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5.2
Classification
Incoming packets are classified according to specified rules in order for them to be queued in the corresponding Tx queue and then scheduled. Four Tx queues are available (Fig. 74). FlexiPacket Radio classifies packets according to the following rules, allowing multiple classifications (user selectable):
VLAN ID field (Highest precedence) IEEE 802.1p VLAN priority field IPv4 DSCP field IPv6 traffic class field Port (Lowest precedence, always enabled). This criterion is not configurable and it
is exclusively used to assign a CoS to traffic which has not been classified in anyway. The priority associated to this traffic is based on the port which traffic is received from. In details: If traffic is received from gigabit Ethernet interface frames are queued into priority 0 queue (lowest); If traffic is generated internally by the microprocessor frames are queued into priority 2 queue (second highest). It is possible to enable the criteria either separately or in combination (the criterion based on the port is always enabled) but it is not possible to modify the associated priority (if VLAN ID and PCP criteria are enabled, VLAN ID field will be always checked first) . The incoming frame is processed starting from the highest precedence criteria. Lower precedence criteria are considered only if the frame doesnt match the higher ones.
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Fig. 74 ODU Quality of Service
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5.3
Egress Scheduling
FlexiPacket Radio supports four egress scheduling algorithms to handle Ethernet frames towards the radio: 1) FIFO (First In First Out) queuing (see Fig. 64) 2) Strict priority queuing (Fig. 65) 3) Weighted Round Robin (Fig. 66) 4) Multi stage: Weighted Round Robin+ Strict Priority Two strategies can be combined together. FlexiPacket Radio supports 2 SP + 2 WRR with configurable weights (default) or 1 SP + 3 WRR with configurable weights WARNING FlexiPacket Radio has four queues
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Quality of service in the FlexiPacket MultiRadio Rel 2.1

Quality of Service Mechanism
Classification Egress scheduling
WARNING Please, skip this chapter if the course is about the FlexiPacket Radio
6.1
Figure Fig. 75 shows the QoS architecture, structured in two main functional blocks:
IDU Side
Classification
Egress Scheduling
ODU Side
Fig. 75 FlexiPacket MultiRadio Quality of Service (1)
Incoming Ethernet packets are classified according to the specified criteria in order to be queued inside the correspondent buffer, waiting to be scheduled. The Egress scheduling applies the QoS scheduling criteria among all queues to prioritize the egress traffic sent to the radio. Up to 8 egress queues could be configured and used for scheduling the egress traffic.
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6.2

QoS Classification Criteria
The incoming Ethernet packets are classified according to the following criteria also called classification rules in the following: Ethernet Source and Destination MAC address EtherType field IEEE 802.1p VLAN priority field VLAN ID field Pv4 ToS/DSCP field IPv6 traffic class field MPLS EXP field
6.3
Egress Scheduling
FlexiPacket MultiRadio supports three egress scheduling algorithms to handle Ethernet frames towards the radio: 1) FIFO (First In First Out) queuing (see Fig. 64) 2) Strict Priority Queuing (Fig. 65) In Strict Priority Queuing strategy, the active egress queues are served in descending order of priority, from the highest to the lowest: each queue is served till it is completely empty. 3) Weighted Round Robin (Fig. 66) In Weighted Fair Queuing strategy, the available bandwidth is shared among all active queues proportionally to specific weights associated to each queue: these weights permit defining the amount of traffic that will be scheduled out for each queue. The weighting is configurable: the weights can be assigned to each priority queue. Moreover a queue limiter is implemented in order to limit the amount of traffic from a specific queue. 4) Multi stage: Weighted Round Robin+ Strict Priority Two strategies can be combined together.
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Ethernet OAM
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7.1
OAM Definition
OA&M (operations, administration, and maintenance) generally speaking means a set of functions used by the user that enables detection of network fault and measurement of network performance, as well as distribution of fault-related information. Ethernet OAM means Management Capabilities associated with Ethernet Technology and used mainly in the Access network. It refers to the tools and utilities available to install, monitor, and troubleshoot the network and allow service providers to offer improved levels of services assurance. What is OAM? Here below there are some OAM tasks: Operations: Automatic monitoring of environment (e.g. discovery) Detect and isolate faults (e.g. connectivity verification, path trace) Alert administrators (e.g. AIS, RDI, SNMP trap) Performance monitoring (utilization, latency, loss, error rate, jitter) Capacity planning Upgrades New feature deployment Monitor health
Administration:
Maintenance:
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7.2
OAM Layers
Ethernet as a technology may overlay a set of physical layer segments on one hand and on the other hand enable seamless layer-2 services end-to-end. Considering the OA&M requirements of such technology and its objectives (efficient troubleshooting), the entire solution can be divided into the following layers: Service Layer Measures and represents the status of the services as seen by the customer. Produces metrics such as throughput, roundtrip delay, and jitter that need to be monitored to meet the SLAs contracted between the provider and the customer. Network Layer Monitors path between two non-adjacent devices. Transport Layer Ensures that two directly connected peers maintain bidirectional communication. Must detect link down failure and notify higher layer for protocol to reroute around the failure. Monitors link quality to ensure that performance meets an acceptable level. Relationship among layers and standards is reported in Fig. 76.
E2E Performance Monitoring E2E Fault Monitoring P2P Link Fault Management
E-LMI= Ethernet Local Management Interface
Each layer supports OAM capabilities independently OAMs interoperate Component responsibilities are complementary
Fig. 76 OAM Layer Components
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Fig. 77 resumes the Ethernet OAM Standards.
Ethernet OAM
IEEE 802.1ag: Connectivity Fault Management (CFM) Also referred as Service OAM IEEE 802.3ah (clause 57) Ethernet Link OAM Also referred as 802.3 OAM, Link OAM or Ethernet in the First Mile (EFM) OAM ITU-T Y.1731 OAM functions and mechanisms for Ethernet-based networks MEF E-LMI Ethernet Local Management Interface
Fig. 77 Ethernet OAM Standards
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The Ethernet OAM architecture building block is reported in Fig. 78
E2E Service OAM Fault-802.1ag Perform-Y.1731 UNI

Point-to-Point EVC Point-to-Point EVC
UNI
Point-to-Point EVC Point-to-Point EVC
Link OAM Fault-802.3ah
UNI
Carrier B E-NNI Carrier A

Multi-point to Multi-point to Multi-point EVC Multi-point EVC
UNI
UNI
UNI
Fig. 78 Ethernet OAM architecture building block
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7.3
Ethernet Link Fault Management OAM (EFM OAM) 802.3ah
Ethernet Link Fault Management (see Fig. 79 ) has the following main tasks:
Monitors the physical connection between two devices Troubleshoot individual links Fault Detection and Notification (Alarms) Count Frame and Symbol errors Remote Link Fault Loop-back testing out-of-service
UNI
UNI
E-NNI
Operator 1 E-Line Service 802.3ah 802.3ah 802.3ah 802.3ah 802.3ah 802.3ah 802.3ah 802.3ah 802.3ah Operator 2
Fig. 79 EFM OAM
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7.4
Connectivity Fault Management (CFM) 802.1ag
CFM is an end-to-end per-service-instance Ethernet layer OAM protocol that includes the following proactive Fault Management functions:
Fault Detection/Monitoring
Continuity check (CC)
Fault Verification
Loopback (LB)
Fault Isolation
Link Trace (LT)
7.4.1
802.1ag: Terminology
Maintenance Domain (MD) It's a part of a network that is controlled by a single operator. It's defined by a set of internal and external (boundary) ports. A Domain is assigned by the administrator a unique Maintenance Level (0 7). The level of the domain is useful in defining the hierarchical relationships of multiple domains. CFM maintenance domains allow different organizations to use CFM in the same network, but independently. For example (Fig. 80), let's consider a service provider who offers a service to a customer, and to provide that service, they use two other operators in segments of the network. In this environment, the customer can use CFM between their CE devices, to verify and manage connectivity across the whole network, the service provider can use CFM between their PE devices to verify and manage the services they are providing and each operator can use CFM within their operator network, to verify and manage connectivity within their network. Recommended values of levels are as follow:
Customer Domain largest (e.g. 7) Provider Domain in between (e.g. 3) Operator Domain smallest (e.g. 1)
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Maintenance Domains are nested but not overlapped. The encompassing domain must have a higher level than the domain it encloses as reported in Fig. 80.
Customer Domain level 7 Service Provider Domain level 6 Operator 1 Domain level 1
Access Core
Operator 2 Domain level 0
Core
Access
Fig. 80 Different CFM Maintenance Domains across a Network
. Maintenance Association (MA) It's used to monitor connectivity for a single service instance within the Maintenance Domain. It's a set of MEPs (see next point) established to verify the integrity of a single service instance. Maintenance Point (MP) A CFM Maintenance Point (MP) is an instance of a particular CFM service on a specific interface. CFM only operates on an interface if there is a CFM maintenance point on the interface; otherwise, CFM frames are forwarded transparently through the interface. A maintenance point is always associated with a particular CFM service, and therefore with a particular maintenance domain at a particular level. Maintenance points generally only process CFM frames at the same level as their associated maintenance domain. Frames at a higher maintenance level are always forwarded transparently, while frames at a lower maintenance level are normally dropped. This helps enforce the maintenance domain hierarchy, and ensures that CFM frames for a particular domain cannot leak out beyond the boundary of the domain.
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There are two types of Maintenance Point: MEP and MIP (see next step and Fig. 81) Maintenance End Point (MEP) It resides at the edge of a maintenance domain. Proactively transmits Continuity Check (CC) Messages. MEP processes/Drops/Forwards CFM frames based on MD level. It transmits trace-route and Loopback messages upon operator request. There are two types of MEP (Fig. 82): UP (inward in respect to the device) DOWN (outward in respect to the device)
The terms Down MEP and Up MEP are defined in the IEEE 802.1ag and ITU-T Y.1731 standards, and refer to the direction that CFM frames are sent from the MEP. The terms should not be confused with the operational status of the MEP. Maintenance Intermediate Point (MIP) It's a passive functional entity located at intermediate points in a Maintenance Domain. MIP maintains CCM Database and responds to trace-route and Loopback messages.
Customer Domain Service Provider Domain Operator 1 Domain

Access Core
Operator 2 Domain
Core
Access
CFM MEP MIP MEP MEP MIP MIP MIP MEP MEP MIP MEP MIP MEP MEP
PHY
Fig. 81 CFM Terminology
WARNING In CFM diagrams, the conventions are that triangles represent MEPs, pointing in the direction that the MEP sends CFM frames, and circles represent MIPs.
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DOWN MEP
Bridge Port
Bridge Port Monitored Area
Bridge Port
Bridge Port
UP MEP
Bridge Port
Bridge Port Monitored Area
Bridge Port
Bridge Port
Fig. 82 "Down" and "Up" MEP
Fig. 83 summarize the MEP/MIP functions
Function Initiate CFM messages Response to Loopback (LBM) and Link Trace (LTM) message Catalogue Continuity-Check information received Forward CFM messages
MEP Yes Yes Yes No
MIP No Yes Yes Yes
Fig. 83 MEP and MIP functions
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7.4.2
Fault Detection
Service faults (interruption) are detected by Continuity Check Messages (CCM) sent periodically from the service source to destination(s) at regular intervals (Fig. 84). If service endpoints do not receive the expected CCMs within a specified timeout period, affected endpoints will indicate their loss of continuity with an alarm.
Fault Detection
MEP
MIP
MIP
MEP
CC Message (CCM) Fault Detection CC Message (CCM) CCM timeout CCM timeout
Fig. 84 Fault Detection
WARNING Continuity Check Messages (CC) are Multicast Heart-beat messages issued periodically by Maintenance Entity Endpoints (UNI or NNI of a Maintenance Entity). The major purpose of these messages is to reveal loss of service connectivity amongst a specific maintenance entity.
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7.4.3
Fault Verification
Equivalent to the IP Ping command, service faults can be verified using a Loopback Messages (LBM) and their replies (LBR). A series of LBMs can be sent to identify the location of the fault by querying maintenance endpoints (MEPs) and intermediate points (MIPs) along the service path (Fig. 85).
Fault Verification
MEP MIP MIP
MIP
MEP
Loopback Message (LBM) Loopback Reply (LBR) Fault Verification
No LBR packet received
Fig. 85 Fault Verification
WARNING A loopback message helps a MEP identify the precise location of a fault along a given path
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7.4.4
Fault Isolation
The location of a fault can be quickly determined by a Link-trace Message (LTM), analogous to the IP trace route function (Fig. 86. When a LTM is sent to a service endpoint (MEP), all intermediate nodes (MIPs) respond with an LTR along path traveled by the LTM. The returned LTRs (and those not returned) uniquely identify the segment or node where the fault originates.
Fault Isolation
Link Trace Message (LTM) Link Trace Relay (LTR)
Fault Isolation
No LTR packet received

Fig. 86 Fault Isolation
WARNING This is not IP Traceroute! Ethernet has no TTL (Time To Live) counter that is altered hop-by-hop in the data plane. CFM Traceroute determines the path from a MEP to a given MAC address.
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7.5
Performance Monitoring - ITU-T Y.1731
In cooperation with the IEEEs 802.1ag, ITU-T study group 13 prepared a set of recommendations named Y.1731 that outline the OA&M functions and mechanisms for Ethernet-based services. Y.1731 introduces the following performance measurements for SLA monitoring:
Loss Measurement (LM) Delay Measurement (DM) Delay Variation Measurement (DVM)
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7.5.1
E2E OAM Ethernet Frame Loss Measurement (LM)
Frame Loss Measurement function (ETH-LM) maintains counters of received and transmitted service frames between a pair of MEPs. These counters are used to calculate frame loss ratio, which is a ratio of the number of service frames not delivered, divided by the total number of service frames during a time interval. The number of service frames not delivered is the difference between the number of service frames arriving at the ingress Ethernet flow point and the number of service frames delivered at the egress Ethernet flow point in a point-to-point Ethernet connection. Dual-ended LM and single-ended LM are two ways ETH-LM can be performed. To perform single-ended LM, a MEP sends LM request (LMM) frames to its peer MEP upon an on-demand administrative trigger. The peer MEP responds with LM reply (LMR) frames. Using counter values in LMR frames and its local counter value, a MEP performs near-end and far-end loss measurements. To perform dual-ended LM, each MEP proactively sends periodic CCM frames to its peer MEP. Each peer MEP terminates the CCM frames and performs near-end and far-end loss measurements using local counters and counter values in the received CCM frames.
PM: Frame Loss Measurement
Metro Access Access
MEP
Service Statistics Total TX packets Total RX packets
MIP
MIP
MIP
MEP
Service Statistics
CC Message (CCM)
Total RX packets Total TX packets
Calculate Frame Loss by sending transmits and receive counters within the CCM for dual-ended measurement
Fig. 87 Frame Loss Measurement (LM)
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7.5.2
E2E OAM Ethernet Frame Delay Measurement (DM)
ETH-DM can be used to measure frame delay and frame delay variation (Jitter) (Fig. 88). Frame delay (FD) can be specified as round-trip delay for a frame. It is defined as the time elapsed since the start of transmission of the first bit of the frame by a source node until the reception of the last bit of the loop-backed frame by the same source node. The loopback is performed at the frame's destination node. Frame Delay Variation (FDV) is a measure of the variations in the FD between a pair of service frames, where the service frames belong to the same CoS instance on a point-to-point ETH connection. These measurements are performed by sending periodic frames with ETH-DM information to the peer MEP and receiving frames with ETH-DM information from the peer MEP. MEP transmits frames with a Tx Time Stamp, time at the transmission of ETH-DM frame; a MEP receives a ETH-DM frame and compare the Tx Time Stamp with the Rx Time, time at the reception of the ETH-DM. Delay measurement can be performed in two ways: One-way delay measurement (Fig. 89) The sending MEP sends 1DM frames including timestamp at transmission time. The receiving MEP calculates the frame delay using the timestamp at the reception of the 1DM frame and the timestamp in the 1DM frame. FD is calculated at the receiving MEP by taking the difference between the Transmit Time Stamp and a Receive Time Stamp. If the clocks between the two MEPs are synchronized, one-way frame delay measurement can be carried out. Otherwise, only one-way frame delay variation measurement can be performed. Two-way delay measurement (Fig. 89) When two-way DM is enabled, a MEP sends ETH-DM request (DMM) frames including timestamp at transmission time. The receiving MEP copies the timestamp into ETH-DM Reply (DMR) and sends that DMR back to the sending MEP. The sending MEP receives the DMR and calculates the two-way frame delay using the timestamp in the DMR and the timestamp at reception of the DMR. Frame delay variation measurement is done by calculating the difference between two subsequent two-way frame delay measurements.
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PM: Frame Delay Variation
MEP
MIP
MIP
MIP
MEP
1 3
Compare the Timestamp with current time
LBM (with Timestamp) LBR (copy original Timestamp)
Calculate Frame Delay by using a timestamp in DM.
Fig. 88 Frame Delay Variation
One-Way DM Calculation
Frame Delay = RxTimeDM TxTimeStampDM RxTimeDM is the time at reception of the 1DM frame. TxTimeStampDM is the timestamp at the transmission time of the 1DM frame.
Two-Way DM Calculation
Frame Delay = (RxTimeDMR TxTimeStampDMM) (TxTimeStampDMR RxTimeStampDMM) RxTimeDMR is the time at reception of the DMR frame. TxTimeStampDMM is the timestamp at the transmission time of the DMM frame. TxTimeStampDMR is the timestamp at the transmission of the DMR frame. RxTimeStampDMM is the timestamp at the reception of the DMM frame.
Fig. 89 One way/Two Way DM Calculation
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7.5.3
E2E OAM Ethernet Throughput Measurement
Unicast ETH-LB (LBM, LBR) or ETH-TEST frames can be used to measure the throughput by sending frames at increasing rate and reporting the rate at which frames start being dropped.
7.6
E2E OAM Ethernet AIS
Ethernet AIS is used to suppress downstream alarms and eliminate alarm storms from a single failure. When an MEP detects a connectivity failure at level N, it will multicast AIS in the direction away from the detected failure at the next most superior level.
E2E OAM Ethernet AIS

Eth AIS Eth AIS Eth AIS
MEP
MEP
MEP
MEP
MEP
MEP
NodeB RNC
Eth
Ethernet
Ethernet
Eth
Used to suppress alarms following detection of defect conditions at the server A MEP cannot determine the specific server entity that has encountered defect conditions, therefore it will suppress alarms for all peer MEPs
The MEP clears AIS condition after not receiving AIS frames for 3.5 times the transmission period.
Fig. 90 Ethernet AIS
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7.7
Remote Defect Indication (RDI)
When a downstream MEP detects a defect condition, such as receive signal failure or AIS, it will send an RDI in the opposite upstream direction to its peer MEP or MEPs. This informs the upstream MEPs that there has been a downstream failure. RDI is subject to the same multipoint issue as AIS. A MEP that receives an RDI cannot determine what subset of peer MEPs have experienced a defect.
E2E OAM Ethernet RDI

Eth AIS Eth RDI Eth AIS Eth AIS
Eth RDI
MEP
MEP
MEP
MEP
MEP
MEP
NodeB
RNC
Eth
Ethernet
Ethernet
Eth
ETH-RDI can be used by a MEP to communicate to its peer MEP that a defect condition has been encountered. MEP RDI Transmission: when a MEP detects a defect condition sets the RDI field in the CCM frame
Fig. 91 Remote Defect Indication
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Network Synchronization
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8.1
Introduction
One of the biggest challenges that packet-switched telecommunications technologies have to face in replacing traditional circuit-switched systems is the transmission of accurate timing information. A key dependency in the evolution to Ethernet backhaul in telecom networks is the ability to deliver carrier-grade synchronization over Ethernet to remote wireless basestations and access platforms. Two solutions are becoming dominant
Physical Layer Synchronization or Synchronous Ethernet (SyncE) Protocol Layer Synchronization or Timing Over Packet (ToP)
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8.2
Physical Layer Synchronization Synchronous Ethernet (SyncE)
Synchronous Ethernet is the ability to provide PHY-level frequency distribution through an Ethernet port. Previously, SDH and SONET gear were used in conjunction with external timing technology (primary reference clock [PRC] or primary reference source [PRS] using Cesium oscillators and / or global positioning system [GPS] as the clock source) to provide accurate and stable frequency reference. Using similar external references as a source, SyncE aims to achieve the same function.
8.2.1
SyncE Standards
Here below are reported the SyncE Specifications and Standards:
ITU-T G.8261: Timing and synchronization aspects in packet network ITU-T G.8262: Timing characteristics of Synchronous Ethernet equipment slave
clock
ITU-T G.8264: Distribution of timing through packet networks ITU-T G.781: Synchronization layer functions
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8.2.2
How does the SyncE work
SyncE transports a reference frequency in the Eth Physical Layer. It reuses SDH principles. SyncE looks like an SDH MS section. Ethernet links are timed with clocks that have the same behavior as SEC clocks. Hybrid networks (SDH and Packet) will co-exist allowing graceful migration of sync network. Synchronization Status Messaging (SSM) has to be supported SyncE ensures interworking with legacy Ethernet equipments; it does not change the Basic Ethernet Standards but it requires hardware changes to be supported. In Fig. 92, a traditional Packet network is shown. In Fig. 93, the SynchE principle is reported. In Fig. 94, a SyncE/SDH Sonet Table is reported.
1GbE PHY
1GbE PHY
100ppm Free-run
100ppm Free-run
Data Packets
Sync Signal
Fig. 92 Traditional Packet Network Synch
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Master 1GbE PHY

clock signal is dropped from bit stream
Slave 1GbE PHY
External Reference Clock

PLL
4.6ppm if in Free-running mode
PLL
4.6ppm if in Free-running mode
A reference timing signal traceable to a PRC is injected into the Ethernet switch using an external clock port
Data Packets
Sync Signal
Fig. 93 SyncE Principle
A synchronous Ethernet Physical Interface differs from a typical Ethernet one mainly for the accuracy of the oscillator ( 100 ppm for the standard PHY, 4.6 ppm for the Synchronous one) and for the possibility to extract/inject reference clock to the PHY. This aspect implies that the Synchronous Ethernet can be used only with standard Synchronous Ethernet PHYs and there is not any back compatibility with the old typical Ethernet PHYs. The method is based on two entities on an Ethernet link:
A Master entity, locked to the timing reference for the network, which distributes
the clock over the link
A Slave entity which recovers the clock from the link; once recovered, this clock
can be used to lock the system clock and or propagate it along other Synchronous Ethernet Links
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SDH/Sonet
PRC Bit Stream Embedded Oscillator ITU-G.813 ITU-T G.707 SSM SDH OverHead 8000/s PRC
SyncE G.8261
Bit Stream Embedded Oscillator based on G.813 ITU-T G.707 SSM ESMC 10/s
Fig. 94 SDH/Sonet-SyncE Comparison
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8.2.3
Ethernet Synchronization Messaging Channel (ESMC)
To maintain the timing chain in SONET/SDH, operators often use SSM. Information provided by SSM Quality Levels (SSM-QL) helps a node derive timing from the most reliable source and prevent timing loops. Because Ethernet networks are not required to be synchronous on all links or in all locations, a specific channel, the ESMC channel defined in G.8264, provides this service. The Ethernet Synchronization Messaging Channel (ESMC, see Fig. 95) is based on a new 802 "slow" protocol, with an ITU-T specific header, a flag field, and a type length value (TLV) structure. The use of flags and TLVs aims to optionally improve the management of the Synchronous Ethernet link and associated timing chain. The protocol allows for future enhancements through the definition of new TLVs as appropriate. ESMC PDU format allowing a data field from 25 to 1490 bytes
Fig. 95 Ethernet Synchronization Messaging Channel (ESMC) protocol data unit.
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The clock quality and the related coding, inherited by SDH world, follow the paradigms specified by ITU-T G.781; they are reported below for convenience; refer to the specification for any further detail. Fig. 96 (Option 1), applies to Synchronous Ethernet equipments that are designed to inter-work with networks optimized for the 2048 kbit/s hierarchy
Level
Characteristics
QL-PRC
This synchronization trail transports a timing quality generated by a primary reference clock that is defined in [Ref.7] This synchronization trail transports a timing quality generated by a type I or V slave clock that is defined in [Ref.8] This synchronization trail transports a timing quality generated by a type VI slave clock that is defined in [Ref.8] This synchronization trail transports a timing quality generated by a synchronous equipment clock (SEC) that is defined in [Ref.6] or [Ref.2], option I. This signal should not be used for synchronization
QL-SSU-A
QL-SSU-B
QL-SEC/ QL-EEC-1
QL-DNU
Fig. 96 Synchronization hierarchy Option I
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Fig. 97 (option 2), applies to Synchronous Ethernet equipments that are designed to inter-work with networks optimized for the 1544 kbit/s hierarchy.
Level QL-PRS QL-STU QL-ST2 QL-TNC QL-ST3E QL-ST3/ QL-EEC-2 QL-SMC
Characteristics PRS traceable ([Ref.7]) Synchronized Traceability unknown Traceable to stratum 2 ([Ref.8], type II) Traceable to transit node clock ([Ref.8], type V) Traceable to stratum 3E ([Ref.8], type III) Traceable to stratum 3 ([Ref.8], type IV) Traceable to SONET clock self timed ([Ref.6] or [Ref.2], option II)
QL-ST4
Traceable to stratum 4 free-run (only applicable to 1.5 Mbit/s signals)
QL-PROV QL-DUS
Provisionable by the network operator This signal should not be used for synchronization
Fig. 97 Synchronization hierarchy Option II
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8.3
Timing-over-Packet (ToP) IEEE1588 v2 (official Title: Precision Time Protocol)
With this technique, Network clocks are organized in Master-Slave hierarchy. A two way timing exchange will be established where the Master sends messages to its slaves to initiate synchronization. Each slave then responds to synchronize itself to its Master. This sequence is repeated throughout the specific network to achieve and maintain clock synchronization.
The ToP Master transmits timing packets over the asynchronous data path The ToP Slave recovers timing from the timing packets
Timing packets are time stamped at the start of frame (SOF) of the corresponding Ethernet packet. Timing packets can transparently traverse both Layer 3 and Layer 2 networks. Using IEEE1588, it is possible to synchronize, in the sub-microsecond range, the local clocks using the same Ethernet network that also transports the process data. No special requirements are placed on memory or CPU performance, and only minimal network bandwidth is needed. The low administration effort for this protocol is also significant. As redundant masters are also supported, a PTP domain automatically configures itself using the best master clock algorithm and is also fault-tolerant. A Master-Slave connection is reported in Fig. 98 where the External Reference Synch could be a Signal coming from a PRC or from a GPS system.
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Master 1GbE PHY

Master ToP Engine
Slave 1GbE PHY

Slave ToP Engine
External Reference Clock
PLL
Timing Packets
PLL
Data Packets
Fig. 98 IEEE1588 Master Slave Connection
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8.3.1
How does the IEEE1588 protocol work
Every slave synchronizes to its master's clock by exchanging synchronization messages with the master clock. The synchronization process is divided into two phases. First the time difference between master and slave is corrected; this is the offset measurement (see Fig. 99). During this offset correction, the master cyclically transmits a unique "synchronization (SYNC) message" to the related slave clocks at defined intervals (by default every 2 seconds). The master clock measures the exact time of transmission "TM1" and the slave clocks measure the exact times of reception "TS1". The master then sends in a second message, the "follow-up message", the exact time of transmission "TM1" of the corresponding sync message to the slave clocks. On reception of the sync message and, for increased accuracy, on reception of the corresponding follow-up message, the slave clock calculates the correction (offset) in relation to the master clock taking into account the reception time stamp of the sync message. The slave clock "Ts" must then be corrected by this offset. If there were to be no delay over the transmission path, both clocks would now be synchronous.
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Not Known yet!

Tm=150s TM1=151 Ts=100s
Line Delay = 1s
Sync TM1= 151 Follo w Up
Ts=101
TS1=102
not known yet Offset = TS1 - TM1 - Delay = 102 - 151 - 0 = - 49 Adjust Time= Ts - Offset = Ts - (- 49)
TM2=153
Ts=152
TS2=153
not known yet Offset = TS2 - TM2 - Delay = 153 - 153 - 0 = 0 Adjust Time= Ts - Offset = Ts - 0
Tm= Master Clock TM= Master Clock Time Stamp

Fig. 99 Offset Measurement and its correction
Ts= Slave Clock TS= Slave Clock Time Stamp
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In the second phase of the synchronization process (shown in Fig. 100), the delay measurement, determines the delay or latency between slave and master. For this purpose the slave clock sends a so-called "delay request" packet to the master and during this process determines the exact time of transmission of the message "TS3". The master generates a time stamp on reception of the packet and sends the time of reception "TM3" back to the slave in a "delay response" packet. From the local time stamp for transmission TS3 and the time stamp for reception provided by the master TM3, the slave calculates the delay time between slave and master. The delay measurement is performed irregularly and at larger time intervals (random value between 4 and 60 seconds by default) than the offset measurement. In this way, the network and particularly the terminal devices are not too heavily loaded. However, a symmetrical delay between master and slave is crucial for the delay measurement and its precision, i.e. same value for both directions.
Tm=183
Line Delay = 1s
est eq u ay R
TS3=182
TM3=184
Del Delay
Respo nse TM 3 =184
Delay = (TS2- TM2) + (TM3 - TS3) / 2 = 0 + (184 - 182 ) / 2 = 1 TM4=185

Ts=184
TS4=185
Offset = TS4 - TM4 - Delay = 185 - 185 - 1 = -1 Adjust Time: Ts - Offset = Ts - (- 1) TM5=187
Ts=187
TS5=188
Offset = TS5 - TM5 Delay = 188 - 187 - 1 = 0
Tm= Master Clock TM= Master Clock Time Stamp
Ts= Slave Clock TS= Slave Clock Time Stamp
Synchronous!
Fig. 100 Delay Measurement and its correction
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Generation/marking timestamps must be as close as possible to the physical interface boundary, as reported in Fig. 101. Dedicated hardware time-stamping, in fact, allows achieving synchronization with significantly improved precision.
Master Clock
Slave Clock
PTP
PTP Message starts
PTP UDP IP MAC PHY

Time Stamp Detected PTP Message received
UDP IP MAC PHY
Time Stamp applied
LAN
Fig. 101 Hardware Timestamp Implementation
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8.3.2
Precision Time Protocol (PTP) Clocks
Grandmaster Clock
The ultimate source of time on the network is called Grandmaster. Grandmasters are typically referenced to GPS or PRC so that they are both very stable and very accurate. A grandmaster time stamps PTP packets with very high time stamp accuracy. A grandmaster has to be able to support hundreds or thousands of PTP clients. This is usually made possible in part by sending "PTP Synch" and "Follow Up Messages" periodically using multicast addressing, and in part by being able to quickly and accurately process PTP client initiated "Delay Request" and "Delay Response messages".
TIP Nokia Siemens Networks has selected "Symmetricom", a leading company in synchronization solutions, to become its first supplier for IEEE 1588v2 masters.
Ordinary Clock
Ordinary clock has a single PTP port in a domain and maintains the time scale used in the domain.
TIP The PTP Domain is a logical grouping of PTP clocks that synchronize to each other using the PTP protocol, but that are not necessarily synchronized to PTP clocks in another domain. It may provide time to an application or and device.
Boundary Clock
Boundary clock (see Fig. 102) has multiple PTP ports in a domain and maintains the timescale used in the domain. It may serve as a source of time, i.e., be a master, or may synchronize to another clock, i.e., be a slave. It may provide time to an application. A boundary clock that is a slave has a single slave port, and transfers timing from that port to the master ports.
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2MHz/2Mpbs GPS Grandmaster M
S Ordinary Clock Boundary Clock Ordinary Clock

M M S S
Fig. 102 Boundary Clock
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2MHz/2Mpbs GPS
Switch with Grandmaster function M M M
S Switch with Boundary function S M M
Ordinary Clock
Ordinary Clock
S Switch with Boundary function S M M
Ordinary Clock
Ordinary Clock
Ordinary Clock
Fig. 103 IEEE 1588 System Configuration
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Master clock options

Option 1: dedicated master / slave Symmetricom TimeProvider 5000 New product based on NSN requirements for mobile backhaul Cost efficient solution for RNC sites and hub sites Dual power supply, dual I/O card, 1:1 node redundancy
Option 2: upgrade of existing SSU Symmetricom SSU2000, large installed base Can be upgraded with an IEEE15882008 blade Fully redundant node with various I/O options
Fig. 104 Master Clock Options
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8.4
IEEE-1588 and Synchronous Ethernet
IEEE-1588 and SyncE comparison is reported in Fig. 105.
Synchronous Ethernet
It uses the physical layer of Ethernet It can only distribute frequency; it can not distribute time of the day It is not affected by impairments introduced by the higher levels of the network All nodes have to support it
IEEE-1588
Its independent of the physical layer It Can distribute time of the day and frequency It can be affected by impairments of the telecom network such as packet delay variation
Applications like billing and SLA (Service Level Agreements) can benefit from a network that is aware of the time of the day. Some networks are very noisy and in that condition there is the need to have the SyncE. The two systems can coexist: Synchronous Ethernet can be used to deliver frequency and IEEE-1588 can be used to deliver time of the day.
Fig. 105 IEEE-1588 and SyncE comparison
WARNING Requirements for Packet Network: 50 ppb frequency accuracy at the air interface has to be assured.
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PRC
Synchronous Ethernet 1588 Master Clock Recovered from the synchronous Ethernet M M
S 1588 Slave Clock
1588 PTP Network
S 1588 Slave Clock
Fig. 106 IEEE-1588 and Synchronous Ethernet
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8.5
FlexiPacket Synchronization
FlexiPacket Synchronization examples are shown in Fig. 107, Fig. 108 and Fig. 109.
FlexiPacket IDU (A-2200) Synch Modes
Synchronous Ethernet Ethernet Physical Layer Clocking

Support SyncE on NNI and UNI ports according to ITU G.8262
IEEE1588- V2 Clock Synchronization Protocol

Support Slave mode for E-Line services
Timing packets 2M 1588 master A-2200 BTS 2MHz/2Mbps GPS
Fig. 107 FlexiPacket IDU (A-2200) synch modes
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Layer 1 synchronization from/to any interface
Nb
Eth
SyncE
SyncE
BTS TDM
E1
Synchronous Ethernet (ITU-T G.8261)
Synchronous Ethernet
Synch. Ethernet
Fig. 108 FlexiPacket Synch Ethernet
FlexiPacket Microwave ensures proper QoS for timing packets

QoS: high priority for timing packets 1588 master
BTS
Packet
Timing packets (unicast) RNC site 2M RNC
Third party network
BTS (w/o 1588v2) 1588v2 slave
PTP (IEEE 1588v2)
1588v2 slave in FlexiPacket Hub
Fig. 109 FlexiPacket PTP Synchronization
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CESoP Clock Recovery
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9.1
Clock Recovery
In the PDH network, the difference between in clock frequencies between TDM links is compensated for using bit stuffing technologies. With a packet network, that connection between the ingress and egress frequency is broken, since the packets are discontinuous in time. The consequence of a long-term mismatch in frequency is that the queue at the egress of the packet network will either fill up or empty. Before describing the different synchronization techniques, it is important to clarify the difference between the concepts of network clock and service clock concepts.
Network clock is a term indicating a common timing reference available in all the
nodes of a synchronized transport network. One of the most typical examples of network clock is the GPS signal, which is used to have all the nodes of a network synchronized to a common reference. Network clock is independent from the specific application carried by the network.
Service clock is a term indicating a timing reference associated to a service or an

application which is carried over a transport network. One of the most classical examples of service clock is the frequency associated to a PDH E1 flow; such timing is independent from the network over which it is transported (legacy or packet-based).
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9.2
CESoP with Differential Clock Recovery
Timing can be transported using the differential method (see Fig. 110). Here, a reference frequency or signal is available at both ends of the trunk (Network clock distributed via Synch Ethernet or ToP protocol). With a reference available at both ends of the network, the incoming or transmit frequency of the T1/E1 circuit (assuming the frequency is asynchronous to the Network clock) will be compared to the master frequency and a difference derived. This difference is in the form of a digital word that is transmitted across the network inside specific fields of the packet stream of the emulated service and used to recover the original frequency at the receiving end. Method reported here above is called "Differential Clock Recovering".
Differential Timing Messages
Recovered TDM timing based on the Differential Timing Messages
CE
IWF
Packet Switched Network
IWF
CE
TDM
TDM
TDM Service Clock
PRC
PRC
Network Synchronization (Synch-E/ToP) Service Synchronization
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The difference between the service and the network clocks is encoded inside specific fields of the packet stream of the emulated service. Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is the protocol typically used to encode this information inside the packet stream of the emulated service. The majority of the available pseudo-wire emulation protocol stacks foresee a version with the integrated support of RTP to this scope. This is also the case of NSN FlexiPacket products. RTP mechanism that includes a 16 bit sequence number and 32 bit timestamp in each CES Ethernet packet has been adopted. A CES endpoint, which acts as a clock source, generates timestamps and sequence numbers and includes them in the CES frames. At the receiving end, an algorithm is used to recover the clock.
Differential Clocking, Using RTP Time Stamps
CES
TDM
CES
Jitter Buffer Rate Based on Fx
TDM
Packetizer
Insert RTP Time Stamp
Differential timestamp Counter Counter
Packet Packet Network Network
Compare
Extract Diff Time Stamp Fx +
Counter Counter
Stratum 1, PRS Clock
Fig. 111 Differential Clocking, Using RTP Time Stamps
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10 Digital Radio Relay Signals
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10.1
Quadrant Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Fig. 112 represents a generic Quadrant Amplitude Modulation (QAM). The bit rate defines the rate at which information is passed. The Intermediate Frequency (IF) is the Modulator Output Each symbol represents "N" bits, and has "M" signal states, where "M = 2N". The symbol rate is the rate at which the carrier moves from one point in the constellation to the next point
Bit Rate
Intermediate frequency QAM Modulator Signal States in the Constellation = M

3
Bit Rate Symbol Rate = N QAM Constellation with M = 16
04 QAM N = 2 M = 4 16 QAM N = 4 M = 16 64 QAM N = 6 M = 64 128 QAM N = 7 M = 128 256 QAM N = 8 M = 256
1 2 3
Time
QAM Signal versus Time

Fig. 112 QAM (1)
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From Fig. 113 to Fig. 115, different QAM Modulations are shown. As reported in Figures, the Phase and Amplitude can easily represented in vector coordinates as a discrete point in the I-Q Plane where I stands for in-phase (i.e. phase reference and Q stands for Quadrature (i.e. 900 out of phase). Increasing the modulation levels, more information is transmitted (bits associated to the signal state) As the number of modulation stages increases, the requirements concerning linearity and low AM/PM conversion of all the stages used also rise sharply. This may lead to decrease the Tx Output Power in order to increase the TX amplifier linearity.
4QAM = 4PSK
I
Symbol Rate = Bit Rate/2
16QAM
I
Fig. 113 QAM (2)
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64QAM
I
128QAM Symbol Rate = Bit Rate/7
Fig. 114 QAM (3)
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256QAM Symbol Rate = Bit Rate/8
Fig. 115 QAM (4)
FlexiPacket Radio Supported Modulations 4QAM 16QAM 64QAM 128QAM 256QAM
FlexiPacket MultiRadio Supported Modulations 4QAM 16QAM 32QAM 64QAM 128QAM 256QAM
Fig. 116 FlexiPacket Radio/MultiRadio supported Modulations
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10.2
Filtered Spectrum
Radio Spectrum must be restricted to avoid interferences with adjacent channels. The radio filters are designed also to avoid degradation of the data transmission
10.2.1
Nyquist Filter
A rectangular binary signal theoretically has an unlimited bandwidth. If this digital signal goes to modulate an IF carrier, and then to be converted in RF, the result would be a similarly unlimited bandwidth of the RF channel. As bandwidth efficiency (i.e. transmission of the highest possible bit rate with the lowest possible bandwidth) is a major consideration for radio relay transmission, suitable counter-measures must be adopted. These are:
Nyquist filtering and multiple phase modulation procedures.
f(t)
-T/2
energy spectral density
T/2
Time
square pulse
1/T
2/T
3/T
Freq.
square pulse unfiltered spectrum
Fig. 117 Square Pulse Unfiltered Spectrum
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The Nyquist theorem states that it is sufficient for the transmission of a digital signal to limit the bandwidth to half the bit sequence frequency (Nyquist bandwidth). Thus, for example, a signal of 140 Mbit/s can, according to the Nyquist theorem, be adequately transmitted with a transmission bandwidth of 70 MHz.
Nyquist Bandwidth: x fbit
Fig. 118 Nyquist Bandwidth
The consequence of this theorem is a proper filtering of the original square pulse: An ideal shape for a pulse is shown in Fig. 119. An important feature of the pulse response in figure is that a pulse can be transmitted once every T seconds, and be detected at the receiver without interference from adjacent pulses, that is, without the so called Intersymbol Distortion. There is a family of filters that works very well for digital radios. They are called Raised Cosine Filters. A raised cosine filter forces all the bit tails to "0" in the sampling period in order to avoid the intersymbol distortion.
-2T -T
2T 3T
time
Fig. 119 Pulse response of a bandlimited channel
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The shape of these filters is described by the "alfa factor " called ROLL-OFF. The roll off represents the extra bandwidth respect to the minimum theoretical, or Nyquist, bandwidth 1/2T. In Fig. 120 we can see different roll off factors. As you can see, value equal to "0" is for the Nyquist ideal filter, while "1" requires double bandwidth respect to the theoretical minimum.
Ampl. (linear) 0.5 b
= roll-0ff= a/b Bw= 1/2T.(1+)

a Freq.
Bw
1/2T
Raised cosine response
Ampl.(linear)
0.5
=0 = 0.3 = 0.5 =1
1/2T
1/T
Freq
raised cosine response for various

Fig. 120 Raised Cosine Response
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10.2.2
Spectrum at the Modulator Output
The spectrum of a QAM system is determined by the spectrum of the baseband signals applied to the quadrature channels as reported in Fig. 121.
BANDWIDTH : QAM filtered spectra
1/4T R=1/T S/P cos2 filter 16 QAM

1/4T
Symbol Bw = 1/4T Bw(mod) = 1/4T.(1+)
Fc
Freq.

1/6T
Symbol Bw = 1/6T Bw(mod) = 1/6T.(1+) Fc
Freq.

1/7T
Symbol Bw = 1/7T Bw(mod) = 1/7T.(1+)
Fig.11 QAM Spectra
Fc
Freq.
Fig. 121 QAM Filtered Spectra
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According to the previous considerations, RF Bandwidth depends on the Modulation type and on the filtering according to the formula here below:
BW = Symbol Bandwidth x (1+Roll-Off)
Fig. 122 Bandwidth Formula
Some examples are reported in Fig. 123.
Bit Rate= 34Mbit/s
Modulation= 4QAM
Roll Off= 0.6
Symbol Rate= 34Mbit/s /2= 17Mbit/s Bw= 17Mhz x (1 + 0.6)= 27.2Mhz
Bit Rate= 140Mbit/s
Modulation= 16QAM
Roll Off= 0.6
Symbol Rate= 140Mbit/s /4= 35Mbit/s Bw= 35Mhz x (1 + 0.6)= 56Mhz
Bit Rate= 140Mbit/s
Modulation= 128QAM
Roll Off= 0.4
Symbol Rate= 140Mbit/s /7= 20Mbit/s Bw= 20Mhz x (1 + 0.4)= 28Mhz
Fig. 123 Bandwidth Examples
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Changing the point of view, fixing the bandwidth and changing the modulation, the transmitted throughput will increase or decrease. During the commissioning procedure, the FlexiPacket ODU Bandwidth is configured and remains fix until modified via LCT or NetViewer. As reported in the next chapter, FlexiPacket ODU supports the Adaptive Modulation.
WARNING Adaptive is the modulation not the bandwidth. So the throughput will be proportional to the modulation levels selected automatically.
4QAM 16QAM 32QAM 64QAM 128QAM 256QAM Bandwidth Frequency
Fig. 124 Modulations in the FlexiPacket MultiRadio
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10.3
Adaptive Modulation
The concept of Dynamic Modulation rises when thinking about the compromise between the planned Microwave dimensioning (that has to take availability and performances into consideration) and the need for more capacity. Usually Microwave link is considered to work in normal conditions and to provide good performances (according to Standards), and being unavailable or giving poor performances for a certain percentage of time, due to fading or bad propagation conditions (typically rain, affecting propagation in frequency bands above 15 GHz). In planning phase, the link is engineered (frequency, bandwidth/modulation, capacity, antenna diameter) to meet the worst case, but this way the link capacity is under utilized for most of the operating time. Thus, basically Dynamic Modulation introduces a way to transmit more capacity with higher modulation formats when the propagation conditions are good, and switch to more robust modulation formats in case of fading phenomena to preserve high priority traffic (i.e. voice vs Data/Video). For basic and delay sensitive service (voice), the basic capacity can be considered guaranteed, allowing Data to exploit the rest of additional capacity provided, as shown in Fig. 125.
Fig. 125 Dynamic Modulation
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10.3.1
FlexiPacket ODU Adaptive Modulation
Five different profiles (from 4QAM to 256QAM) are available inside the FlexiPacket Radio and 6 profiles in the FlexiPacket MultiRadio 2.1. The switching criteria to pass from a modulation to another one is based on the Mean Square Error (MSE) estimation This parameters is dependant from the received signal level and modulation type.
FPR ACM Switching Criteria

The switching criteria is based on the Mean Square Error (MSE) estimation This parameters is dependant from the received signal level and modulation type
Rx Level
256 QAM 128 QAM Hitless Switch for Speed of Attenuation up to 50dB/s 64 QAM 16 QAM 4 QAM Capacity
Most Valuable Traffic
High Priority Services
Max Throughput All services transported
Fig. 126 FlexiPacket Radio Adaptive Modulation (1)
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Adaptive Modulation Features are reported in Fig. 127
Modulation levels: 4,16, 64,128, 256 QAM (FPR) 4,16, 32, 64,128, 256 QAM (FPMR) Speed of Attenuation up to 50dB/s Switching Criteria based on Mean Square Error (MSE) estimation for both upshift and down-shift Hysteresis to avoid continuous changes of modulations Uni/bidirectional mode: ACM shift is settable by the user as bi-directional or unidirectional (i.e.: Shift between different modulations acts independently in the two link directions) Performance monitoring: FlexiPacket Radio/MultiRadio provides, for each measurement interval (15m or 24h), the time spent in each ACM profile ACM can be activated / deactivated
Fig. 127 FlexiPacket Adaptive Modulation (2)
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0BGeneral Topics

LAN and VLAN: some considerations

Domains in a traditional LAN

One collision Domain One Broadcast Domain HUB HUB

Fig. 1 Domains in a traditional LAN (1)

Two collision Domains One Broadcast Domain

Fig. 2 Domains in a traditional LAN (2)

SWITCH = MULTIPORT BRIDGE

Fig. 3 Domains in a traditional LAN (3)

Two collision Domains Two Broadcast Domain

Fig. 4 Domains in a traditional LAN

VLAN Broadcast VLAN 11 Broadcast Domain Domain

VLAN Broadcast VLAN 22 Broadcast Damain Damain

Fig. 5 Domains in a VLAN (1)

VLAN 1 Broadcast VLAN 1 Broadcast Domain Domain

VLAN Broadcast VLAN 22 Broadcast Damain Damain

Fig. 6 Domains in a VLAN (2)

The advantages of VLANs as regards to traditional LANs are shown in Fig. 7.

PERFORMANCE VIRTUAL WORKGROUPS SIMPLIFIED ADMINISTRATION REDUCED COSTS SECURITY

Fig. 7 Domains in a VLAN (3)

Traffic separation by VLAN

Flexi BTS Nr.1

RNC Ethernet Network

Flexi BTS Nr.2

Traffic over same physical port separated by VLAN.

Fig. 8 Traffic separation by VLAN

Length/Type Payload FCS 2 bytes 46-1500 bytes 4 bytes

Interframe Gap 12 bytes

64-1518 bytes Destination & Source MAC Addresses:

Fig. 9 IEEE 802.3 Untagged Frame

802.1Q VLAN (single tagged)

Length/Type Payload FCS 2 bytes 48-1500 bytes 4 bytes

Interframe Gap 12 bytes

IEEE 802.3 with 802.1Q 4-Byte VLAN Tag Header

TPID TCI 4 bytes

Length/Type Payload FCS 2 bytes 48-1500 bytes 4 bytes

Interframe Gap 12 bytes

TPID TAG Protocol Identifier

TCI Tag Control Identifier

VLAN ID 12 bits VLAN ID <= 4094)

Tag Protocol IDentifier

Priority Code Point (PCP)

Canonical Format Indicator

Fig. 11 802.1Q Single Tagged Frame (2)

Class of Service (CoS) IEEE 802.1p

111 110 101 100 011 010 001 000

Fig. 12 Quality Of Service IEEE 802.1p (1)

Fig. 13 Quality Of Service IEEE 802.1p (2)

Fig. 14 Switch with 8 queues; each priority has one queue

FPFM-200/HUB800/FPMR Priority Queue

Fig. 15 FPFM-200/HUB 800/FPMR PCP - Priority queues association

Queue Priority Value 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 3

Fig. 17 FlexiPacket ODU Priority Code Point Configuration

Queue Priority Value 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 4

Fig. 18 FlexiPacket HUB (2200/1200) Priority Code Point Configuration

VLAN Aware / Unaware

TAG TAG Frame

TAG TAG Frame

TAG TAG Frame Frame

VLAN unaware stations

Fig. 19 VLAN Aware/Unaware

LINK TYPE Trunk Link

Fig. 20 Link Types