Running head: AN OPTMISTIC VIEW ON PSYCHOLOGY

An Optimistic View on Psychology Liliana D.Gomez Professor: Dr. Goetz PSY 312 Personality Theory May, 11 2012

Running head: AN OPTMISTIC VIEW ON PSYCHOLOGY

Abstract Traditionally psychology has looked at psychopathology and ways to rid of malfunctions in individuals. Positive psychology on the other hand, is a reaction against the negative view of human beings. Through the exploration of Martin Seligmans publications one can realize the effect positive psychology had on his theoretical orientation. In his original writings his belief was that humans experience what became known as learned helplessness. During the course of his career he turns to a more optimistic direction in psychology. Martin Seligman turns to positive psychology which focuses on the human strengths as opposed to negative aspects such as learned helplessness. Even though, positive psychology is often described as the rebirth of humanistic psychology because it focuses on the traits and psychological processes that promote well-being and give life meaning it did separate itself from the humanistic approach with its attempt to find universal human virtues. This essay will have an overview on positive psychology including its history, applications, and implications. There will be discussion on Martin Seligmans learned helplessness theory in order to contrast it to positive psychology. The focus will be how his publications reflect the change from learned helplessness to positive psychology. Also, this literature review will consist of different topics including eating disorders.

Running head: AN OPTMISTIC VIEW ON PSYCHOLOGY

An Optimistic view on Psychology Positive psychology is fairly new field therefore many people do not know what this field contributes to psychology. In order to comprehend the contributions of the branch of positive psychology to the larger context of general psychology, first it must be defined. However, as has been learned through other psychology models defining a modality properly can be a difficult task. Luckily, Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi (2000) applied their understanding of what the field aims to achieve. Positive psychology aims to change the focus on only psychopathology (or focusing on the negative aspects of life) to include the positive aspects of life as well. Also, in a more detailed explanation, positive psychology at the subjective level values experiences such as well-being, contentment, and satisfaction. Going more in depth, at the individual level positive psychology refers to personal traits of individuals including the courage, interpersonal skills, and wisdom. At the group level its about the virtues that and institutions that make people better citizens including virtues like: responsibility, nurturance, altruism, tolerance, and work ethic (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Notice this field sounds quite similar to the humanistic approach. That is because positive psychology is somewhat the rebirth of humanistic psychology. Humanism was referred to as the third wave of psychology whose founders were Maslow and Rogers, along with other humanists like Alfred Adler wanted to shift the clinical and behaviorist approaches (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Humanism as one could imagine refers to the idea of viewing individuals with a more humane perspective. This theoretical orientation envisioned a strong effect on the culture and held promising results but unfortunately it did not attract many followers. Csikszentmihalyi (2000) states, Psychology is not just the study of pathology, weakness, and damage; it is also the study of strength and virtue. Treatment

Running head: AN OPTMISTIC VIEW ON PSYCHOLOGY

is not just fixing what is broken: it is nurturing what is best (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Another important aspect of this positivistic psychology is the focus on prevention methods. However, something encountered from researching positive psychology is that Seligmans work was originally focused on learned helplessness. For example, one of his publications was titled Attributional Style and the Generality of Learned Helplessness (Alloy, Abramson, Peterson, & Seligman, 1984). This publication described learned helplessness theory and Alloy, Abramson, Peterson, & Seligman (1984) conducted two experiments to understand the differences among individuals who experience learned helplessness. The theory suggests that people who are experience random events learn that their responses and outcomes are not related to each other. A common question came about from learned helplessness theory which is Why does learned helplessness sometimes generalize across situations but at other times remain specific to one situation? (Alloy, Abramson, Peterson, & Seligman, 1984, as cited in Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale 1978). As was previously mentioned, two studies were conducted whose results showed consistency with the prediction of the reformulated model of learned helplessness. The reformulated model of learned helplessness states that the relationship between two factors effects whether helplessness experienced in one situation will occur in another situation (Alloy, Abramson, Peterson, & Seligman, 1984). Therefore, this theory of learned helplessness seems to have empirical support. Yet, new ideas have emerged about this perspective of learned helplessness. An article suggests that learned helplessness does not apply to traumatized victims especially, if they are chronically traumatized. Flannery, Harvey, & M. R. (1991) suggest a more ecological model for these victims because that will allow more comprehension for individual

Running head: AN OPTMISTIC VIEW ON PSYCHOLOGY

differences among people who suffer from trauma. Yet, in order to use the ecological model recovery must be defined first. Recovery has four indicators involving the victims control over the remembering process, the link between remembering and emotions, the emotions that are experienced by remembering the traumatic event, and the understanding of the post- traumatic symptoms (Flannery, Harvey, & M.R, 1991). Consequently, what can be learned from this article is that learned helplessness is not a universal construct because the behaviors that come about related to helplessness might have surfaced from other factors. A notable contribution of positive psychology is the creation of a categorical approach highlighting peoples human strengths as opposed to the emphasis on disease and curing the disease. Seven criteria were established as a foundation for the creation of the inclusion of human strengths into psychology. First, strength should be like a trait in that it is generalizable and stable. Second, it is distinguishable when present and lamentable when not present. Taking into consideration that parents try to inculcate strengths in their children may be beneficial. Then, there is also, the fact that society has institutions that assist in the creation of strengths. Culture is vital because it provides role models. On the other hand, there are prodigies or children that have a natural ability for certain things. Lastly, the inclusion of a categorical strength approach must be universal or able to be applied in several cultures (Seligman & Peterson, 2003, as cited in Aspinwall, & Staudinger, 2003). Hence, positive psychology wants to provide information that is relevant to every individual. So multiculturalism seems to be of concern in this field which can be traced back to Adler (a humanist) who dedicated his theoretical orientation on applying to several members of society like minority groups. Thats demonstrated by his use of the inferiority complex and his concept of social interest.

Running head: AN OPTMISTIC VIEW ON PSYCHOLOGY

Seligman, Steen, & Peterson, (2005) provide cross-cultural findings as well a description of the Classification of Character Strengths and Virtues which is an equivalent of the DSM but a manual used by positive psychologists. The authors also emphasize interventions that increase levels of happiness. Lets begin with a clarification of what the Classification of Character Strengths and Virtues (CSV) consists of. There are six virtues: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. Each of these six virtues is encompassed by strengths that have to meet the following criteria: ubiquity (recognized across cultures), fulfilling also known as satisfying, morally valued, does not belittle others, nonfelicitous opposite or has negative aspects, trait-like, measurable, distinct, paragons or ideals, prodigies, selective absence, and, institutions (Seligman Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005). So there are 24 strengths and the most common in 40 different countries were kindness, fairness, authenticity, gratitude, and openmindedness. The less common ones were prudence, modesty, and self-regulation. The results from the cross-cultural studies portrayed that the same rankings of the more and least common strengths was also portrayed in all the 50 states. Yet, religiousness did not show the same ranking because apparently religiousness is more common in the south (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005). Next, comes the description of the interventions conducted. There were a total of six interventions including the placebo control exercise, gratitude visit, three good things in life, you at your best, using signature strengths in a new way, and identifying signature strengths. In the placebo control exercise: early memories the participants had to write about early recollections for every single night for a week. Then, in the gratitude visit, participants were asked to write a letter of gratification to someone they knew had been very nice to them, but had not been thanked by the participants. They were to complete the letter in a week and then give it to the intended person. Three good things in life was an exercise where

Running head: AN OPTMISTIC VIEW ON PSYCHOLOGY

participants were asked to write down three positive things that occurred each day and later in the night write the causes. They were to do this for a week. The you at your best exercise, allowed participants to reflect about a time when they were at their best and then reveal what was the strength that was portrayed in that situation. In the using signature strengths in a new way, the participants took an online survey constructed by the authors. Later, the participants received feedback on the five salient strengths. In addition, they had to use one of the strengths in a new way through the course of one week (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005). The results demonstrated that the exercises, using signature strengths in a new and three good things increased the level of happiness and decreased depressive symptoms for six months in the participants. So those tow showed favorable results but the other exercises also had positive results (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005). Even though positive psychology has demonstrated to be useful for different populations, people with eating disorders deserve more attention. As has been the case with several mental health problems, eating disorder specialists often direct more attention to maladaptive behaviors and curing those behaviors. Steck, Abrams, & Phelps, (2004) dedicated an article to the prevention of eating disorders. They mention that attention has been focused on the maladaptive behaviors like purging and abusing laxatives. Taking a positive psychology perspective the authors agree that more attention should be given to behaviors such as eating well-balanced meals. Using the three pillars of positive psychology, (which were briefly mentioned earlier) prevention methods can be constructed in school settings. For example, in a study 830 females were assessed in the areas of self-concept: physical health, social aspects, competence, and academics. The participants were from 6th to 12th grade and were primarily Caucasian middle class students (Steck, Abrams, & Phelps, 2004, as cited in Phelps Johnston, and Augustyniak,

Running head: AN OPTMISTIC VIEW ON PSYCHOLOGY

1999 b). Findings illustrate that the four self-concept areas had significant negative correlations with bingeing and purging behaviors. The results also showed that adolescents who felt in control, and recognized their positive attributes, were less likely to idealize about a thin body. Therefore, that reduced the eating disorder behaviors (Steck, Abrams, & Phelps, 2004) Future implications of the field suggest, improving the social and cultural aspects of an individuals life. Three goals have been established to facilitate the improvement recommended. According to Csikszentmihalyi, (2009) Leading a more pleasant or even a more meaningful life is not the most important goal that Positive Psychology can have. The three goals allow increasing the scope of what Positive Psychology is capable of doing. The first goal is to change the view of being human. Next, is to change the way society views aspects like materialism. Finally, utilizing the power of joy can be essential. Therefore, according to Csikszentmihalyi, (2009) a main task of the field is to help young people to experience joy. Focusing on therapy and prevention can help figure out what other future implications can be applied. For example, a common strategy of competent psychotherapists is buffering strengths (Seligman & Peterson, 2003). Human strengths that can be used as buffers against mental illnesses are: courage future-mindedness, optimism, faith, work ethic, hope, honesty, perseverance, capacity for flow, and insight (Seligman & Peterson, 2003. Some skills that are built during psychotherapeutic interventions include courage, interpersonal skills, rationality, capacity for pleasure, and more (Seligman & Peterson, 2003). In addition, prevention is not able to survive if psychologists maintain a view of a medical model. Also, by allowing people to gain more competence there will be less emphasis on a persons weaknesses. When we think about it people are often looked down upon because of their weaknesses. Even in job interviews one of the common questions is what our weaknesses are.

Running head: AN OPTMISTIC VIEW ON PSYCHOLOGY

In conclusion, since psychology is always growing and several theories and ideas gain popularity depending on how the zeitgeist is at the time, there is not a definite answer to where positive psychology will end up. However, Seligmans adaptation from learned helplessness to positive psychology seems to be beneficial. Yet, the field needs more research in prevention strategies and perhaps more research on how the positive psychology can be used in therapeutic settings. Fortunately, humanistic psychology has been reborn through this field because as was mentioned earlier humanism had tremendous possibilities for the future. Humanism and positive psychology do differ though. With its attempt to find universal human virtues, positive psychology sustained itself as unique from humanism. By focusing on the positive traits of individuals positive psychology is not trying to replace the knowledge already gained about human psychology. In fact, positive psychology is using information obtained from abnormalities in order to promote well-being.

Running head: AN OPTMISTIC VIEW ON PSYCHOLOGY

References Alloy, L. B., Peterson, C., Abramson, L. Y., & Seligman, M. E. (1984). Attributional style and the generality of learned helplessness. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology,46(3), 681-687. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.3.681 Aspinwall, L. (Ed.), & Staudinger, U. (Ed.). (2003). A psychology of human strengths: Fundamental questions and future directions for a positive psychology. Washington, DC US: American Psychological Association. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2009). The promise of positive psychology. Psihologijske Teme, 18(2), 203-211. Flannery, R. B., & Harvey, M. R. (1991). Psychological trauma and learned helplessness: Seligman's paradigm reconsidered.Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 28(2), 374-378. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.28.2.374 Seligman, M. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction.American Psychologist, 55(1), 5-14. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5 Seligman, M. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive Psychology Progress: Empirical Validation of Interventions.American Psychologist, 60(5), 410-421. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410 Steck, E. L., Abrams, L. M., & Phelps, L. (2004). Positive Psychology in the Prevention of Eating Disorders. Psychology In The Schools,41(1), 111-117. doi:10.1002/pits.10143

Running head: AN OPTMISTIC VIEW ON PSYCHOLOGY