Lecture 1 What is community structure o Physical appearance o Species diversity or richness o Species abundance o Nice structure How do communities

s differ in physical appearance o Different vegetation and different animals in different sizes, results in: Ecotones: Transition areas Sharp edges: Sudden change in environment o Edge effects: Differences in physical appearance of areas between ecosystems Biological communities have less vertical structure as they go from rainforests to desert, meaning their vegetation is much lower in height Community structure o Clumped: Exist in groups separate from eachother o Uniform: Equidistant from eachother, individuals o Random: Sporadic placement, no real ordetic systems Abundance and Diversity o Abundance: Total number of organisms in a biological community o Diversity: Measure of number of different species, ecological niches, or genetic variation present in an ecosystem o Species diversity decreases, but abundance within a species increases closer to the poles Species Diversity and Abundance o Diversity affected by: Latitude, high in tropical, low in polar Depth in aquatic systems, gets lower at the bottom of the ocean due to lack of light Pollution, decreases in areas with pollution Area and Distance effect o Theory of Island Geography o Island Distance Greater immigration rate at closer distance to mainland Greater number of species at closer distance to mainland o Island Size Small islands have high extinction rates

Large islands have low extinction rates Lecture 2

General Types of Species o Native: Normally live in an ecosystem o Nonnative: Not normally living in an ecosystem o Indicator: Shows the health of the population o Keystone: Play an important role in the ecosystem Indicator Species o Birds are excellent indicators because they respond quickly and are found everywhere o Fish are good indicators because they need high quality water o Amphibians live partly on land and water so they are also good indicators Keystone Species o Pollination of Flowering plants o Dispersion of seeds o Habitat modification Foundation Species make these changes o Predation by top carnivores o Improving the ability of plant species to obtain soil minerals and water o Efficient recycling of animal wastes Habitat modifications o Elephants push over, break, or uproot trees creating forest openings in Africa o Gopher tortoises dig burrows to provide refuge shelters o Bats and Birds regenerate deforested areas by dispersing plant seeds o Beavers build dams which produce lakes, creating habitats o Top Predators exert a stabilizing effect on their ecosystem o Dung beetles remove bury and recycle animal wastes Lecture 3

Competition o Antagonistic relationship within a community Compete for growing space, energy, and specific sites for all life activities o Intraspecific: Competition among the same species Territoriality: Individuals of the same species define an area surround their homesite and defend it o Interspecific: Competition among different species

Competitive Exclusion Principle o No two species will occupy the same niche and compete for the same resources in the same habitat for long o Resource partitioning: Response to competition for resources Different species use different parts of the same resource Different species use the same resource at different times of the day Different species have different morphologies that allow them to use slightly different resources, such as beak length & depth of flower Species Interactions o Predation: Eating another animal for resources o Predator: Feeds directly upon other living organisms Includes omnivores, herbivores, carnivores, but not detritivores, scavengers, or decomposers o Pathogen: Causes disease o Parasitism: One feeds on another without killing it Interspecific Interactions o Competition - / Detrimental to both species o Predation + / Includes parasitism Interaction is beneficial to one species and detrimental to the other o Mutualism + / + The interaction is beneficial to both species o Commensalism + / 0 One benefits, the other is unaffected Predation o Complex influence on population balance of communities o Important factor in evolution Removes the weakest members of prey o Prey Species evolve to avoid predation Coevolution: Species that exert selective pressure on each other, causing evolutions in response Defensive mechanisms o These protect species from predation

Noxious odors Poisonous secretions Mimicry Camouflage

Lecture 4 Ecological Succession o The gradual change in species composition of a given area Primary Succession: No soil or sediment; lifeless area Starts with pioneer species; first on site Ecological Development o Accumulation of organic debris allowing germination of seeds Secondary Succession: There is soil or sediment Annual plants replaced with perennials Biomass accumulates enriching soil Permanent Late-Successional Communities o Culmination of a successional process; is a system in a constant state of flux o Reflects ongoing competition among species for resources o Equilibrium Communities Never reach stable climax because they are disrupted by some event, such as a seasonal fire Resilience or Stability: Resistance to change o Constancy: Ability to keep populations within the limits of available resources o Inertia: Ability to resist change due to perturbations o Resilience: Ability to repair damage after disturbance

Lecture 5 What are the major characteristics of populations? How do populations respond to changes in environmental conditions? How do species differ in their reproductive habits? Population Dynamics o Changes that a population undergoes in response to environmental stress or change in conditions Limiting factors on population growth o Births

Deaths Immigration Emigration Variables change based on changes in resource availability or on other environmental changes Population Growth o Pop = PopInitial + (b + i) (d + e) o ZPG: (b + i) = (d + e) Age Structure o How fast a population grows or declines Pre-reproductive age: Not mature enough to reproduce Reproductive age: Those capable of reproduction Post-reproductive age: Too old to reproduce Biotic Potential o Ability of populations to increase in size o Intrinsic rate of increase (r) is the rate at which a population would grow if it had unlimited resources Abiotic Contributing Factors Favorable Light Favorable Temperature Favorable Chemical Enviornment Biotic Contributing Factors Reproductive Rate Generalized Niche Ability to migrate or disperse Adequate defense mechanisms Ability to cope with adverse conditions Environmental Resistance o Consists of all the factors acting jointly to limit the growth of a population o Population size of species in a given place and time is determined by biotic potential and environmental resistance o Affects the young more than the elderly Limits on Population Growth o No population can increase indefinitely Intrinsic rate (r) is rate with unlimited resources; does not exist in reality Carrying capacity (K): the maximum population of a given species that a particular habitat can sustain indefinitely without degrading the habitat Population Growth o Exponential J-Curve

o o o o

Growth is independent of population density Logistic S-Shaped Growth is dependent on population density Slows when Carrying Capacity is neared

Lecture 6 Population Dynamics and Carrying Capacity: o Carrying capacity reached and population decreases Carrying Capacity (K) o Exponential curve is not realistic because there is always a carrying capacity Population Density and Population Change: Effects of Crowding o Population density: number of individuals in a population found in a particular area or volume A populations density can affect how rapidly it can grow or decline i.e. disease Some population control factors are not affected by population density i.e. abiotic factors like weather o Density-Independent population controls affect a population regardless of its density o Density-Dependent population controls are affected by population, such as diseases or fleas Types of Population Change Curves in Nature o Population sizes may stay the same, increase, decrease, or change erratically Stable: Fluctuates slightly above and below carrying capacity Irruptive: Populations explode and then crash to a more stable level Cyclic: Populations fluctuate boom and bust points Irregular: Erratic, not based on anything, just happens sometimes. Bitches be crazy. Role of Predation in Controlling Population Size o Some species that interact as prier numbers, predator or prey undergo cyclic changes in their numbers followed by periodic crashes o Bottom-Up control occurs when species consume food faster than it can be replenished, this kills off the predator

Top-Down control occurs when the predators stop the prey from overpopulating my consuming them fast enough that it balances out their reproduction Reproductive Strategies o Goal of every species is to produce as many offspring as possible o Each individual limited amount of energy to put towards life and reproduction Tradeoff between long-life or high reproductive rate r-Strategists favor rapid reproductive rate K-Strategists favor long life, to avoid reaching (K) carrying capacity Survivorship Curves o Late Loass Population Few babies, live to old age o Constant loss population Die at both o Early Loss Population Lots of babies, die early