Institute OF Business & Technology -IBT

ASSIGNMENT # 01, # 02, # 03, # 04, # 05, # 06, # 07 Of SATELLITE

Assignment submitted to: Mr. ADNAN ALAM

Assignment submitted by: Ashfaq Ahmed

BB-1833

Chapter 07 Date: 9th Nov 2012

Q1. Define Angle modulation It results whenever the phase angle modulation of a sinusoidal wave is varied with respect to time. Q2. Define Direct FM and Indirect FM. An angle modulation in which, the frequency of the carrier is varied directly by the modulating signal. Q3. Define Direct PM and indirect PM An angle modulation in which, the frequency of the carrier is deviated indirectly by the modulating signal. An angle modulation in which, the frequency of the carrier is varied directly by the modulating signal. Q4.Define frequency deviation and phase deviation The relative displacement of the carrier frequency and the relative angular displacement of the carrier phase in radians in respect to the reference phase. Q5.Define instantaneous phase, instantaneous phase deviation, instantaneous frequency, and instantaneous frequency deviation The precise phase of the carrier at a given instant of time. The instantaneous change in the frequency of the carrier and is defined as the first time derivation of the instantaneous frequency deviation. The precise frequency of the carrier at a given instant of time and is defined as the first derivative of the instantaneous phase The instantaneous change in the frequency of the carrier and is defined as the first time derivation of the instantaneous frequency deviation. Q6. Define deviations sensitivity for a frequency modulator for a phase modulator. The output-versus-input transfer functions for the modulators which give the relationship between what output parameter changes in respect to specified changes in the input signal An angle modulation in which the instantaneous frequency deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal and the instantaneous phase deviations is proportional to the integral of the modulating signal voltage A circuit in which the carrier is varied in such a way that its instantaneous phase is proportional to Q7. Define career swing.

The total deviation of a frequency-modulated or phase-modulated wave from the lowest instantaneous frequency to the highest instantaneous frequency Q8. Define a low a medium and a high modulation index. The modulation index is less than 1. The modulation index is less than 1. The modulation index is greater than 10. Q9. Describe the significance of the Bessel table Bessel table of the first kind for several values of modulation index provides the number of side frequency pairs and their corresponding magnitude. Q10.State Carsons general rule for determining the bandwidth for an angle modulation wave A rule which is an approximation and gives transmission bandwidths that are slightly narrower than the bandwidths. It defines a bandwidth that includes approximately 98% of the total power in the modulated wave. Q.11 Define deviation ratio The worst-case modulation index and is equal to the maximum peak frequency deviation divided by the maximum modulating-signal frequency Q12.Describe the significance of the FM noise triangle The noise voltage at the output of an FM demodulator increases linearly with frequency. This is called FM noise triangle Q13.Define pre-emphasis and de-emphasis The high-frequency modulating signals are emphasized or boosted in amplitude in the transmitter prior to performing modulation. The reciprocal of pre-emphasis that restores the original amplitude-versus-frequency characteristics to the information signals. Q14.Describe the difference between direct frequency modulator and a direct phase modulator Varying the frequency of a constant-amplitude carrier directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal Varying the phase of a constant-amplitude carrier directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal Q15. Describe pre emphasis network and a de emphasis network A circuit that provides a constant increase in the amplitude of the modulating signal with an increase in frequency. Q16. Describe the basic operation of a varactor diode FM generator Direct frequency modulator used for low-index Applications, such as two-way mobile radio.

Q17. Describe the basic operation of a reactance FM modulator A direct FM modulator using a JFET as the active device Q18. Describe the basic operation of a linear integrated-circuit FM modulator Three common methods for producing direct frequency modulation. Q19. What is the purpose of an AFC loop? Why is one required for the Crosby transmitter? A circuit that compares the frequency of the non-crystal carrier oscillator to a crystal reference oscillator and then produces a correction voltage proportional to the difference between the frequencies.

Chapter 09 Date: 26th Oct 2012

Q.1. Explain digital transmission and digital radio? Ans. Digital communications include systems where relatively high-frequency analog carriers are modulated by relatively low-frequency digital information signals (digital radio) and systems involving the transmission of digital pulses (digital transmission). Digital transmission systems transport information in digital form and, therefore, require a physical facility between the transmitter and receiver, such as a metallic wire pair, a coaxial cable, or an optical fiber cable. In digital radio systems, the carrier facility could be a physical cable, or it could be free space. Q2. Define information Capacity? Ans. Information Capacity represents the number of independent symbols that can be carried through a system in a given unit of time. The most basic digital symbol used to represent information in the binary digit or bit, therefore it is often convenient to express the information capacity of a system as a bit rate. Q3. What are the three most predominant modulation schemes used in digital radio system? Ans. The Three most predominant modulation schemes used in digital radio system are as follows; Amplitude shift keying (ASK) Frequency shift keying (FSK) Phase shift keying (PSK) Q4. Explain the relationship between bit per second and baud for an FSK system? Ans. Baud is a term that is often misunderstood and commonly confused with bit rate (bps). Baud is a unit of transmission rate, modulation rate, or symbol rate and, therefore, baud is the reciprocal of the time of one output signaling element may represent several information bits. Baud is expressed as baud=1/ts where baud=symbol rate (baud per second) and ts=time of one signaling element (seconds). The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal is called the minimum Nyquist bandwidth or sometimes the minimum Nyquist frequency. Thus, fb=2B, where fb is the bit rate in bps and B is the ideal NY Quist bandwidth.

For a given bandwidth (B), the highest theoretical bit rate is 2B. For example, a standard telephone circuit has a bandwidth of approximately 2700 Hz, which has the capacity to propagate 5400 bps through it. Fb=2B log2 M where fb=channel capacity (bps), B=minimum NY Quist bandwidth (hertz) & M=number of discrete signal or voltage levels. Q5. Define the following terms for FSK modulation: frequency deviation, modulation index, and deviation ratio? Ans. Frequency Deviation: is defined as the difference between either the mark or space frequency and the center frequency, or half the difference between the mark and space frequencies. Modulation Index: Peak phase deviation is called modulation index or sometimes index of modulation. Deviation Ratio: Deviation ratio (DR) is the worst-case modulation index and is equal to the maximum peak frequency deviation divided by the maximum modulating-signal frequency. The worst-case modulation index produces the widest output frequency spectrum. Q6. What is the difference between standard FSK and MSK? What are the advantages of MSK? Ans. Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave. The simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK). BFSK literally implies using a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information. With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is called the space frequency. Minimum frequency-shift keying or minimum-shift keying (MSK) is a particular spectrally efficient form of coherent FSK. In MSK the difference between the higher and lower frequency is identical to half the bit rate. Consequently, the waveforms used to represent a 0 and a 1 bit differ by exactly half a carrier period. This is the smallest FSK modulation index that can be chosen such that the waveforms for 0 and 1 are orthogonal. A variant of MSK called GMSK is used in the GSM mobile phone standard. Q7. Define PSK? Ans. Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing, or modulating, the phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave). Q8. Explain the relationship between bits per second and baud for a BPSK system? Ans. The Baud rate (output rate of change) is equal to the Bit rate (input rate of change), and the widest output bandwidth occurs when the input binary data are an alternating 1/0 sequence. Q9. What is constellation diagram, and how is it used with PSK? Ans. A constellation diagram is a representation of a signal modulated by a digital modulation scheme such as phase-shift keying. It displays the signal as a two-dimensional scatter diagram in the complex plane at symbol sampling instants. Q10. Explain the relationship between the minimum bandwidth required for a QPSK system and the bit rate?

Ans. The input data are divided into two channels, the bit rate in either I or the Q channel is equal to one-half of the input date rate (fb/2). As a result, the output of the I and Q balanced modulators requires a minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth equal to one-half of the incoming bit rate (fN = twice fb/4 = fb/2).

Chapter 10 Date: 2nd Nov 2012

Q#1: Advantages and Disadvantages of a digital transmission? Ans: Advantages: The primary advantage of a digital transmission over a analogue transmission is noise immunity. Digital signal are also better suited then analog signal for processing and combining using a technique called multiplexing. Use signal regeneration rather than signal amplification. Digital signal are simply to measure and evaluate then analogue signals. Disadvantages: Require more bandwidth. Costly and limited. Digital transmission is incompatible with old analogue transmission system. Q#2: Four most common method of using in pulse modulation? Ans: The four common methods of using in pulse modulation are as follows: pulse width modulation (PWM) Pulse position modulation (PMM) Pulse amplitude modulation(PAM) Pulse code modulation (PCM)

Q#3: Which method of modulation is used in digital transmission? Ans: Pulse amplitude modulation method is used in digital transmission. Q#4: What is purpose is sampled and hold circuit?

Ans: The sample and hold circuit periodically sample the analogue input signal and converts those sample to a multi-level PAM signals. Q#5: What is difference between natural and flat top sampling? Ans: with the flat top sampling the input voltage sampled with a narrow pulse and then held relatively constant until the next sample is taken. Q#6: What is droop? What cause of it? Ans: The gradual discharge across the capacitor during the conversation time called droop. It is cause by the capacitor discharging through its own leakage resistance and the input impedance of voltage followers. Q#7: What is Nyquist sampling rate? Ans: The Nyquist sampling rate is minimum sampling rate that can be used for a given PCM system. Q#8: Define and state the fold over distortion? Ans: The frequency that fold over is an a allies of input signal hence name is aliasing or fold over distortion. Q#9: Explain overload distortion? Ans: If the magnitude of a sample exceed the highest quantization intervels its called over load distortion. Q#10: Explain quantizing? Ans: Assigning PCM code to a absolute magnitude is called quantizing. Q#11: What is quantization rate & Quantization error? Ans: Any round off error in the transmitted signal is reproduced when the code is converted back to analogue in the receiver. This error is called quantizing error. Q#12: Define dynamic range? Ans: Dynamic range is the ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest that can be coded by the digital to analog converter in the receiver. Q#13: Define coding efficiency? Ans: Coding efficiency is the ratio of the minimum number of bits require to achieve a certain dynamic range to the actual number of PCM bits used. Q#14: What is SQR? Ans: The worst possible voltage to quantization noise voltage ratio SQR occur when the input signal is has minimum amplitude. Q#15: Contrast linear and nonlinear PCM code?

Ans: With linear coding the accuracy for the higher amplitude analogue signal is the same for the lower amplitude signal. With voice transmission low amplitude signal are more likely to occur then large amplitude signals. such coding technique called nonlinear.

Q#16: Define idle channel noise? Ans: During time when there is no analogue input signal the only input to the PAM sampler is random, thermal noise is called idle channel noise. Q#17: Contrast mitered and midrise quantization? Ans: The lowest magnitude positive and negative code have the same voltage range as all other code called midrise quantization. A way to reduce the idle channel noise is called mitered quantization. Q#18: Define compounding? Ans : Compounding is the process of compressing and then expanding. Q#19: What does the parameter micro(u)determine? Ans: Used to define the amount of compression. Q#20: Define digital compounding? Ans: Digital compounding involve inn compression in the transmitter after the input sample has been converted to a linear PCM code and then expansion in the receiver prior to PCM descending. Q#21: Define delta modulation PCM? Ans: This is used a single bit PCM code to achieve digital transmission of analogue signal with conventional PCM. Q#22: Define slope overload and granular noise? Ans: The slope of the analogue signal is greater than the delta modulator can maintain and is called slope overload. Granular noise: the regenerated signal has variations that neither original signal nor present called granular noise. Q#23: Define adaptive delta modulation? Ans: Adaptive delta modulation is a delta modulation system where the step size of the ADC is automatically varied depending on the amplitude characteristic of the analogue input signal. Q#24: Difference between differential and conventional PCM?

Ans: DPCM is designed specially to take advantage of the sample to sample redancise in typical speech wave form. Conventional: The range of the sample difference is typically less than the range of individual sample fewer bits are required for DPCM then conventional PCM.

Chapter 11 Date: 28th Sep 2012

Q1: Define Multiplexing? ANS: In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing (also known as mixing) is a method by which multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium Q2: Describe Time division Multiplexing. ANS: Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a type of digital (or rarely analog) multiplexing in which two or more bit streams or signals are transferred apparently simultaneously as sub-channels in one communication channel, but are physically taking turns on the channel. The time domain is divided into several recurrent time slots of fixed length, one for each sub-channel. A sample byte or data block of sub-channel 1 is transmitted during time slot 1, sub-channel 2 during time slot 2, etc. One TDM frame consists of one time slot per sub-channel plus a synchronization channel and sometimes error correction channel before the synchronization. After the last sub-channel, error correction, and synchronization, the cycle starts all over again with a new frame, starting with the second sample, byte or data block from sub-channel 1, etc. Q3: Describe the Bell System TI carrier System. ANS: The United States Bell System activated the first commercial digital carrier system in 1962 in Chicago, Illinois, where electrical noise from high-tension lines and automotive ignitions interfered with analog systems. The system was designated T1, with the T standing for Terrestrial to distinguish the land transmission from satellite transmission. (Bell Laboratories also launched Telstar I, the first communications satellite, in 1962.) T-carrier was designed for a four-wire twisted-pair circuit, although the DSX-1 interface is medium-independent, i.e., can be provisioned over any of the transmission media, at least at the T1 rate of 1.544 Mbps Q4: What is the purpose of the signaling Bit? ANS: A bit added to the 7 bit magnitude PCM in the T1 carrier system for D-type channel banks to perform interoffice signaling, such as on hook, off hook, dial pulsing, etc. Q5: What is frame synchronization? How is it achieved in PCM & TDM system?

ANS: While receiving a stream of framed data, frame synchronization or framing is the process by which incoming frame alignment signals (i.e., a distinctive bit sequences or syncwords), are identified (that is, distinguished from data bits), permitting the data bits within the frame to be extracted for decoding or retransmission. For the frame synchronization of t.d.m. systems, it is known to transmit a plurality of sychronizing bits which together form a synchronizing word with respect to each t.d.m. frame. for achieving frame synchronization in a pulse code modulation receiver, including a receiving counter, of a pulse code modulation time division multiplex telecommunications network in response to receipt of frame synchronizing signals which occur in each m-th of the pulse frames on which the telecommunications system is based,

Q6: Describe the super frame format. Why is it used?

ANS: A framing format for T1 transmission that places 12 T1 frames into a super frame

Super frames allow a number of advanced features to be implemented For incumbent protection, so that quiet periods of overlapping networks can be synchronized The self-coexistence mechanisms available in the current draft depend on it The synchronization of overlapping 802.22 networks depend on it

Q7: What is codec & A combo chip? ANS: In telecommunications, (short for coder/decoder) a device that encodes or decodes a signal. For example, telephone companies use codecs to convert binary signals transmitted on their digital networks to analog signals converted on their analog networks Combo Chip is a codec (COder/DECoder) combined with a voice-band filter on a single chip. It converts analog voice-band signals into pulse code modulated (PCM) data and interfaces to 4-wire analog telephone circuits Q8: What is a fixed-data-rate mode? ANS: Fixed-data-rate mode: In fixed-data-rate mode, the master transmit and receive clocks on combo chip (CLKX and CLKR) perform the following functions: i) Provide the master clock for the on-board switched capacitor filter. ii) Provide the clock for the analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters. iii) Determine the input and output data rates between the codec and the PCM highway. Q9: What is a variable-data rate mode?

ANS: The variable-data-rate mode allows for a flexible data input and output clock frequency. Q10: What is DSX? What is it used for? ANS: DSX (Digital Signal Cross-connect) A standard that defines the voltage, pulse width and plug and socket for connecting DS-signals.

Q;11: Explain line coding. ANS: In telecommunication, a line code (also called digital baseband modulation, also called digital baseband transmission method) is a code chosen for use within a communications system for baseband transmission purposes. Line coding is often used for digital data transport. Binary 1s and 0s, such as in PCM signaling, may be represented in various serialbit signaling formats called line codes. There are many reasons for using line coding. Each of the line codes you will be examining offers one or more of the following advantages: Spectrum Shaping and Relocation without modulation or filtering. This is important in telephone line applications, for example, where the transfer characteristic has heavy attenuation below 300 Hz. Bit clock recovery can be simplified. DC component can be eliminated; this allows AC (capacitor or transformer) coupling between stages (as in telephone lines). Can control baseline wander (baseline wander shifts the position of the signal waveform relative to the detector threshold and leads to severe erosion of noise margin). Error detection capabilities. Bandwidth usage; the possibility of transmitting at a higher rate than other schemes over the same bandwidth.

Q12: Briefly explain unipolar and bipolar transmission ANS: BIPOLAR TRANMISSION Bipolar signaling, also called bipolar transmission , is baseband method of sending binary data over wire or cable. There are two logic states, low and high, represented by the digits 0 and 1 respectively. A bipolar signal as appear on the screen of an oscilloscope. Each horizontal division represents one bit (binary digit). The logic 0 state is -3 volts and logic 1 is +3 volts. This is positive logic. Alternatively, logic 0 might be +3 volts, and logic 1 might be -3 volts; this would be negative logic . Whether positive or negative logic is used, the voltages representing the low and high states are equal and opposite; over time, the average voltage is approximately equal to 0. UNIPOLAR TRANSMISSION Unipolar signaling, also called unipolar transmission ,is a baseband method of sending binary data over wire or cable. There are two logic states, low and high, represented by the digits 0 and 1 respectively.

A unipolar signal as on the screen of an oscilloscope . Each horizontal division represents one bit (binary digit). The logic 0 state is approximately 0 volts and logic 1 is approximately +5 volts. (There is some room for error.) This is positive logic. Alternatively, logic 0 might be approximately +5 volts, and logic 1 might be approximately 0 volts; this would be negative logic . The bandwidth of a unipolar signal is inversely proportional to the duration of each data bit. Typical data speeds in baseband are several megabits per second (Mbps ); hence the duration of each bit is a fraction of a microsecond.

Q13: Briefly explain return to Zero and Non Return to Zero transmission. ANS: RETURN TO ZERO RZ (return-to-zero) refers to a form of digital data transmission in which the binary low and high states, represented by numerals 0 and 1, are transmitted by voltage pulses having certain characteristics. The signal state is determined by the voltage during the first half of each data binary digit . The signal returns to a resting state (called zero) during the second half of each bit. The resting state is usually zero volts, although it does not have to be. n positive-logic RZ, the low state is represented by the more negative or less positive voltage, and the high state is represented by the less negative or more positive voltage. Examples are: Logic 0 = 0 Logic 1 = +5 volts for 1/2 bit, then 0 volts for 1/2 bit Logic 0 = -4 Logic 1 = 0 volts for 1 bit volts for 1/2 bit, volts then 0 for volts 1 for 1/2 bit bit

In negative-logic RZ, the low state is represented by the more positive or less negative voltage, and the high state is represented by the less positive or more negative voltage. Examples are: Logic 0 = +5 Logic 1 = 0 volts for 1 bit volts for 1/2 bit, then 0 volts for 1/2 bit

NON RETURN TO ZERO NRZ (non-return-to-zero) refers to a form of digital data transmission in which the binary low and high states, represented by numerals 0 and 1, are transmitted by specific and constantDC (directcurrent) voltage.

In positive-logic NRZ, the low state is represented by the more negative or less positive voltage , and the high state is represented by the less negative or more positive voltage. Examples are: Logic Logic 1 = +5.0 volts Logic Logic 1 = 0.0 volts 0 = +0.5 volts

-3.0

volts

In negative-logic NRZ, the low state is represented by the more positive or less negative voltage, and the high state is represented by the less positive or more negative voltage. Examples are: Logic Logic 1 = +0.5 volts Logic Logic 1 = -3.0 volts 0 = +5.0 volts

0.0

volts

Some people wonder why the name of this mode is preceded by"non" when one of the logic states might be represented by zero voltage. The answer becomes apparent from the comparative definition of RZ (return-tozero).

Q14: Contrast the bandwidth consideration of return to zero and non return to zero transmission ANS: A number of NRZ codes are widely used, and their bandwidths serve as references for all other code groups. The minimum bandwidth is needed with NRZ coding, but the average power input to the receiver is dependent on the data pattern. For example, the high level of received power occurring in a long string of consecutive 1 bits can result in a baseline wander effect. RZ an adequate bandwidth margin exists, each data bit can be encoded as two optical line code bits. This is the basis of RZ codes. In these codes, a signal level transition occurs during either some or all of the bit periods to provide timing information. Q15 Contrast the clock recovery capabilities with return-to-zero and nonreturn-to-zero transmission. ANS: In Return to Zero signal is self-clocking. This means that a separate clock does not need to be sent alongside the signal, but suffers from using twice the bandwidth to achieve the same data-rate as compared to non-return-to-zero format. Q16: Contrast the error detection and decoding capabilities of return-to-zero and nonreturn-to-zero transmission.

ANS: With UPNZR, BPNZR, UPRZ and BPRZ there is no way to determine if the received data have any error. However with BPRZ-AMI data encoding an error in any bit will cause a bipolar violation. Therefore BPRZ-AMI have error detection mechanism.

Q17: What is regenerative repeater? ANS: A repeater that performs pulse regeneration to restore the original shape of a pulse signal used in teletypewriter and other code cirsuits Q18: Explain B6ZS and B3ZS. When or why would you use one rather than the other? ANS: B8ZS (North American T1) Commonly used in the North American T1 (Digital Signal 1) 1.544 Mbit/s line code, bipolar with eight-zero substitution (B8ZS) replaces each string of 8 consecutive zeros with the special pattern "000VB0VB". Depending on the polarity of the preceding mark, that could be 000+0+ OR 000 +0+. B6ZS (North American T2) At the North American T2 rate (6.312 Mbit/s), bipolar violations are inserted if 6 or more consecutive zeros occur. This line code is called bipolar with six-zero substitution (B6ZS), and replaces 6 consecutive zeros with the pattern "0VB0VB".

Q19: Briefly explain the following framing techniques: added-digit framing, robbed-digit framing, added-channel framing, statistical framing, and unique-line code framing. ANS: Added Digit Framing Periodically interting a framing bit with a identifiable data sequence. Added once for every frame and alternates in value. It is used D1 channel banks. Frame length is 193 bit in D1 channel banks. Framing is established in a receiving D1 channel bank by monitoring first one bit position within a 193-bit frame and then another, until the alternating pattern is located. Added Channel Framing Frame digits are added in a group such that an extra channel is established . The E1 standard (ITU) uses 32 channels per frame. One timeslot is reserved for framing purposes, and alternately transmits a fixed pattern. This allows the receiver to lock onto the start of each frame and match up each channel in turn. FAS: Frame alignment signal Another channel is used for signaling. Robbed-digit framing

In communication systems robbed-bit signaling is a scheme to provide maintenance and line signaling services on many T1 digital carrier circuits using channel-associated signaling (CAS) Statistical framing In statistical multiplexing, a communication channel is divided into an arbitrary number of variable bit-rate digital channels or data streams. Unique-line code framing Existing infrastructures such as DS1 or E1 are used at currently accepted rates to carry a third more information by using a Unique-line code framing technique wherein a 4B3T encoding is done for the payload bits, while a 1B1T encoding technique is used for framing information Q:20: Contrast Bit and word interleaving. ANS: Interleaving is a way to arrange memory in a non-contiguous way to increase performance TDM structures Bit interleaving: single bit Word Interleaving: larger number of bits (word-length) Q21: Describe frequency-division Multiplexing. ANS: In telecommunications, frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique by which the total bandwidth available in a communication medium is divided into a series of non-overlapping frequency sub-bands, each of which is used to carry a separate signal. This allows a single transmission medium such as a cable or optical fiber to be shared by many signals. An example of a system using FDM is cable television, in which many television channels are carried simultaneously on a single cable. FDM is also used by telephone systems to transmit multiple telephone calls through high capacity trunklines, communications satellites to transmit multiple channels of data on uplink and downlink radio beams, and broadband DSL modems to transmit large amounts of computer data through twisted pair telephone lines, among many other uses

Q22: Describe a message channel. ANS: Message Channel (MC) is a technology for delivering traffic and travel information to drivers. It is typically digitally coded using the FM-RDS system on conventional FM radio broadcasts. It can also be transmitted on DAB or satellite radio. It allows silent delivery of dynamic information suitable for reproduction or display in the language chosen by the user and without interrupting normal audio broadcast services. Services, both public and commercial, are now operational in many countries worldwide. When data is integrated directly into a navigation system, traffic information can be used in the system's route calculation and the driver can have the option to take alternative routes to avoid traffic incidents. Q23: Describe the formatting of a group, super group, and a master group. ANS: A group is the next higher level in the FDM hierarchy above the basic message channel and consequently, is the first multiplying step for combining message channels.

The next higher level in the FDM hierarchy is the 'supergroup', which is formed by frequency-division multiplexing 5 groups containing 12 channels each for a combined bandwidth of 240 kHz (5 groups X 48 kHz/group or 5 groups X 12 channels/group X 4 kHz/channel). The next highest level of multiplexing is mastergroup, which is formed by frequency-division multiplexing 10 supergroups together for a combined capacity of 600 voiceband message channel occupying a bandwith of 2.4 MHz (600 channels X 4 kHz/channel or 5 groups X 12channels/group X 10 groups/super group). Q24: Define Baseband and composite baseband. ANS: BASE BAND Baseband signals are the fundamental group of frequencies in an analog or digital waveform that may be transmitted along a pathway or processed by an electronic circuit. Baseband signals can be composed of a single frequency or group of frequencies or in the digital domain composed of a data stream sent over an un multiplexed channel. Examples of an analog baseband signal may be audio or composite video. Examples of a digital baseband signal may be Ethernet signals operating over a Local Area Network (LAN) COMPOSITE BASE BAND Composite video, also called composite baseband video or RCA video, is the analog waveform that conveys the image data in a conventional National Television Standards Committee (NTSC) television signal. Q25: What is guard band? When guard band used? ANS: Guard band also called a frequency guard band, a narrow frequency band between adjacent channels in multiplexing that is kept unused to prevent the channels from overlapping and causing crosstalk among modulated signals. Guard bands are commonly used in FDM but are also used in any data transmission method that relies on frequencies. Q26: Describe concept of Wave-division Multiplexing. ANS: In fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by using different wavelengths (i.e. colors) of laser light. This technique enables bidirectional communications over one strand of fiber, as well as multiplication of capacity.

Chapter 14 Date: 5th Oct 2012

Q1.Describe ground wave propagation. List its advantages and disadvantages? Ans. Surface wave propagation is commonly used for ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communications, for radio navigation, and for maritime mobile communications. Advantages: Ground waves require a relatively high transmission power.

Ground waves are limited to very low, low and medium frequencies (VLF, LF, and MF) requiring large antennas. Disadvantages: Given enough transmit power, ground waves can be used to communicate between any two locations in the world. Ground waves are relatively unaffected by changing atmospheric conditions.

Q2. Describe space wave propagation? Ans. Space wave propagation of electromagnetic energy includes radiated energy that travels in the lower few miles of earths atmosphere. Space waves include both direct and ground reflected waves. Direct waves travel essentially in a straight line between transmits and receive antennas. Ground reflected waves are waves reflected by earth surface as they propagate between transmit and receive antenna. Q.3. Explain why the radio horizon is at a greater distance than the optical horizon? Ans. The curvature of earth presents a horizon to space wave propagation commonly called the radio horizon, Because of atmospheric refraction, the radio horizon extends beyond the optical horizon for the common standard atmosphere. The radio horizon is approximately four-thirds that of the optical horizon. Q4. Describe the various layers of ionosphere? Ans. Three layers make-up the ionosphere (the D, E and F layers). D layer: The D layer is the lowest layer of the ionosphere and is located approximately between 30miles and 60mile (50km 200km) above earths surface.

 E layer: The E layer is located approximately between 60miles and 85miles (100km to 140km) above earths surface. F layer: The F layer is actually made up of two layers, the F1 and F2 layers. During the day time, the F1 layer is located between 85miles and 155miles (140km to 250km) above earths surface; the F2 layer is located 85miles to 185miles (140km to 300km) above earths surface. Q5. Describe sky wave propagation? Ans. Electromagnetic waves that are directed above the horizon level are called sky wave. Q6. Define critical frequency; critical angel? Ans. Critical frequency (fc) is defined as the highest frequency that can be propagated directly upward and still be returned to the earth by the ionosphere. Every frequency has a maximum vertical angel at which it can be propagated still be refracted back by the ionosphere. This angle is called critical angel Q7. Describe virtual height? Ans. Virtual height is the height above earths surface from which a refracted wave appears to have been reflected. Q8. Define maximum usable frequency? Ans. The maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the highest frequency that can be used for sky wave propagation btweeen two specific points on earths surface. It stands to reason, that there are as many values possible for (MUF) as there are points on earth and frequencies and infinite number. Q9. Describe skip distance and give the reasons that it varies? Ans. Skip distance (ds) is defined as the minimum distance for a transmit antenna that a sky wave at a given frequency will be turn to earth. The frequency must be less than the maximum usable frequency and propagated at its critical angel. At distances greater than the skip distance, two rays can take different paths and still be returned to the same point on earth. Q10. Describe path loss? Ans. Path loss is often defined as the loss in incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight line through a vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy for nearby objects. Q11. Describe fading? Ans. As an electromagnetic wave propagates through earths atmosphere, the signal may experience intermitted losses in single strength beyond the normal path loss. This loss is attributed to several different phenomena and can include both short and long term effects. This variation in signal loss is called fading.

Chapter 25 Date: 21st Sep 2012

Q1. What is keplers law? Ans. Keplers first law state that a satellite will orbit a primary body (like earth) following an elliptical path. An ellipes has two focal point (foci) as shown in fig 25-1a (f1and f2), and the center of the mass (called the barycenter) of a two-body system in always centered on one of the foci. Q2. What is satellite orbit? Ans. If the satellite is orbiting in the same direction as earth rotation (counterclockwise)and at an angular velocity greater than of earth (w1>w2) the orbit is called a prograde or posigrade orbit. Q3. Satellite elevation categories? Ans. Satellite are generally classified as having either a low earth orbit (leo), medium earth orbit (meo), or geosynchronous earth orbit (geo). Leo. Most leo satellite operate in the 1.0ghz to 2.5ghz frequancy range. the leo system utilizing a 66satellite constellation orbiting approximately 480 miles above earth space. Meo. Meo satellites operate in the 1.2ghz to 1.66ghz frequancy band and orbit betweem 6000 miles and 12000 miles above earth. Geosynchronous. Geosynchronous satellites are high-altitude earth- orbit satellites operating primarily in the 2ghz to 18ghz frequancy spectrum with orbit 22,300 miles above earth surface. Q4. Satellite orbital patterns? Ans. Inclined ORBIT ARE VIRTUALLY ALL ORBIT except those that travel directly above the equator or directly over the north and south poless.the angel of inclination if a satellite orbit. An equalatriol orbit is when the satellite rotates in an orbit directly above the equator, usually the circular path. With an equatorial orbit, the angel of inclinationis 0 degree. A polar orbit is when the satellite rotates in a path that takes it over north and south poles in an orbit perpendicular to the equatorial plane. Q5. Geosynchronous satellite? Ans. As stated geosynchronous satellite orbit earth above the equator with the same angular velocity as earth. Hence geosynchronous (sometimes called stationary or geostationary). In essence, it occurrs in a special type of inclined orbit sometimes called a stationary inclined orbit. The earth process of maneuvering a satellite within preassignedwindow is called station keeping. Q6. Clark orbit? Ans. A geosynchronous earth orbit is sometimes referred to as the clark orbit or clark belt, after arthur c, clark, who first suggested its exixtence in 1945 and proposed its use for communication satellite.

Q6. Advantages and disadvantages of geosynchronous satellites? Ans. Advantages 1. goesynchronous satellite remain almost stationay In respect to a given earth station. Consequently, expensive tracking equipment is not required at the earth station. 2. geosynchronous satellite are available to all earth station within their shadow 100% of the time. The shadow of a satellie includes all the earth station that have a line-of-sight path to it and lie within the radiation pattern of the satellite antennas. 3. there is no need to switch from one geosynchronous satellite to another as they orbit overhead. Consequently, there are not transmission break due to switchng times. 4. the effect of doppler shift are negligible. Disadvantages 1. geosynchronous satellites require sophisticated nd heavy propulsion device on board to keep them in a fixed. 2. high-altitude geosynchronous satellites introduce nuch longer propagation delays. The round-trip propagation delay between two earth station through a geosynchronous satellite is between 500ms and 600ms. 3. geosynchronous satellites require hihger transmit power and more sensitive receivers because of the longer distance and greater path losses. 4. high-precision spacemanship is require to place a geosynchronous satellite into orbit and to keep it there. Q7. Antenna look angles? Ans. To ensure that the earth station antenna is aligned, two angles must be determined (the azimuth and the elevation angle). Azimuth angle and elevation angle are jointly refrred to as the antenna look angles. Q8. Angle of elevation? Ans. Angle of elevation (sometimes called elevation angle) is the vertical angle formed between the direction of travel of an electromagnetic waveradiated from an earth station antenna pointing directly toward a satellite and horizontal plane. It can be seen that the 14/12-ghz band shown in fig 25-10b is more severely effected than the 6/4-ghz band shown in fig 25-10a because of the smaller wavelenghts associated with the higher frequncie. Q9. Azimuth angle? Ans. Azimuth is the horizontal angular distance from a reference direction, either the southern or northern most point of the horizon. Azimuth angle is defined as the horizontal pointingangle of an earth station antenna. Q10. Limits of visibility?

Ans. For an earth station in any given location, the earth curvature establishes the limits of visibility (I.E.LINE-OF-SIGHTS-LIMITS), WHICI DETERMINE THE FARTHEST SATELLITE AWAY THAT CAN BE SEEN LOOKING EAST OR WEST OF THE EARTH STATION LONGITUDE.THEORETICALLY, THE MAXIMUM LINE-OF-SIGHT DISTANCE IS ACHIEVED WHEN THE EARTH STATION ANTENNA POINTING ALONG THE HORIZONTAL (ZERO ELEVATION ANGLE) PLANE.

CHAPTER.26 Date: 14th Sep 2012

Q.1 Discuss draw backs of using FDM/FM modulation for satellite multiple accessing system? ANS. In an FDM/FM satellite system each RF channel requires a separate transponder. Also with FDM/FM transmission it is impossible to differentiate (separate) multiple transmissions that occupy same bandwidth. Fixed frequency system may be used in multiple accessing configurations by switching the Rf carriers at the satellite reconfiguring the baseband signal with multiplexing/multiplexing on board the satellite or using multiple spot beam antennas (reuses). Q.2 Contrast pre-assignment and demand assignment? ANS. With FDMA each earth station transmissions are assigned specific uplink and downlink frequency bands with in an allotted satellite bandwidth they may be pre-assigned or demand assigned. Q.3 What are the three most common multiple accessing arrangement used with satellite system? ANS.FDMA TDMA CDMA

Are the three most common accessing systems. Q.4. Satellite Radio navigation? ANS. navigation can be defined as the art or science f plotting , ascentaining,or directing the course of movements in other words where you are and being able to find your way around .the most ancient and rudimentary method of navigation is sattellite wandering is a technique without direction Q.5 Loran navigation? ANS. until recently loran (long rangr navigation) waas the most effective, reliable and acccurate means of radio navigaation .Today loran is used for recreational of aircraft and ships.loran is only as accurate as the preciseness of the transmission times of the coded signals.

Q.6. Navastar GPS? ANS.Navastar is an acronym for navigation system with time and ranging and GPS is an abbreviation of global positioning system. Navastar GPS is the newest and most accurate system of radio navigation system. navastar GPS is a satellite based open navvigatiion system which simply means that it is available too anyone equipped with GPS reciever. Q.7.GPS SERVICES? ANS. GPS provide two level of service or accuracy standard positioning service and precise positioning service Standard positioning service. The standard positioning service (sps) is a positioning and timing service that is availaible to all GPS users (military, private and commercial) on a continuous worldwide basis with no direct charge. Precise positioning service. The precise positioning service is a highly accurate military positioning velocity and time service that is available on a continuous worldwide basis to users authorized by the DoD. Q.8 Navastar segments? ANS.navastar GPS consist of three segment a space segment a ground control segment and a user segment. satellite segment the US airforce sppace command (AFSC) formally declared the navastar GPS satellite system as bbeing fully operational as of April 27 1995 .the satellite segment sometimes called the space segment consist of 24 operational satellites. navatar satellites are not geosynchhronous .The satellite revolve around Earth in a circular pattern with an inclined orbit. Q.9 satellite ranging? ANS the GPS system works by determining how long it takes a radio signal transmitted from a satellite to reach a land based reciever and then using that time to calculate the distance between satellite and the earrth station reciever radio waves travels approximately the speed of light. mathmatically: d=v x t

Q.10 GPS satellite signals? ANS. All Navastar satellites transmit on the same two L band microwave carrier frequency L1=1575.42 MHz and L2=1227. MHz the L1 signal carriers the navigation message and the standard positioning service code signals .the L2 signals is used by the precise positioning service equipped receivers to measure ionosphere delay. Q.11 Control Segment? ANS. The navastar control segment called the operatinal control system include all fixed location ground based monitor stations located throughout the world a master control stattion (MCS) and uplink transmitter.

Q.12 DIFFFERNTIAL GPS? ANS. Differential GPS makes standard GPS evenn more accurate. Differential GPS works by canceling out most of the natural and man-made errors that creep into normal GPS measurements. Inaccuracies in GPS signal come from varied of sources, such as satellite clock drift, imperfect orbits, and variations in earth orbit.