Contrib Mineral Petrol (1983) 83: 16-30

Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology

N ~

Springer-Verlag 1983
B

The Petrogenesis of Topaz Rhyolites from the Western United States

E.H. Christiansen', D.M. Burt, M.F. Sheridan, and R.T. Wilson2
Department of Geology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, USA Department of Geology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA Applied Geologic Studies, Englewood, Colorado 80110, USA

'

Abstract. High-silica topaz-bearing rhyolites of Cenozoic age are widely distributed across the western USA and Mexico. They are characteristically enriched in fluorine (>0.2 wt.%) and incompatible lithophile elements (e.g. Li, Rb, Cs, U, Th, Be). In addition to topaz, the rhyolites contain garnet, bixbyite, pseudobrookite, hematite and fluorite in cavities or in their devitrified groundmasses. Magmatic phases include sanidine, quartz, oligoclase and Fe-rich biotite. Allanite, fluorite, zircon, apatite and magnetite occur in most; pyroxene, hornblende, ilmenite and titanite occur in some. The rhyolites crystallized over a wide temperature interval (850" to 600" C) at,fo2that ranges from Q F M to NNO. The REE patterns of most topaz rhyolites are almost flat (La/Yb, = 1 to 3) and have deep Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.01 to 0.02). Both parameters decrease with differentiation. Titanite-bearing rhyolites have prominent middle REE depletions. Topaz rhyolites appear to have evolved from partial melts of a residual granulitic source in the Precambrian lower crust. According to the proposed model, the passage of hot mafic magmas through the crust produced partial melts as a result of the decomposition of F-rich biotite or amphibole. An extensional tectonic setting allowed these small batches of magma to rise without substantial mixing with contemporaneous mafic magmas. Some of the compositional differences between topaz rhyolites and peralkaline rhyolites may be attributed to the accumulation of fluorine and fluorphile elements (Al, Be, Li, Rb, U, Th, HREE) in melts which give rise to topaz rhyolites and chlorine and chlorophile elements (Ti, Fe, Mn, Zn, Zr, Nb and LREE) in melts which yield peralkaline rhyolites. Hence the F/CI ratio of the melt or its source may determine the alumina saturation of the magma series. Topaz rhyolites are distinguishable from calc-alkaline rhyolites by lower Sr, Ba, Eu and higher F, Rb, U and Th. The usually low La/Yb ratios of topaz rhyolites distinguish them from both peralkaline and calc-alkaline rhyolite suites.

emplaced as domes, lava flows or shallow intrusions. They may also contain Fe-Mn garnet, beryl, bixbyite, pseudobrookite, hematite and fluorite in miarolitic cavities or within the groundmass of devitrified samples. They are geochemically distinct as well, due to their dramatic enrichment in lithophile elements such as U, Be, Li, Rb, Th and Nb. Based on a review of topaz rhyolites from the western United States (Christiansen et al. 1982), this paper summarizes the petrogenetic implications of their geochemistry and distribution. We suggest that topaz rhyolites are the fluorine-rich equivalents of anorogeneic granites - as such they provide some insights regarding the origin of anorogenic granites and about the possible role of fluorine in their evolution. Practical interest in topaz rhyolites stems from their genetic association with volcanogenic deposits of Be, Sn, U, and F (Burt and Sheridan 1981). The similarity of these rocks to those associated with porphyry molybdenum deposits suggests that topaz rhyolites may be indicators of subsurface porphyry, greisen or pegmatite mineralization (Burt et al. 1982a). The petrogenetic model outlined here carries important implications about the ultimate source of metals and fluids in these systems.

Distribution and Ages Topaz rhyolites are widespread in western North America and their occurrence closely coincides with the limit of late Cenozoic extensional faulting (Fig. 1). In the United States, the emplacement of these rhyolites appears to have spanned most of the Cenozoic Era; their isotopic ages range from 50 m.y. (Little Belt Mountains, Montana) to 0.5 m.y. (Mineral Mountains, Utah), although all but two are younger than 30 m.y. old (Table 1). Most topaz rhyolites lie within the eastern and southern Basin and Range province (Idaho, Nevada, Utah and Arizona) and along the Rio Grande rift (New Mexico and Colorado) and thus appear to surround the Colorado Plateau. Similar middle to late Tertiary topaz rhyolites appear to be widespread in central Mexico (Sinkankas 1959,1976; Smith et al. 1950; Foshag and Fries 1942). The Mexican occurrences are associated with small volcanogenic tin deposits (Huspeni et al. 1982) and may form a continuous belt with the topaz rhyolites in the western United States. However, little geochemical data is available about the Mexican occurrences and they are not considered further here.

Introduction A distinctive suite of fluorine-rich rhyolites is widely distributed across the western United States. These rhyolites characteristically contain topaz (AI,SiO,F,) and were generally
Offprint requests to: E.H. Christiansen

17
10 2'

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Table 1. Ages of Cenozoic Topaz Rhyolites in the Western United

States Location 1. Specimen Mountain, Colorado 2. Chalk Mountain, Colorado 3. Nathrop, Colorado
4. Tomichi Dome, Colorado

Age (m.y.1 28-27 28-27 28-29 mid-Tertiary 26 18.5 3.3 24

-

Reference Corbett 1968 Tweto and Case 1972 Van Alstine 1969 Stark and Behre 1936 Sharp 1978 Lipman et al. 1978a Bassett et al. 1963 Elston et al. 1976 Anthony et al. 1977 Burt et al. 1981 Lindsey and Osmonson 1978, and M.G. Best unpub. data Lipman et al. 1978 b Turley and Nash 1980 Lindsey 1981 Lindsey et al. 1975 Turley and Nash 1980 Lindsey 1981 Wells et al. 1971 Stewart et al. 1977 Coats et al. 1977 ~Chadwick ~ 1978 Witkind 1973

10 2'

llOD

100

9' 0

Fig. 1. Locations of Cenozoic topaz rhyolites in western North America (Christiansen et al. 1982). The limit of late Cenozoic extensional faulting is also shown (Stewart 1978)

5. Silver Cliff-Rosita, Colorado 6. Lake City, Colorado 7. Grants Ridge, New Mexico 8. Black Range, New Mexico 9. Saddle Mountain, Arizona 10. Burro Creek, Arizona 11. Wah Wah Mountains area, Utah

mid-Tertiary 22-20 12

Mineralogy

Topaz rhyolites are normally phenocryst-poor, but in some lavas and shallow intrusions the phenocryst content may be as high as 40 percent. The major phenocrysts of topaz rhyolites are sanidine (approximately Or,,), quartz and sodic plagioclase (usually oligoclase). Ferromagnesian minerals are rare, but phenocyrsts of Fe-rich biotite are present in crystal-rich varieties; Fe-rich hornblende and Fe- Mn garnet are rare phenocrysts. Fe-rich pyroxene occurs in only a few localities in lavas with high equilibration temperatures. Accessory phases include Fe - Mn - Ti oxides, apatite, fluorite, zircon and allanite. Two-feldspar and Fe-Ti oxide geothermometry indicate equilibration temperatures of 600" to 850" C (Christiansen et al. 1980; Turley and Nash 1980; Evans and Nash 1978) that are negatively correlated with fluorine content at individual centers. The mineralogy of the rhyolites from west-central Utah indicates crystallization at relatively low Oxygen fugacities (Fig. 2), near the QFM buffer and at high HF/H,O fugacity ratios ( l o - ' to Turley and Nash 1980). In these rhyolites, low fo2 may have stabilized ilmenite and clinopyroxene over titanite or high f, may have stabilized fluorite and ilmenite , over titanite (Burt 1981). Some topaz rhyolites from other regions contain titanite (Christiansen et al. 1982). Judging from fo2 estimates reported by Evans and Nash (1978) for titanite-bearing rhyolites from the Mineral Mountains, Utah, these rhyolites may have evolved at higher fo2 than those from west-central Utah (Fig. 2). Fayalite is notable for its absence in both types, apparently as a result of high f,, which stabilizes biotite over fayalite in aluminous melts. Along with topaz (nearly fluortopaz), fluorite, sanidine, quartz, Fe - Mn-Ti oxides, cassiterite, biotite, garnet and beryl occur along fractures, in cavities and within the groundmass of the rhyolites. They are the result of crystallization from a vapor phase released from the lavas during

12. Mineral Mountains, Utah 13. Smelter Knolls, Utah 14. Thomas Range, Utah 15. Keg Utah I 6 Honeycomb Hills, Utah 17. Spor Mountain, Utah 18. Cortez Mountains, Nevada 19. Sheep Creek Range, Nevada 20. Jarbidge, Nevada 21, ~ l k ~ h Montana ~ ~ ~~

0.5 3.4 6 8 4.7 21 14-15 14 16 36

50

22, Little Belt Mountains, Montana

Note: Numbers correspond to locations in Fig. 8

cooling and devitrification and generally reflect the high activity of fluorine in the magmas and the higher fo2 that prevailed after eruption (Burt et al. 1980). The presence of these minerals demonstrates that F, K, Na, Al, Si, Fe, Mn, Be and Sn are partitioned into a vapor phase after eruption. The escape of such vapors could significantly alter the composition of crystalline rocks.

18
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Rock Chemistry and Differentiation

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Fig. 2. Compilation of T-fo2 data for silicic andesites, dacites and rhyolites from western U.S.A. and Alaska (after Ewart 1979, except as noted). The oxygen buffer curves (HM hematite-magnetite, NNO nickel-nickel oxide; QFM quartz-fayalite-magnetite) are for 1 atmosphere pressure. Solid circles are Californian bimodal rhyolites, dots are "orogenic" (calc-alkaline or high-K) magmas; open circles are topaz rhyolites from the Mineral Mountains, Utah (Evans and Nash 1978). The field of the Bishop Tuff (Hildreth 1979) is also shown. Other topaz rhyolite data are from Turley and Nash (1 980) and Christiansen et al. (1980), and include samples from the Thomas Range, Spor Mountain, and Smelter Knolls, Utah

The chemical composition of typical topaz rhyolites from Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada and Montana are presented in Table 2. There is little chemical diversity in the group as a whole. They are generally high in SiO, (>74%), Na,O (>3.6%), K,O/Na,O ratio ( > 1.0), and fluorine (0.1-1%) and low in TiO, (<0.2%), CaO (<0.9%), MgO (<0.2%), and P,O, (-0.01%) relative to most rhyolites. The composition of an "average" topaz rhyolite is shown in Table 2 (modal values from compositional histograms of 89 analyses of topaz rhyolites from 17 of the numbered localities listed in Table 1 as compiled by Christiansen et al. 1982). Most of these characteristics are typical of "bimodal" rhyolites (those erupted with basaltic lavas in continental environments; Ewart 1979) and topaz rhyolites appear to be a sublcass of this group. Many topaz rhyolites are slightly peraluminous, as demonstrated by the presence of corundum (C) in the wholerock norms (even when calculated on a fluorine-free basis). Residual glass, analyzed by microprobe, is also peraluminous ( ~and ~~~h 1980; christiansen et ~1980). ~h~ ~ ~ l ~ presence of garnet and topaz (absent as vapor-phase minerals in peralkaline volcanics) also reflects the aluminous rh~O1ites. short, In character of rh~olites have been called "alkali" rhyolites, they are not " ~ e r alkaline. " Ferromagnesian vapor-phase and magmatic minerals in silicic peralkaline rocks from the western U.S.

Table 2. Chemical Composition and CIPW Norms of Topaz Rhy from the Western United States (* Fe,,,,, as Fe,O,)" 1 SM-35 Si02 TiO, A1@, Fez03 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na,O K2O
P25

2 SM-62 75.9 0.09 12.9 1.09*

-

3 WW-41 75.8 0.05 12.9 1.26*

-

4 SK-34 76.0 0.03 12.6 0.03 1.06 0.04 0.03 0.53 3.81 4.86 0.00 0.66 28.72 32.24 2.63 33.69 0.90 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.11 0.70

5 Ave. (9) 75.63 0.04 12.7 0.79*

-

6 HC-8 77.3 0.16 12.0 1.14*

-

7 IR-I 77.6 0.12 12.5 1.56*

-

8
-

9
-

10 WL-103 75.4 0.02 13.6 0.20 0.23 0.10 0.25 0.50 4.5 4.2 0.00
-

11 Ave. 76.0 0.6 13.0 1.0 *

-

73.9 0.06 13.1 1.43*

-

74.9
-

14.8 0.62*
-

0.06 0.08 1.27 4.33 3.65 0.00 1.06

0.08 0.09 0.74 4.1 1 4.69 0.00 0.64 27.72 34.78 2.79 32.32 0.35 0.75 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.76

0.12 0.04 0.62 3.84 4.80 0.45 29.37 32.49 3.08 32.62 1.07 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.08 0.73

0.09 0.09 0.71 4.25 4.47 0.01 0.18 26.41 35.92 2.36 31.28 0.98 0.96 0.02 0.15 0.00 0.58

0.06 0.03 0.40 3.48 4.70 0.02 0.38 27.77 29.45 1.86 37.96 0.68 0.00 0.05 0.30 0.51 0.66

0.04 0.09 0.52 3.00 5.20 0.02 0.28 30.73 25.38 2.45 38.65 1.13 0.00 0.05 0.23 1.04 0.90

0.23 0.37 0.84 4.00 4.56 0.01 26.95 33.85 4.10 31.46 1.80 0.00 0.02 0.00 1.78 0.40

75.1 0.06 13.1 0.15 0.59 0.14 0.06 0.24 3.6 4.2 0.00 0.09 24.82 30.46 1.19 37.19 0.81 0.00 0.00 0.11 2.20 0.44

0.06 0.08 0.6 4.0 4.8 0.00 0.3

F CIPW Norms 21.57 or ab 36.64 an 5.56 Q 31.72 hy 0.54 di 0.64

aP il C rnt 0.00 0.11 0.00 1.OO

24.82 38.08 2.48 31.51 1.07 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.74 0.26

1. Spor Mountain, UT (Christiansen et al. 1982) 2. Thomas Range, UT (Christiansen et al. 1982) 3. Wah Wah Mountains, UT (Christiansen et al. 1980) 4. Smelter Knolls, UT (Turley and Nash 1980) 5. Burro Creek, AZ (Moyer 1982) 6. Black Range, NM (Correa 1980)

7. Sheep Creek Range, NV (Christiansen et al. 1980) 8. Chalk Mountain, CO (Cross 1886) 9. Silver Cliff/Rosita, CO (Phair and Jenkins 1975) 10. Little Belt Mountains, MT (Witkind 1973) 11. Modal values of histograms including 89 analyses from western U.S. (Christiansen et al. 1982)

" Norms calculated on F-free basis; all analyses recalculated H,O-free

19
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Fig. 3. Comparison of the geochemistry of topaz rhyolite~(solid bar), with calc-alkaline rhyolite~(upper dotted line), ongonites (upper dashed line) and peralkaline rhyolites (lower dashed line). Data for topaz rhyolites are from Christiansen et al. (1980, 1982); Bikun (1980); Correa (1980); Turley and Nash (1980); Evans and Nash (1978); Keith (1980); Lipman et al. (1978b); Lindsey (1981); Zielinski et al. (1977). Depending on the element, the data represent 50 to 100 analyses from nineteen localities in the western U.S. Data for peralkaline rhyolites are from Villari (1974); Noble et al. (3979); Hargove (1982); Mahood (1981); Ewart et al. (1977); Ewart (1982); Bevier (1981); Bailey (1980); Barberi et al. (1975) and Noble et al. (1974). They represent 60 to 120 samples from more than a dozen localities in addition to the compilation by Macdonald and Bailey (1973). Data for ongonites are from Kovalenko and Kovalenko (1976); Antipin et al. (1980); Kovalenko et al. (1977a, 1978) and represent approximately 100 analyses from 3 localities. The data for calc-alkaline rhyolites are from the compilation of Ewart (1979)

include aegerine, riebeckite, and aenigmetite - none of which has been identified in topaz-bearing rhyolites from the western United States. The term alkali rhyolite is better reserved for those with alkali pyriboles as suggested by Streckeisen (1979). Topaz rhyolites, in the IUGS system, are classified as alkali feldspar rhyolites. Use of this term avoids confusing them with peralkaline rhyolites which are contemporaneous with topaz rhyolites in the western United States. The trace element compositions of topaz rhyolites are more distinctive than their major element chemistry (Fig. 3). Trace element analyses of variable quality are available for samples from 14 of the 22 topaz rhyolite localities included here (summarized in Christiansen et al. 1982). As a group, topaz rhyolites are enriched in Cs, Rb, U, Th, Li, Be, Sn, Mo, Nb, Ta and Ga (Christiansen et al. 1982) and most other incompatible lithophile elements relative to many other silicic rocks (Fig. 3). They are strongly depleted in Ba, Sr, Cr and Co (Fig. 3). Rare earth element (REE) concentrations have been determined for over 20 samples from 9 separate localities (Keith 1980, Christiansen et al. 1982; Turley and Nash 1980; Lipman et al. 1978b, Zielinski et al. 1977). Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for three topaz rhyolites that span the compositional range are shown in Fig. 4. The most striking features of the patterns are the deep Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.45 to 0.01).

Perhaps even more significant are the low La/Yb ratios (La/Yb, = 1 to 3) of most samples (Christiansen et al. 1982). The differentiation trends of topaz rhyolites can be discerned by comparing the chemistry of lavas periodically erupted from the same center (Mineral Mountains - Evans and Nash 1978; Spor Mountain - Bikun 1980; Wah Wah Mountains - Christiansen 1980; Smelter Knolls, Thomas Range - Turley and Nash 1980, Thomas Range - Christiansen et al. 1982). Although differences in absolute concentrations occur from center to center, a consistent trend of decreasing Sc, Ti, Fe, Co, Mg, Ca, K, P, Sr, Ba, Zr, Hf, LREE (light REE) and Eu with increasing Na, F, U, Th, Li, Rb, Cs, Be, Ta, Y, Nb and HREE (heavy REE) emerges. These chemical variations appear to correlate with decreasing temperature as estimated from two-feldspar and Fe-Ti oxide geothermometry. Si generally increases and A1 generally declines with evolution, but opposing trends are observed in topaz rhyolites with greater than about 0.8% F. Most of these chemical trends are qualitatively consistent with fractional crystallization processes, but the enrichment of HREE and the simultaneous depletion of LREE with differentiation is opposite that observed in many other silicic suites that are thought to have evolved by crystal fractionation (e.g. Frey et al. 1978). The HREE enrichment of evolved low temperature magmas may be the result of their migration as halide com-

21

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FLUORINE

Fig. 5. Fluorine versus chlorine variation diagram comparing glasSY topaz rhyolites ( 0 ) and peralkaline rhyolites (b). F/Cl ratio A of 1 divides oceanic from continental peralkaline rhyolites (Bailey 1980). A F/C1 ratio of 3 separates peralkaline rhyolites from topaz rhyolites. The composition of the Bishop Tuff (B) is shown for comparison (Hildreth 1979). Data are from Christiansen et al. (1982); Moyer (1982); Turley and Nash (1980); Bailey (1980); Macdonald and Bailey (1973); and Mahood (1981)

sen et al. 1982). However, they are chemically and mineralogically distinct from both the old calc-alkaline and the young peralkaline rhyolites. Peralkaline Rhj>olite,r Peralkaline rhyolites contain a molecular excess of N a 2 0 + K,O over A1,0, expressed as normative acmite for F- and C1-free analyses. They are most easily recognized by the presence of sodic pyroxenes or amphiboles as phenocrysts or as vapor-phase minerals. Some peralkaline rhyolites in the Great Basin were erupted during large caldera-forming eruptions (e.g. McDermitt, Black Mountain, and Kane Springs Wash calderas, all in Nevada) and almost all erupted after about 20 m.y. ago (Noble and Parker 1974).
1200
0

Peralkaline rhyolites occur predominantly in continental rift or rift-like settings (Macdonald 197413). Peralkaline rocks also occur in oceanic islands and late orogenic suites but they are almost always associated with lithospheric extension in both of these environments. Peralkaline rhyolites generally contain phenocrysts of anorthoclase, sanidine, quartz, sodic ferrohedenbergite, aenigmatite and fayalite (Sutherland 1974). Arfvedsonite and riebeckite generally crystallize as devitrification products. Zircon and Fe-Ti oxides occur as accessories. Their mineralogy and the common enrichment in C1 suggests that most peralkaline rhyolites were not fluid-saturated prior to eruption (Bailey 1980). The most important chemical features of peralkaline rhyolites (relative to other silicic magmas) are high Fe, Mn, Ti, F and C1, and low A1 and Ca (Fig. 3; Macdonald 1974a). They are distinct from topaz rhyolites in each of these characteristics except their generally high fluorine content. The F-C1 content of peralkaline obsidians is compared to that of glassy topaz rhyolites in Fig. 5. Peralkaline rhyolites have F/Cl ratios of less than 3 and are easily distinguished from topaz rhyolites on this diagram. In many respects their trace element chemistry (characterized by extreme enrichments or depletions of many elements) is similar to that of topaz rhyolites but peralkaline rhyolites from the western United States generally have lower concentrations of Rb, U, Th and Ba and higher concentrations of Zr than found in aluminous F-rich magmas (Fig. 3 and 6). In addition, they generally have higher concentrations of LREE and steeper chondrite-normalized REE patterns (Fig. 7). Peralkaline rhyolites show differentiation trends (indexed by increasing (Na,O K20/A1,0, and higher incompatible trace element contents) that differ markedly from topaz rhyolites. Peralkaline rhyolites show progressive depletions of Si, Al, Ca, Ba, Sr, Sc, and sometimes Eu that correlate with increasing Na, C1, Ti, Mn, Fe, Zn, Hf, Ta, Y, Zr, Nb, REE, U, Th, Rb (Macdonald and Bailey 1973; Noble et al. 1979; Villari 1974). The enrichment of Ti, Mn, Fe and Zn may seem remarkable in view of their modal mineralogy which contains minerals with high partition coefficients for some of these elements (e.g. pyroxene, olivine and amphibole). The only moderate enrichment of

1000

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F-RICH METALUMINWS RHYOLITES METALUMINWS RHYOLITES PERALKALINE RHYOLITES

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Fig. 6. Rubidium versus zirconium variation diagram comparing metaluminous (or slightly peraluminous) and peralkaline rhyolites. Included are data from Turley and Nash (1980); Noble et al. (1979); Keith (1980); Hildreth (1979); Macdonald and Bailey (1973); Ewart et al. (1977); Christiansen et al. (1982); data from Christiansen et al. (1980) are not included because of incorrect Zr concentrations

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Fig. 7. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for peralkaline rhyolite (Nevada Noble et al. 1979), topaz rhyolite (Utah - Christiansen et al. 1982), and calc-alkaline rhyolite (Colorado - Zielinski and Lipman 1976)
-

Rb, U and Th (Fig. 3 and 6) appears anomalous in that peralkaline rhyolites lack potentially fractionating minerals with high partition coefficients for these elements (e.g. biotite, zircon, or allanite). Calc-Alkaline Rhyolites Calc-alkaline rhyolites are the silicic representatives of the orogenic magma series characterized by a lack of iron-enrichment during its differentiation. Calc-alkaline rhyolites are typically associated with andesitic volcanism on continental margins overlying subduction zones. They generally occur as small domes or lava flows associated with composite volcanoes or calderas but may form voluminous ashflow sheets. Large volumes of calc-alkaline rhyolite were erupted during the mid-Cenozoic of the western United States. Calc-alkaline rhyolites generally contain phenocrysts of plagioclase, Mg-augite, Mg-hypersthene, Ca - Mg hornblende, Mg-biotite, Fe - Ti oxides and occasionally olivine (Ewart 1979). More silicic, high-K varieties contain quartz and sanidine. Titanite and allanite are notable accessories. Although generally not fluid-saturated the mineralogy indicates they are relatively hydrous. The T- fo2 relationships for some calc-alkaline rhyolites are shown in Fig. 2. From Ewart's (1979) compilation there appears to be substantial chemical variation among calc-alkaline rhyolites but they are generally higher in Al, Ti, Fe, Mg, Ca and lower in total alkalies and F than topaz rhyolites (Fig. 3). Calc-alkaline rhyolites generally have lower concentrations of Rb, U, and Th (and other incompatible elements) and have higher concentrations of Ba and Sr (and other compatible elements) than topaz rhyolites (Ewart 1979), attesting to their less "differentiated" nature (Fig. 3). The differentiation trends of calc-alkaline rhyolites appear to be similar to those of topaz rhyolites but the extreme enrichments/ depletions of trace elements are not observed (Fig. 3). Ewart (1979) has identified a series of biotite rhyolites from the western U.S. with moderate enrichments of Rb, U, and Th, that appear to be geochemically transitional to topaz rhyolites (their elemental concentrations are included with calc-alkaline rhyolites in Fig. 3). However as with most

other calc-alkaline rhyolites, they crystallized under conditions of high T and ,fo2 (approximately 3 log units above QFM, Fig. 2). From this brief review it is suggested that topaz rhyolites are chemically distinct from both calc-alkaline and peralkaline rhyolites, even though they are in part contemporaneous with both types of magmatism in the western United States. Apparently their mode of origin and/or evolutionary paths are different from either magma series. Topaz rhyolites are most similar to other metaluminous to peraluminous rhyolites that occur as small domes and lava flows in the Basin and Range province (e.g. Bacon and Duffield 1981; Crecraft et al. 1981). They are similar to "ongonites" that have been described from Mongolia and the Soviet Union (Kovalenko et al. 1971; Kovalenko and Kovalenko 1976; Fig. 3). Ongonites are fluorine-rich (0.8 to 3.5 wt.%), topaz-bearing subvolcanic rocks and lavas. Ongonites and topaz rhyolites bear striking resemblances in their chemistry, mineralogy and associated ore deposits. We prefer the term "topaz rhyolite" because it is more descriptive and because of historical precedence; the first scientific description of topaz in rhyolite from Colorado dates from nearly 100 years ago (Cross 1886).

Discussion
The nature of volcanic rock associations and contemporaneous tectonic activity gives some clues about the generation of magmas, for example, active calc-alkaline magmatism (basalt-andesite-dacite-rhyolite) is consistently associated with lithospheric subduction. However, topaz rhyolites appear to be associated with a variety of igneous rocks. Indeed, they show no consistent spatial or temporal relationship to a single magma series from which they could be derived by differentiation. Christiansen et al. (1982) proposed that topaz rhyolites are associated with three different types of magmatism: I) fundamentally calc-alkaline, 2) "transitional" basaltic andesites, and 3) fundamentally basaltic. For example, the 50 m.y. old rhyolites of the Little Belt Mountains, Montana, are associated with the emplacement of granite, monzonite, syenite and minor lamprophyre of "calc-alka-

23

Fig. 8. Known topaz rhyolite (.) occurrences in the western United States compared with the edge of the Precambrian crystalline basement. The solid line represents the outcrop limit of Precambrian rocks (King 1977) and the dashed line represents the inferred edge of the Precambrian continent (Kistler et al. 1981 ; Armstrong et al. 1977). The numbers refer to the localities listed in Table 1 ; unlabelled localities are from Shawe (1976). Note that the volcanic centers for peralkaline rhyolites (0; Noble and Parker 1974) generally d o not occur in the same areas as topaz rhyolites. An east-west dichotomy is apparent in the northern Great Basin

line" affinity (Witkind 1973). In Colorado, a variety of calc-alkaline lavas and tuffs of the San Juan volcanic field and elsewhere are concentemporaneous with ( > 2 5 m.y.) topaz rhyolites along the developing Rio Grande rift (e.g. Steven 1975). However, in Utah early Miocene topaz rhyolites from the Wah Wah Mountains form a bimodal association with trachyandesite or K-rich mafic lavas - true basalts seem to be absent (Best et al. 1980). Likewise the 24 m.y. old topaz rhyolites of the Black Range, New Mexico (Elston and Bornhorst 1979), and the 14-16 m.y. old topaz rhyolites from northern Nevada are associated with basaltic andesites (Stewart et al. 1977) that are chemically similar to the trachyandesites of Utah. Topaz rhyolites younger than about 12 m.y. old are generally associated with fundamentally basaltic volcanism in the Great Basin (Best et al. 1980), in western Arizona (Burt et al. 1981), and a t Grants Ridge, New Mexico (Bassett et al. 1963). The younger group of topaz rhyolites is also contemporaneous with peralkaline volcanism in the western Great Basin (Noble and Parker 1974). but the two bimodal groups of basalt-rhyolite are spatially distinct (Fig. 8). By contrast with the rock associations, the tectonic settings for the generation and emplacement of the various topaz rhyolites seem to be relatively similar. Topaz rhyolite magmatism coincide with periods of lithospheric extension I ) along the Rio Grande rift and its northern extension into Colorado which initially developed about 30 m.y. ago

(Eaton 1979, Elston and Bornhorst 1979); 2) in the Great Basin where basin and range faulting may have begun as early as 21-20 m.y. ago (Rowley et al. 1978); 3) in Montana where block faulting began about 40 m.y. ago (Chadwick 1978), and 4) along Nevada's Cortez rift that opened 16 m.y. ago (Stewart et al. 1975). The extension occurred in back- or intra-arc and post-arc environments (Eaton 1979; Elston and Bornhorst 1979). The intimate association of extensional tectonics and topaz rhyolite magmatism (Fig. 1) strongly implies a genetic connection. The association in space and time of topaz rhyolites with at least two, and possibly three, different types of more mafic magma suggests that they may be derived by partial melting of the continental crust through which the magmas passed rather than by differentiation of the contrasting magma types. The geophysical character of the Great Basin (Prohdehl 1979), where most young ( < 15 m.y.) topaz rhyolites occur, is suggestive of crustal anatexis. This region has characteristically high heat flow (90 mW/m2), a thin crust (25-30 km thick) and low upper mantle P-wave velocities (7.4 kmlsec). The coincidence of these features beneath the Thomas Range, Utah, area where topaz rhyolites as young as 3.4 m.y. old occur, is striking. Based on a n extrapolation of heat flow observed at the surface, Lachenbruch and Sass (1978) have proposed that partial melting could occur within the crust, and Smith (1978) has suggested that a seismic low-velocity zone detected within the crust of the Great Basin may be caused by the presence partially rock. Figure 9 shows the presumed geothermal gradient for the Battle Mountain High, Nevada (Lachenbruch and Sass 1978), superimposed on biotite and amphibole decomposition curves and solidi for granite and amphibolite. This figure demonstrates that magma production is possible even within the thin crust of the Basin and Range province. Presumably similar geothermal gradients existed at other localities in the past as the result of underplating of mafic magma or its passage through the crust (Lachenbruch and Sass 1978). Lower thermal gradients in thicker portions of the crust could also produce crustal anatexis by biotite or amphibole breakdown at higher pressures. The proposal that topaz rhyolites are produced by crustal anatexis is also supported by the geochemistry of the lavas. The metaluminous to slightly peraluminous compositions of topaz rhyolites suggest that neither muscovite nor aluminosilicates (andalusite, sillimanite, kyanite) were present in the source. Equilibration of igneous melts with these minerals produce strongly peraluminous liquids with 3 to 8% normative corundum (Thompson and Tracy 1977; Clemens and Wall 1981). In addition, the relatively high temperatures of the lavas (up to 850" C, compare with Fig. 9), their apparently low H,O-content (indicated by the late crystallization of biotite and low ,ft,20) and their rise to shallow crustal levels suggest that muscovite was not involved in their genesis. As an alternative, biotite (or amphibole) may have provided the volatiles for melting. Appropriate temperatures are reached at pressures in excess of about 6 kb for the relatively high geothermal gradient illustrated in Fig. 9. (Higher pressures would be required by shallower geothermal gradients.) Biotite may not have been residual and could have supplied considerable R b and F to the melts. Due to its limited stability at pressures above 5 kb, cordierite is unlikely to have been a residual phase (Clemens and Wall 1981).

24

40

30

2
&

5
8
EL

20

10

200

400

600

800

1000 1200

experimental evidence of Watson (1979) that suggests zircon would be residual in partial melting events that produce metaluminous liquids. Nonetheless, it is difficult to separate the effect of residual zircon or garnet on the REE from the effect produced by melting a HREE-depleted protolith typical of granulitic rocks (e.g. Collerson and Fryer 1978). In view of our ignorance of the REE pattern of the source and of the abundance of REE-rich trace minerals quantitative modeling of partial melting is considered to be pointless. Phases that probably were present in the source include: alkali feldspar (indicated by its early saturation, negative Eu anomalies, and the high activity of KA13Si08 in the lavas), relatively socic plagioclase (indicated by negative Eu anomalies, and the high activity of NaA13Si08 - residual plagioclase was probably calcic), quartz (indicated by high activity of SiO,), pyroxene (indicated by its early saturation in "primitive" topaz rhyolites and fo2 relations), and F-rich biotite (indicated by high initial temperatures and the F and Rb enrichment of the magmas). Small amounts of Fe Ti oxides, zircon, garnet, apatite, or scapolite may also have been present in the regi0n. The apparent absence of muscovite or aluminosilicates from the source mineralogy, the moderate fo2 and the high Na/K ratios of the magmas all suggest that the source was not pelitic but was instead a meta-igneous or residual metamorphic rock, In fact, the suggested source mineralogy is similar to many (charnockitic) granulites that may be produced as the residue after the removal of an earlier melt fraction (e.g. et 1980; Nesbitt 1980). Although isotopic data are still sparse, they are compatible with this type of source. Initial s7Sr/86Sr ratios for topaz rhyolites range from 0.705 to over 0.710 (Christiansen et al. 1982) and indicate lower crustal sources with initially low to moderate Rb/Sr ratios. The oxygen-isotope composition of topaz rhyolites from the Mineral Mountains, Utah (6 to 7%,, Bowman et al. 1982) and from Lake City, Colorado (7 to lo%,, R.A. Zielinski 1982, written communication), are consistent with magma generation from a high-grade metamorphic lower crustal source. Pb-isotope ratios for topaz rhyolites from Colorado (Lipman et al. 1978a) indicate they were derived from a lower crustal source with low U/Pb and moderate Th/Pb ratios. Significant U depletion and little or no Th depletion occurs during granulite-facies metamorphism (e.g. Rollinson and Windley 1980). Pbisotope compositions of topaz rhyolites from Nevada (Rye et al. 1974) indicate relatively high U/Pb ratios in the source (unlike residual granulites) but the lavas may have been contaminated by upper crustal Pb during their rise since older, geochemically dissimilar volcanic rocks have the same Pb-isotope ratios. The proposed source mineralogy, the extensional tectonic setting and the geochemical features of topaz rhyolites imply that they may be the extrusive equivalents of A-type (anorogenic of Loiselle and Wones 1979, Collins et al. 1982) or R-type (residual of White 1979) granites. The characteristics of R-type granites are compared with those of topaz rhyolites in Table 3. There are two "species7' of anorogenic granites - one metaluminous to slightly peraluminous (analogous to topaz rhyolites), the other peralkaline (analogous to peralkaline rhyolites). In granitic complexes both types may coexist one intruding the other or one grading into the other (e.g. Arabian Shield, Stuckless et al. 1982). However, in the Basin and Range province topaz rhyolite occur-

Temperature (OC)
Fig. 9. Calculated geotherm for average conditions in the crust of the Battle Mountain, Nevada, high heat-flow province (Lachenbruch and Sass 1978), compared with the P- T curves for the beginning of melting of granite and amphibolite under fluid-present and fluid-absent conditions following the breakdown of muscovite, blotite, or amphibole. The production of magmas within the relatively thin crust of the Great Basin (GB) seems possible under conditions of high heat flow. Shallower geotherms could intiate melting in thicker sections of the crust (e.g. Colorado). References: granite and amphibolite solidi from Wyllie (1977); muscovite+ quartz -+ K-feldspar + andalusite + fluid (Evans 1965), biotite + quartz --+ K-feldspar fayalite + fluid (Wones 1972) over a range of Fe/Fe Mg, tremolite - diopside + enstatite + quartz + fluid , (Holloway 1977) over a range of F/(F+OH) from 0 to 0.5. FOH-, exchange could extend the stability of biotite enough to overlap with the amphibole stability field

The moderate fo2 of most topaz rhyolites (QFM k 1 log unit, Fig. 2) indicates that graphite was not a residual phase. Ewart (1979) suggests that the fo2 of bimodal rhyolites may be the result of their differentiation from (or partial melting of) basalt. However, Ewart et al. (1977) proposed an alternative oxygen buffer that we feel is more appropriate for the crustal origin of topaz rhyolites:

40, +
(gas)

FeSiO, CaAl,SiO, (orthopyroxene (clinopyroxene s.s.) solid solution)

=+ Fe,O,

CaAl,Si,O,. (ilmenite s.s.) (plagioclase s.s.)

Assuming ideality and activities representative of those in pyroxene granulites the resultant buffer curve is virtually indistinguishable from the QFM buffer at 10 Kb. However the reaction is pressure-dependent and at 5 kb the buffer lies near WM and at 1 bar it lies about 3 log units below QFM. The source of topaz rhyolites may have contained small amounts of residual zircon or garnet which have high distribution coefficients for HREE. The most primitive rhyolites from the Thomas Range, Utah, (Christiansen et al. 1982), are moderately depleted in HREE (La/Yb,= 12) possibly as a result of equilibration with residual zircon and/or garnet. This suggestion is consistent with the usually low Zr concentration (Fig. 6) of topaz rhyolites and with the

25

Table 3. Geochemical Comparison of Anorogenic (R-Type) Granites and Topaz Rhyolites

Feature
~ H ~ O

Anorogenic granitea low high low to moderate high high (-76%) high low high, except Eu Ga, Y, Nb, Sn, Zr, Ta Co, Sc, Cr, Ni, Ba, Sr, ELI high high high

Topaz rhyolite low high low to moderate (near QFM) low to moderate (60G800" C ) high (73-78%) moderate-high (34.5%) low (<0.8%) moderate LREE, high HREE, low Eu Ga, Y, Nb, Sn, Ta, Rb, Th, U, Li Co, Sc, Cr, Ba, Sr, Eu, Zr high; F(0.3-1.5%) ~1(700-1,700 ppm) high moderate to high

HF/H20
fo,

of the Proterozoic continent (Stewart 1978; Burchfield 1979). Topaz rhyolites appear to be restricted to areas which are underlain by this crust (Fig. 8). It should also be noted that uraniferous Precambrian granites with fluorite and beryl occur near topaz rhyolite localities in Arizona (Heinrich 1960; Silver et al. 1980). Utah (Moore and Sorensen 1978) and Colorado (Eckel 1961) suggesting that the geochemical "anomaly" has persisted since the Precambrian and is not necessarily the result of recent events. We know of no topaz rhyolites along the western margin of the Great Basin or in Oregon, in spite of high heat-flow (Blackwell 1978) and young bimodal volcanism, e.g., northwestern Nevada and along the Brothers fault zone in Oregon. Presumably the dearth of topaz rhyolites in the northwestern Great Basin and Oregon is due to the absence of ancient crystalline Precambrian crust beneath this region. However, peralkaline rhyolites are fairly common in the western Great Basin and may result from partial melting of a younger crustal component accreted to the continent in post-Belt times or by differentiation of basaltic magmas. The role of fluorine in the origin and evolution of topaz rhyolite magmas may be critically important. For instance, large ash-flow eruptions caused by the rapid exsolution of volatiles are not common in aluminous F-rich magmas probably because fluorine has a relatively high solubility in silicate melts (Koster Van Groos and Wyllie 1968; Fuge 1977) and also because it increases the solubility of water in magmas (Koster Van Groos and Wyllie 1968), reducing the likelihood of volatile saturation of large amounts of magma. Also, the addition of fluorine to hydrous silicate mineral assemblages dramatically lowers their solidus temperatures (Wyllie and Tuttle 1961, Glyuk and Anfiligov 1974; Manning 1981), probably accounting for the low equilibration temperatures of evolved topaz rhyolites. In addition, fluorine-rich melts may have lower viscosities as the result of the depolymerization of alumino-silicate units in the melt (Manning et al. 1980; Kogarko 1974), perhaps enhancing crystal fractionation and liquid state diffusion. As noted above, fluorine may stabilize a variety of trace elements within silicate melts either by forming complexes with them or by otherwise altering the melt structure (Dietrich 1968; Collins et al. 1982). Hence, elevated concentrations of such "fluorophile" elements (Be, Li, U, Sn, Th, Mo, Rb, Cs, etc.) may occur at the site of anatexis by scavenging from the solid residue and then become further enriched in differentiates of the magma under conditions of enhanced diffusion/convection and/or crystal fractionation. In this regard it may be noteworthy that Keith (1980) reports molybdenum concentrations that exceed 20 ppm in a sample of unaltered topaz rhyolite from the Wah Wah Mountains, Utah. Uranium concentrations exceed 40 ppm in rhyolites from Spor Mountain, Utah (Bikun 1980). These values are perhaps five times those in other high-silica rhylites and suggest an effective Mo and U concentration process. As Rb-Sr and Pb isotopic studies suggest that the source for these rhyolites was not anomalously rich in Rb or U relative to Sr or Pb - we prefer a magmatic concentration process. Thus as fluorine concentrates in the upper portions (or residual liquid) of magma chamber (either by convective diffusion or crystal fractionation) it provides the opportunity for extreme enrichments of Mo, U, Be, Li, Sn (and probably Nb, Ta and W, as well). These magmatic concentrations may in turn, enhance the probability for the generation of ore in volcanogenic deposits of U, Be,

T SiO, Na20 CaO Trace elements REE Enriched Depleted F and C1 Fe/Fe Mg K,0/Na20 (1979)

" From White (19791, Loiselle and Wanes (1979) and Wanes

rences appear to be spatially distinct from peralkaline rhyolites (Fig. 8), possibly as a result of differences in the nature of the crust. Anorogenic granites are thought to result from differentiation of variably contaminated alkali basalts (e.g. Loiselle and Wones 1979) or from small degrees of partial melting of "residual" crustal materials from which earlier waterrich magmas had been removed during granulite facies metamorphism (Collins et al. 1982). Fillippov et al. (1974) have shown that biotites from granulite facies metamorphic rocks contain greater amounts of fluorine than those in amphibolite-facies rocks (0.65% F versus 0.24 to 0.38% F). These analytical results are consistent with the experimental work of Holloway and Ford (1975) that demonstrated higher thermal stability for F-rich amphibole relative to hydrous varieties. Collins et al. (1982) and White (1979) also suggest that the breakdown of fluorine-rich biotites or amphiboles provides the volatiles for partial melting. These fluorinerich melts may complex highly charged cations (U, Th, Nb etc.) that were rejected by earlier water-rich melts from residual phases such as zircon. Differentiation may further enrich portions of the melt in fluorine and these generally incompatible elements. If topaz rhyolites are indeed derived from the crust, they should reflect the chemical nature of the source from which they were derived. Isotopic (Zartman 1974; Armstrong et al. 1977; Kistler and Peterman 1973) and geophysical (Mabey et al. 1978) investigations of the crust that underlies the western United States demonstrate that it is composed of distinct domains. The most prominent breaks in characteristics coincide with the interpreted margin of the crystalline Precambrian basement, which marks the edge

F and Li or for greisen and porphyry deposits of Mo, W and other elements. The most important characteristics of topaz rhyolites are their substantial enrichment in F and fluorophile elements (Be, Li, Sn, U, Th and Rb). In contrast, peralkaline rhyolites contain considerable amounts of C1 and substantially different trace element characteristics (Fig. 3). Mahood (1981) has suggested that the dominant control on the trace-element variation in rhyolitic magmas may be their roofward migration as volatile complexes in evolving magma chambers. If this is the case, due to varying elemental affinities, different proportions of volatile constituents (H,O, HF, HCl, CO, and B) in granitic magmas should produce distinctive trace-element signatures. When combined with the effect of volatiles on phase equilibria and melt structure, the relative proportions of volatile elements could determine the course of magma evolution. We suggest that many of the trace and major element characteristics of peralkaline and topaz rhyolites are the result of their C1 or F dominated character. For example, Manning et al. (1980) have suggested that F (and possibly H,O) and A1 have a strong affinity in granitic melts - so much so that A1 is removed from tetrahedral coordination in the aluminosilicate framework and placed in interstitial sites in octahedral coordination. The subsequent crystallization of minerals with octahedral A1 (garnet and topaz) from topaz-rhyolite melts and glasses supports this notion. Possibly, as a result of this association, topaz rhyolite melts remain metaluminous or slightly peraluminous throughout their differentiation. In contrast, White (1979) has suggested that C1 forms complexes with Na and reduces its activity in the melt. This may result in the fractionation of a relatively calcic plagioclase enhancing the plagioclase effect of Bowen (1928) and producing peralkaline magmas. Another i m ~ o r t a n distinction between veralkaline and t topaz rhyolites is the substantial enrichment of Fe in peralkaline magmas. Consideration of the free energy change associated with the exchange reaction
-

suggests that A1-F and Fe-Cl bonds are favored (at 1,000" K - data from JANAF Thermochemical Tables). Although there are many possible competing ion association, the geochemistry of topaz and peralkaline rhyolites suggests that Al- F and Fe- Cl bonds persits even in chemically complex silicate magmas. Some of the unique chemical attributes of peralkaline and topaz rhyolites can be explained by the nature of their stable mineral assemblages which reflect the degree of alumina saturation. For example zircon, biotite, allanite (and possibly monazite and thorite) are not stable in peralkaline melts (e.g. Dietrich 1968; Watson 1979, for zircon). Apatite is only occasionally reported as a phenocryst in mildly peralkaline volcanic rocks (e.g. Mahood 1981). Substantial enrichments of U, Zr, Hf (controlled by zircon), Fe, Zn, R b (controlled by biotite), LREE and Th (controlled by allanite-etc.) should result during evolution of such a melt by fractional crystallization. In contrast all of the above mentioned trace minerals are found in topaz rhyolites (and other aluminous melts). Consequently evolution by fractional crystallization of an aluminous magma

should be marked by moderate enrichment or depletion of U, Zr, Hf, Fe, Zn, Rb, LREE and Th. For, Hf, Fe and the LREE this prediction appears to hold true. However Rb, Th and U all show enrichments that appear to be greater than those in peralkaline rocks. Thus either the source of topaz rhyolites is relatively rich in these elements (and possibly Li, Be, Ga, Mo and Sn) or some factor that does not involve crystal-liquid equilibria (volatile-complexing?) selectively enriches these elements in topaz-rhyolite melts. It may be that the combined effect of F on alumina saturation, phase equilibria and complex formation leads to the accumulation of F-associated ("fluorophile") elements (Be, Li, U, Th, Rb, HREE) in the apical portions of magma chambers or in residual liquids which are usually metaluminous. (The OH-component of a magma probably behaves like F because of its similarity in size and charge.) The evolution of chlorine-enriched peralkaline magmas may be dominated by the accumulation of C1-associated ("chlorophile") elements (Ti, Mn, Fe, Zn, Zr, Nb and possibly LREE) in residual liquids. As peralkaline rhyolites are rich in both C1 and F their trace element chemistry may show accumulation of both fluorophile and chlorophile elements (e.g. enrichments in LREE and HREE are typical - Villari 1974). The apparent volatile-affinities just described may explain why peralkaline and metaluminous magmas are often erupted from the same volcanic centers (e.g. Noble and Parker 1974; Mahood 1981; Rytuba 1979) or occur within the same intrusive complexes (e.g. Barker et al. 1975; Harris and Marriner 1980; Lyons and Kreuger 1976; Stuckless et al. 1982). Presumably, small changes in the F/C1 ratio of a melt caused by the preferential partitioning of C1 (Burnham 1979) into escaping fluids (or conversely enrichment of Na and C1 in melt by the digestion of fluids or hydrothermally altered rocks) could drive shallow magma chambers to evolve one way or the other (cf. Lyons and Krueger 1976). Likewise the F/Cl ratio imposed by the source mineralogy may be important and could have important implications about its nature. Because chlorine is less compatible in hydrous silicates than fluorine (Burnham 1979), as melts or hydrous fluids are removed from a rock during progressive metamorphism the fluorine/chlorine ratio of the residuum rises and subsequent melts of this residuum would be F-rich. The apparent ease with which C1 can be mobilized and its high concentration in peralkaline rhyolites suggests that perhaps C1 is introduced into the source regions of peralkaline rhyolites by metasomatic solutions prior to melting (Bailey 1980; Boettcher and O'Neil 1981). However, we see no evidence that such metasomatizing solutions are important for the genesis of fluorine-rich topaz rhyolites.

Conclusions
The topaz rhyolites of the western United States are distinctive fluorine-rich volcanic rocks that were erupted throughout most of the Cenozoic. Although they are contemporaneous with rhyolites of peralkaline and calc-alkaline lineages they are not genetically related to either. Topaz rhyolites are distinct from the former in their magmatic and vaporphase mineralogy, their mode of emplacement and their lower content of C1, Fe, Mg, Ti, Zn, Zr, Nb, and LREE and higher F, Al, Rb, U and Th. Topaz rhyolites are distin-

guishable from calc-alkaline rhyolites by their Fe-enriched mafic mineralogy and by their trace element chemistry (lower Sr, Ba, Eu, Ti, Mg and higher F, Rb, U, Th and other incompatible elements). The trace and major element chemistry, mineralogy, Tfo2 relationships and the high level of emplacement of topaz rhyolites suggest that they are derived by relatively small degrees of partial melting of a residual granulitic source in the lower crust. The apparent limitation of topaz rhyolites to regions underlain by crystalline Precambrian crust greater than about 1 b.y. old is in accord with this model for their formation. Melting was probably the result of biotite decomposition at temperatures in excess of 850" C and at pressures over about 8 kb. Heat for melting was probably supplied by the residence of more mafic magmas in (or at the base of) the crust. As a result of comtemporaneous extensional tectonics the silicic melts were allowed to rise separately without substantial mixing with the mafic magmas. The low temperatures (to 600" C) and substantial enrichments or depletions of various trace elements demonstrate that most experienced protracted differentiation involving crystal/liquid and possibly liquid-state fractionation after their generation. The geochemistry, mineralogy and tectonic setting of topaz rhyolites imply that they are the extrusive equivalents of aluminous (as opposed to peralkaline) anorogenic granites. The role of F and C1 in these magmas may be important in determining the geochemical evolution and mineralogy of these contrasting types. Fluorine appears to be associated with metaluminous to slightly peraluminous compositions and with substantial enrichments of U, Rb, Th, Li, Be and HREE. Chlorine is associated with veralkaline magmas and substantial enrichments of the first row of transition elements (Fe, Ti, Mn, Zn, and Cu) as well as Na, Zr, Hf, Nb and LREE. Although many of these differences may be explained by fractional crystallization with different stable mineral assemblages, some of these contrasts appear to be opposed to crystal/liquid fractionation. We suggest that the differences may be the result of distinct source compositions or of the formation of stable volatilecomplexes l'n the melt that migrate toward the roofs of magma chambers. If this is the case, the alumina saturation and chemical evolution of a single system could be determined by the initial F/C1 ratio of the source or could be altered by changes in F/C1 ratio of the melt.
Acknowledgments. This work was supported by the Department of Energy (Bendix Field Engineering Corporation Subcontract # 79-720-E to D.M.B. and M.F.S.) and by the National Science Foundation (Graduate Fellowship to E.H.C.). We are grateful for the assistance of J.V. Bikun, B. Correa, B. Murphy and G . Goles in performing some of the analytical work presented. Discussions with J.D. Keith, M.G. Best, C. Lesher, K. Hon. R.A. Zielinski, J.S. Stuckless, J.R. Holloway and L. Webster were helpful in formulating some of the ideas presented in this paper. Reviews of an earlier manuscript by W.P. Nash and W. Hildreth were also helpful. We are also grateful to S. Selkirk who prepared the illustrations and to E. Haman who typed the manuscript.

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