q

T
1
T
2
k
x
A
MODULEI
BASICSOFHEATTRANSFER
Whileteachingheattransfer,oneofthefirstquestionsstudentscommonlyaskisthedifference
between heatand temperature.Anothercommonquestionconcernsthedifferencebetweenthe
subjectsof heattransferandthermodynamics.Letmebeginthischapterbytryingtoaddressthese
two questions.
1.1Differencebetweenheatandtemperature
In heat transfer problems, we often interchangeably use the terms heat and temperature. Actually,
there is a distinct difference between the two. Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy
possessedbythemoleculesofasubstance.Itmanifestsitselfasadegreeofhotness,andcanbeused
to predict the direction of heat transfer. The usual symbol for temperature is T. The scales for
measuringtemperatureinSIunitsaretheCelsiusandKelvintemperaturescales.Heat,ontheother
hand, is energy in transit. Spontaneously, heat flows from a hotterbody to a colderone. The usual
symbolforheatisQ.IntheSIsystem,common unitsformeasuringheataretheJouleandcalorie.
1.2Differencebetweenthermodynamicsandheattransfer
Thermodynamicstellsus:
howmuchheatistransferred(dQ)
howmuchworkisdone(dW)
finalstateofthesystem
Heattransfertellsus:
how(withwhatmodes) dQistransferred
atwhatrate dQistransferred
temperaturedistributioninsidethebody
1.3ModesofHeatTransfer
Conduction: Anenergytransferacrossasystemboundaryduetoatemperaturedifference
bythemechanismofintermolecularinteractions.Conductionneedsmatteranddoesnot
requireanybulkmotionofmatter.
Thermodynamics Heattransfer
complementary
movingfluid
T
q
T
s
T
s
>T
Conduction rateequation isdescribedbytheFourierLaw:
T kA q - =
r
where: q=heatflowvector,(W)
k =thermalconductivity,athermodynamicpropertyofthematerial.
(W/mK)
A=Crosssectionalareaindirectionofheatflow.(m
2
)
T=Gradientoftemperature(K/m)
= T/x i+ T/y j+ T/z k
Note:Sincethisisavectorequation,itisoften convenienttoworkwithone
componentofthevector.Forexample,inthexdirection:
q
x
=kA
x
dT/dx
Incircularcoordinatesitmayconvenienttoworkintheradialdirection:
q
r
= kA
r
dT/dr
Convection: Anenergytransferacrossasystemboundaryduetoatemperaturedifference
bythecombinedmechanismsofintermolecularinteractionsandbulktransport.Convection
needsfluidmatter.
NewtonsLawofCooling:
q=hA
s
DT
where: q=heatflowfromsurface,ascalar,(W)
h=heattransfercoefficient(whichisnotathermodynamicpropertyof
thematerial,butmaydependongeometryofsurface,flow
characteristics,thermodynamicpropertiesofthefluid,etc.(W/m
2
K)
A
s
=Surfaceareafromwhichconvectionisoccurring.(m
2
)
DT = = -

T T
S
TemperatureDifferencebetweensurfaceandcoolant.(K)
Convection
Freeornaturalconvection
(inducedbybuoyancyforces)
Forcedconvection(inducedby
externalmeans)
Mayoccur
withphase
change
(boiling,
condensation)
q
conv.
q
rad.
T
sur
Area=A T
s
Table1. Typicalvaluesofh(W/m
2
K)
Radiation: Radiationheattransferinvolvesthetransferofheatby electromagneticradiation
thatarisesduetothetemperatureofthebody. Radiationdoesnotneedmatter.
Emissivepowerofasurface:
E=seT
s
4
(W/m
2
)
where: e=emissivity,whichisasurfaceproperty(e=1isblackbody)
=SteffanBoltzmanconstant=5.67x10
8
W/m
2
K
4
.
T
s
=Absolutetemperature ofthesurface (K)
Theaboveequationisderivedfrom StefanBoltzmanlaw,which describesagrossheat
emissionratherthanheattransfer. Theexpressionfortheactualradiationheattransferrate
betweensurfaceshavingarbitraryorientationscanbequitecomplex,andwillbedealtwithin
Module9. However,therateof radiationheatexchangebetweenasmallsurfaceandalarge
surroundingisgivenbythefollowingexpression:
q=A(T
s
4
T
sur
4
)
where: =SurfaceEmissivity
A=SurfaceArea
T
s
=Absolutetemperatureofsurface.(K)
T
sur
=Absolutetemperatureofsurroundings.(K)
Freeconvection gases:2 25
liquid:50 100
Forcedconvection gases:25 250
liquid:50 20,000
Boiling/Condensation 2500100,000
1.4ThermalConductivity,k
As notedpreviously,thermalconductivity isathermodynamicpropertyofamaterial. Fromthe
StatePostulategiveninthermodynamics, itmay berecalledthat thermodynamicpropertiesofpure
substances are functions of two independent thermodynamic intensive properties, say temperature
and pressure. Thermal conductivity of real gases is largely independent of pressure and may be
considered a function of temperature alone. For solids and liquids, properties are largely
independentofpressureanddependontemperaturealone.
k=k(T)
Table2givesthevaluesofthermalconductivityforavarietyofmaterials.
Material ThermalConductivity,W/mK
Copper 401
Silver 429
Gold 317
Aluminum 237
Steel 60.5
Limestone 2.15
Bakelite 1.4
Water 0.613
Air 0.0263
Letustrytogain aninsightintothebasicconceptof thermalconductivityforvariousmaterials. The
fundamental concept comes from the molecular or atomic scale activities. Molecules/atoms of
variousmaterials gainenergythroughdifferent mechanisms.Gases,inwhichmoleculesarefreeto
move with a mean free path sufficiently large compared to their diameters, possess energy in the
formofkineticenergyofthe molecules.Energyis gainedor lostthrough collisions/interactionsof
gasmolecules.
Latticevibrationmaybetransferred
betweenmoleculesasnuclei
attract/repeleachother.
Table2. ThermalConductivitiesofSelectedMaterialsatRoomTemperature.
Kineticenergytransfer
betweengasmolecules.
Solids, on the other hand, have atoms/molecules which are more closely packed which cannot
move as freely as in gases. Hence, they cannot effectively transfer energy through these same
mechanisms.Instead,solidsmayexhibitenergythroughvibrationorrotationofthenucleus.Hence,
theenergytransferistypicallythroughlatticevibrations.
Another important mechanism in which materials maintain energy is by shifting electrons into
higher orbital rings. In the case of electrical conductors the electrons are weakly bonded to the
molecule and can drift from one molecule to another, transporting their energy in the process.
Hence, flow of electrons, which is commonly observed in metals, is an effective transport
mechanism, resulting in a correlation that materials which are excellent electrical conductors are
usually excellentthermalconductors.
Module1:Workedoutproblems
Problem1:
A cold storage consists of a cubical chamber of dimension 2m x 2m x 2m, maintained at
10C inside temperature. The outside wall temperature is 35C. The top and side walls are
coveredby a lowconducting insulationwiththermalconductivity k=0.06 W/mK.Thereis
noheatlossfromthebottom.Ifheatlossthroughthetopandsidewallsistoberestrictedto
500W, whatistheminimumthicknessof insulation required?
Solution:
Known: Dimensionsof thecoldstorage,innerandoutersurfacestemperatures,thermal
conductivityoftheinsulationmaterial.
Tofind: Thicknessofinsulation neededtomaintainheatlossbelow 500W.
Schematic:
Assumptions: (1)perfectly insultedbottom,(2)onedimensionalconductionthrough
fivewallsofareasA=4m
2
,(3)steadystateconditions
Analysis: UsingFourierslaw,theheatrateisgivenby
total
' '
A
L
T
k A . q q
D
= =
SolvingforLandrecognizingthatA
total
=5*W
2
mm m L
W
m C K m W
L
q
TW k
L
108 108 . 0
500
4 * 45 * . / 06 . 0 * 5
5
2 0
2
= =
=
D
=
insulation
Problem2:
AsquaresiliconchipisofwidthW=5mmonasideandofthicknesst=1mm. Thechipis
mountedinasubstratesuchthatthereisnoheatlossfromitssideandbacksurfaces.Thetop
surfaceisexposedtoacoolant.Thethermalconductivityofthechipis200W/m.K.If5Ware
beingdissipatedby thechip,whatisthetemperaturedifferencebetween itsbackandfront
surfaces?
Known:Dimensionsandthermalconductivityofachip.Powerdissipatedononesurface.
Find:temperaturedropacrossthechip
Schematic:
Assumptions: (1) steadystate conditions, (2) constant properties, (3) uniform dissipation,
(4)negligibleheatlossfrombackandsides,(5)onedimensionalconductioninchip.
Analysis:Alloftheelectricalpowerdissipatedatthebacksurfaceofthechipistransferred
byconductionthroughthechip.Hence,Fourierslaw,
C T
m K m W
W m
kW
P t
T
t
T
kA q P
0
2 2
0 . 1
) 005 . 0 ( . / 200
5 * 001 . 0 .
= D
= = D
D
= =
Comments: for fixed P, the temperature drop across the chip decreases with increasing k
andW,aswellaswithdecreasingt.
Problem3:
Air flows over a rectangular plate having dimensions 0.5 m x 0.25 m. The free stream
temperature of the air is 300C. At steady state, the plate temperature is 40C. If the
convectiveheattransfercoefficientis250W/m
2
.K,determinetheheattransferratefromthe
airtoonesideoftheplate.
Known: air flow over aplate with prescribed air and surface temperature and convection
heattransfercoefficient.
Find:heattransferratefromtheairtotheplate
Schematic:
Assumptions: (1) temperature is uniform over plate area, (2) heat transfer coefficient is
uniformoverplatearea
Analysis: the heat transfer coefficient rate by convection from theairstreams to the plate
canbedeterminedfromNewtonslawofcoolingwrittenintheform,
) T T ( hA A . q q
s
' '
- = =

whereAistheareaoftheplate.Substitutingnumericalvalues,
W 8125 q
C ) 40 300 ( m ) 50 . 0 * 25 . 0 ( * K . m / W 250 q
0 2 2
=
- =
Comments: recognize that Newtowns law of cooling implies a direction for the
convectionheattransferrate.Writtenintheformabove,theheatrateisfromtheairtoplate.
Problem4:
Asphereofdiameter10mmandemissivity0.9ismaintainedat80Cinsideanovenwitha
walltemperatureof400C.Whatisthenettransferratefromtheovenwallstotheobject?
Known:sphericalobjectmaintainedataprescribedtemperaturewithinaoven.
Find:heattransferratefromtheovenwallstotheobject
Schematic:
Assumptions:(1)ovenwallscompletelysurroundsphericalobject,(2)steadystate
condition,(3)uniformtemperatureforareasofsphereandovenwalls,(4)ovenenclosureis
evacuatedandlargecomparedtosphere.
Analysis:heattransferratewillbeonlyduetotheradiationmode.Therateequationis
) T T ( A q
4
s
4
sur s rad
- s e =
WhereAs=pD
2
,theareaofthesphere
W 04 . 3 q
K ] ) 273 80 ( ) 273 400 [( K . m / W 10 * 67 . 5 * m ) 10 * 10 ( * 9 . 0 q
rad
4 4 4 2 8 2 2 3
rad
=
+ - + p =
- -
Discussions:
(1)thisrateequationisapplicablewhenwearecalculatingthenetheatexchangebetweena
smallobjectandlargersurface thatcompletelysurroundsthesmallerone.
(2) When performing radiant heat transfer calculations, it is always necessary to have
temperaturesinKelvin(K)units.
Problem5:
Asurfaceofarea0.5m
2
,emissivity0.8andtemperature150
0
Cisplacedinalarge,evacuated
chamberwhosewallsaremaintainedat25
0
C.Findthe rateatwhichradiationisemittedby
thesurface?Whatisthenetrateofradiationexchangebetweenthesurfaceandthechamber
walls?
Known: Area, emissivity and temperature of a surface placed in a large, evacuated
chamberofprescribedtemperature.
Find:(a) rate of surface radiation emission, (b)net rate of radiation exchange between the
surfaceandchamberwalls.
Schematic:
Assumptions:(1)areaoftheenclosedsurfaceismuchlessthanthatofchamberwalls.
Analysis(a)therateatwhichradiationisemittedbythesurfaceisemitted
W 726 qemit
] K ) 273 150 [( K . m / W 10 * 67 . 5 ) m 5 . 0 ( 8 . 0 qemit
Ts A A q q
4 4 2 8 2
4
. emit emit
=
+ =
s e = =
-
(b)Thenetrateatwhichradiationistransferredfromthesurfacetothechamberwallsis
W 547 q
) K 298 ( ) K 423 [( K . m / W 10 * 67 . 5 ) m 5 . 0 ( 8 . 0 q
) 4 Tsurr 4 Ts ( A q
4 4 4 2 8 2
=
- =
- s e =
-
Problem6:
A solid aluminium sphere of emissivity e, initially at a high temperature, is cooled by
convection and radiation in a chamber having walls at a lower temperature. Convective
cooling isachievedwitha gaspassingthroughthechamber.Writeadifferentialequation to
predictthevariationofspheretemperature withtimeduringthecooling process.
Known: Initial temperature, diameter and surface emissivity of a solid aluminium sphere
placed in a chamber whose walls are maintained at lower temperature. Temperature and
convectioncoefficientassociatedwithgasflowoverthesphere.
Find: equation which couldbeused todetermine the aluminium temperature as a function
oftimeduringthecoolingprocess.
Schematic:
Assumptions:(1)atanytimet,thetemperatureTofthesphereisuniform,(2)constant
properties(3)chamberwallsarelargerelativetosphere.
Analysis:applying an energy balance at an instant of time to a control volume about the
sphere,itfollowsthat
out
.
st
.
E E - =
Identifyingthe heatratesoutoftheCV duetoconvectionand radiation,the energybalance
hastheform
)] T T ( ) T T ( h [
cD
6
dt
dT
)] T T ( ) T T ( h [
Vc
A
dt
dT
) q q ( ) VcT (
dt
d
4
surr
4
4
surr
4
rad conv
- es + -
r
=
- es + -
r
- =
+ - = r

WhereA=pD
2
,V=pD
3
/6andA/V=6/Dfor thesphere.
Problem7:Anelectronicpackagedissipating1kW hasasurfacearea1m
2
.Thepackage is
mountedonaspacecraft,suchthat theheatgeneratedistransferredfromtheexposedsurface
by radiation into space. The surface emissivity of the package is 1.0. Calculate the steady
statetemperatureofthepackagesurfaceforthefollowingtwoconditions:
(a) thesurfaceisnotexposedtothesun
(b)The surface is exposed to a solar flux of 750W/m
2
and its absorptivity to solar
radiation is0.25?
Known: surface area of electronic package and power dissipation by the electronics.
Surfaceemissivity andabsorptivitytosolarradiation.Solarflux.
Find:surfacetemperaturewithoutandwithincidentsolarradiation.
Schematic:
Assumptions:steadystatecondition
Analysis:applying conservation of energy to a control surface about the compartment, at
anyinstant
0 E E E g
. .
out
in
.
= + -
Itfollowsthat,withthesolarinput,
4
1
s
S
' '
s S
s
4
s s
S
' '
s S
emit
' '
s
S
' '
s S
A
P q A
T
0 P T A q A
0 P q A q A








es
+ a
=
= + es - a
= + - a
Intheshade( 0 q
' '
= )
K 364
K . m / W 10 * 67 . 5 * 1 * m 1
W 1000
T
4
1
4 2 8 2
s
=





=
-
Inthesun,
K 380
K . m / W 10 * 67 . 5 * 1 * m 1
W 1000 m / W 750 * m 1 * 25 . 0
T
4
1
4 2 8 2
2 2
s
=








+
=
-

MODULE 2

ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE
HEAT CONDUCTION

2.1 Objectives of conduction analysis:

The primary objective is to determine the temperature field, T(x,y,z,t), in a body (i.e. how
temperature varies with position within the body)
T(x,y,z,t) depends on:
- Boundary conditions
- Initial condition
- Material properties (k, cp, p)
- Geometry of the body (shape, size)

Why we need T (x, y, z, t)?
- To compute heat flux at any location (using Fouriers eqn.)
- Compute thermal stresses, expansion, deflection due to temp. Etc.
- Design insulation thickness
- Chip temperature calculation
- Heat treatment of metals


2.2 General Conduction Equation
Recognize that heat transfer involves an energy transfer across a system boundary. The
analysis for such process begins from the 1
st
Law of Thermodynamics for a closed system:
dE
dt
Q W
system
in out
=
& &

The above equation essentially represents Conservation of Energy. The sign convention on
work is such that negative work out is positive work in.
dE
dt
Q W
system
in in
= +
& &

The work in term could describe an electric current flow across the system boundary and
through a resistance inside the system. Alternatively it could describe a shaft turning across
the system boundary and overcoming friction within the system. The net effect in either case
would cause the internal energy of the system to rise. In heat transfer we generalize all such
terms as heat sources.
dE
dt
Q Q
system
in gen
= +
& &

The energy of the system will in general include internal energy, U, potential energy, mgz,
or kinetic energy, mv
2
. In case of heat transfer problems, the latter two terms could often
be neglected. In this case,
( ) ( )
E U m u m c T T V c T T
p ref p r
= = = = p
ef


where T
ref
is the reference temperature at which the energy of the system is defined as zero.
When we differentiate the above expression with respect to time, the reference temperature,
being constant, disappears:
p = + c V
dT
dt
Q Q
p
system
in gen
& &


Consider the differential control element shown below. Heat is assumed to flow through the
element in the positive directions as shown by the 6 heat vectors.









q
z+Az

q
x



q
y

q
y+Ay




q
x+Ax

z
y

q
z


x



In the equation above we substitute the 6 heat inflows/outflows using the appropriate sign:
( ) p = + + +
+ + +
c x y z
dT
dt
q q q q q q Q
p
system
x x x y y y z z z g
A A A
A A A
&
en

Substitute for each of the conduction terms using the Fourier Law:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
)
`

A
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
A A
c
c
+
c
c
A A
c
c
A A =
c
c
A A A x
x
T
z y k
x x
T
z y k
x
T
z y k
t
T
z y x c
system
p
p
( ) ( ) ( ) + +
|
\

|
.
|

k x z
T
y
k x z
T
y y
k x z
T
y
y A A A A A A A
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c

( ) ( ) ( ) + + +
|
\

|
.
|

`
)
k x y
T
z
k x y
T
z z
k x y
T
z
z A A A A A A A
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
( ) + &&& q x y z A A A

where &&& q is defined as the internal heat generation per unit volume.
The above equation reduces to:
( ) ( ) p
c
c
c
c
=
|
\

|
.
|

`
)
c x y z
dT
dt x
k y z
T
x
x
p
system
A A A A A A


( ) +
|
\

|
.
|

c
c
c
c y
k x z
T
y
y A A A

( ) +
|
\

|
.
|

`
)
c
c
c
c z
k x y
T
z
z A A A
( ) + &&& q x y z A A A
Dividing by the volume (AxAyAz),
p
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
=
|
\

|
.
|
|
\

|
.
|
|
\

|
.
| + c
dT
dt x
k
T
x y
k
T
y z
k
T
z
q
p
system
&&&
which is the general conduction equation in three dimensions.

In the case where k is independent of x, y and z then
p
c
c
c
c
c
c

= + + +
c
k
dT
dt
T
x
T
y
T
z
q
k
p
system
2
2
2
2
2
2
&&&

Define the thermodynamic property, o, the thermal diffusivity:
o
p

k
c
p

Then
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
o
c
c
c
c
c
c
= + + +
dT
dt
T
x
T
y
T
z
q
k
system
&&&

or, :
1
2
o
= V +
dT
dt
T
q
k
system
&&&

The vector form of this equation is quite compact and is the most general form. However, we
often find it convenient to expand the spatial derivative in specific coordinate systems:

Cartesian Coordinates


k
q
z
T
y
T
x
T T
a
A
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c

2
2
2
2
2
2
1
t


Circular Coordinates



Z
R

y


x


k
q
z
T T
r r
T
r
r r
T
a
A
+
c
c
+
c
c
+ |
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
=
c
c

2
2
2
2
2
1 1 1
u t


Spherical Coordinates



Z


r

y

m
x


k
q
z
T
r
T
r r
T
r
r r
T
a
A
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
+
c
c

+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
=
c
c
u
u u o u t
sin
sin
1
sin
1 1 1
2 2
2
2 2
2
2


In each equation the dependent variable, T, is a function of 4 independent variables, (x,y,z,);
(r,u ,z,); (r,,,) and is a 2
nd
order, partial differential equation. The solution of such
equations will normally require a numerical solution. For the present, we shall simply look at
the simplifications that can be made to the equations to describe specific problems.

- Steady State: Steady state solutions imply that the system conditions are not changing
with time. Thus 0 / = c c t T .
- One dimensional: If heat is flowing in only one coordinate direction, then it follows
that there is no temperature gradient in the other two directions. Thus the two partials
associated with these directions are equal to zero.
- Two dimensional: If heat is flowing in only two coordinate directions, then it follows
that there is no temperature gradient in the third direction. Thus, the partial derivative
associated with this third direction is equal to zero.
- No Sources: If there are no volumetric heat sources within the system then the term,
0 =
A
q .

Note that the equation is 2
nd
order in each coordinate direction so that integration will result
in 2 constants of integration. To evaluate these constants two boundary conditions will be
required for each coordinate direction.


2.3 Boundary and Initial Conditions

The objective of deriving the heat diffusion equation is to determine the temperature
distribution within the conducting body.

We have set up a differential equation, with T as the dependent variable. The solution
will give us T(x,y,z). Solution depends on boundary conditions (BC) and initial
conditions (IC).
How many BCs and ICs ?
- Heat equation is second order in spatial coordinate. Hence, 2 BCs needed
for each coordinate.
* 1D problem: 2 BC in x-direction
* 2D problem: 2 BC in x-direction, 2 in y-direction
* 3D problem: 2 in x-dir., 2 in y-dir., and 2 in z-dir.
- Heat equation is first order in time. Hence one IC needed.


2.4 Heat Diffusion Equation for a One Dimensional System


q&





T
1
q T
2

A
x


L
y



x








z



Consider the system shown above. The top, bottom, front and back of the cube are insulated,
so that heat can be conducted through the cube only in the x direction. The internal heat
generation per unit volume is q&(W/m
3
).

Consider the heat flow through a differential element of the cube.




q
x
q
x+Ax




From the 1
st
Law we write for the element:

st gen out in E E E E
& & & &
= + ) (
(2.1)

(2.2)
t
E
q x A q q
x x x x
c
c
= A +
A +
& ) (


(2.3)
x
T
kA q
x x
c
c
=

(2.4)
x
x
q
q q
x
x x x
A
c
c
+ =
A +


(2.5)



(2.6)
t
T
x c q
x
T
k
x
t
T
x Ac q x A x
x
T
k
x
A
x
T
kA
x
T
kA
c
c
A = + |
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
c
c
A = A + A |
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

p
p
&
&
Thermal inertia
Internal heat
generation
Longitudinal
conduction


If k is a constant, then
(2.7)
t
T
t
T
k
c
k
q
x
T
c
c
=
c
c
= +
c
c
o
p 1
2
2
&

For T to rise, LHS must be positive (heat input is positive)
For a fixed heat input, T rises faster for higher o
In this special case, heat flow is 1D. If sides were not insulated, heat flow could be
2D, 3D.


2.5 One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction

The plane wall:









The differential equation governing heat diffusion is: 0 =
|
.
|

\
|
dx
dT
k
dx
d


With constant k, the above equation may be integrated twice to obtain the general solution:
2 1
) ( C x C x T + =
where C
1
and C
2
are constants of integration. To obtain the constants of integration, we apply
the boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = L, in which case
1 ,
) 0 (
s
T T = and
2 ,
) (
s
T L T =
Once the constants of integration are substituted into the general equation, the temperature
distribution is obtained:
1 , 1 , 2 ,
) ( ) (
s s s
T
L
x
T T x T + =
The heat flow rate across the wall is given by:
( )
kA L
T T
T T
L
kA
dx
dT
kA q
s s
s s x
/
2 , 1 ,
2 , 1 ,

= = =

Thermal resistance (electrical analogy):
Physical systems are said to be analogous if that obey the same mathematical equation. The
above relations can be put into the form of Ohms law:
V=IR
elec






Using this terminology it is common to speak of a thermal resistance:

therm
qR T = A






A thermal resistance may also be associated with heat transfer by convection at a surface.
From Newtons law of cooling,
) (

= T T hA q
s

the thermal resistance for convection is then
hA q
T T
R
s
conv t
1
,
=

=


Applying thermal resistance concept to the plane wall, the equivalent thermal circuit for the
plane wall with convection boundary conditions is shown in the figure below












The heat transfer rate may be determined from separate consideration of each element in the
network. Since q
x
is constant throughout the network, it follows that
A h
T T
kA L
T T
A h
T T
q
s s s s
x
2
2 , 2 , 2 , 1 ,
1
1 , 1 ,
/ 1 / / 1


=

=
In terms of the overall temperature difference , and the total thermal resistance R
tot
,
the heat transfer rate may also be expressed as
2 , 1 ,
T T

tot
x
R
T T
q
2 , 1 ,

=
Since the resistance are in series, it follows that
+ + = =
A h kA
L
A h
R R
t tot
2 1
1 1


Composite walls:
Thermal Resistances in Series:
Consider three blocks, A, B and C, as shown. They are insulated on top, bottom, front and
back. Since the energy will flow first through block A and then through blocks B and C, we
say that these blocks are thermally in a series arrangement.










The steady state heat flow rate through the walls is given by:


T UA
A h k
L
k
L
k
L
A h
T T
R
T T
q
C
C
B
B
A
A
t
x
A =
+ + + +

=

2 1
2 , 1 , 2 , 1 ,
1 1


where
A R
U
tot
1
= is the overall heat transfer coefficient. In the above case, U is expressed as
2 1
1 1
1
h k
L
k
L
k
L
h
U
C
C
B
B
A
A
+ + + +
=

Series-parallel arrangement:












The following assumptions are made with regard to the above thermal resistance model:
1) Face between B and C is insulated.
2) Uniform temperature at any face normal to X.

1-D radial conduction through a cylinder:
One frequently encountered problem is that of heat flow through the walls of a pipe or
through the insulation placed around a pipe. Consider the cylinder shown. The pipe is either
insulated on the ends or is of sufficient length, L, that heat losses through the ends is
negligible. Assume no heat sources within the wall of the tube. If T
1
>T
2
, heat will flow
outward, radially, from the inside radius, R
1
, to the outside radius, R
2
. The process will be
described by the Fourier Law.

T
2
T
1
R
1



R
2



L



The differential equation governing heat diffusion is: 0
1
=
|
.
|

\
|
dr
dT
r
dr
d
r


With constant k, the solution is

The heat flow rate across the wall is given by:
( )
kA L
T T
T T
L
kA
dx
dT
kA q
s s
s s x
/
2 , 1 ,
2 , 1 ,

= = =
Hence, the thermal resistance in this case can be expressed as:
kL
r
r
t 2
ln
2
1


Composite cylindrical walls:

















Critical Insulation Thickness :



h L r kL
R
i
r
r
tot
) 2 (
1
2
) ln(
0
0
t t
+ =


Insulation thickness : r
o
-r
i



Objective : decrease q , increase
tot
R
Vary r
o
; as r
o
increases, first term increases, second term decreases.
This is a maximum minimum problem. The point of extrema can be found by setting

0
0
=
dr
dR
tot


0
2
1
2
1
2
0
=
o
hLr L kr t t
or,

or,
h
k
r =
0

In order to determine if it is a maxima or a minima, we make the second derivative zero:

at
h
k
r =
0 0
2
2
=
o
tot
dr
R d


h
k
r
o o o
tot
hL r L kr dr
R d
=
+

=
0
2 2 2
2
1
2
1
t t
0
2
3
2
Lk
h
t
=


Minimum q at r
o
=(k/h) = r
cr
(critical radius)











1-D radial conduction in a sphere:









{ }
( )
( )
( )
( )
k
r r
R
r r
T T k
dr
dT
kA q
T T T r T
dr
dT
kr
dr
d
r
cond t
s s
r
r r
r r
s s s
t
t
4
/ 1 / 1
/ 1 / 1
4
) (
0
1
2 1
,
2 1
2 , 1 ,
/ 1
/ 1
2 , 1 , 1 ,
2
2
2 1
1

= =
=
=
|
.
|

\
|

2.6 Summary of Electrical Analogy

System Current Resistance Potential Difference
Electrical I R AV
Cartesian
Conduction
q
kA
L

AT
Cylindrical
Conduction q
kL
r
r
t 2
ln
1
2

AT
Conduction
through sphere
q
k
r r
t 4
/ 1 / 1
2 1


AT
Convection
q
1
h A
s

AT


2.7 One-Dimensional Steady State Conduction with Internal Heat
Generation

Applications: current carrying conductor, chemically reacting systems, nuclear reactors.
Energy generated per unit volume is given by
V
E
q
&
&=
Plane wall with heat source: Assumptions: 1D, steady state, constant k, uniformq&

dx
dT
k q
T T
L
x
T T
L
x
k
L q
T
C C
C x C x
k
q
T
T T L x
T T L x
k
q
dx
T d
x
s s s s
s
s
= ' '
+
+

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
+ + =
= + =
= =
= +
: flux Heat
2 2
1
2
: solution Final
and find to conditions boundary Use
2
: Solution
,
, : cond. Boundary
0
1 , 2 , 1 , 2 ,
2
2 2
2 1
2 1
2
2 ,
1 ,
2
2
&
&
&


Note: From the above expressions, it may be observed that the solution for temperature is no
longer linear. As an exercise, show that the expression for heat flux is no longer independent
of x. Hence thermal resistance concept is not correct to use when there is internal heat
generation.


Cylinder with heat source: Assumptions: 1D, steady state, constant k, uniform q&

Start with 1D heat equation in cylindrical co-ordinates

s
s
T
r
r
r
k
q
r
dr
dT
r
T T r r
k
q
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= =
= =
=
2
0
2
2
0
0
1
4
)
0 , 0
, :
0
&
&
T S
dr
dT
r
dr
d
r
+
|
.
|

\
|
( : olution
cond. Boundary
1


Exercise: T
s
may not be known. Instead, T

and h may be specified. Eliminate T

s
, using T

and h.





MODULE 2: Worked-out Problems

Problem 1:
The steady-state temperature distribution in a onedimensional slab of thermal conductivity
50W/m.K and thickness 50 mm is found to be T= a+bx
2
, where a=200
0
C, b=-2000
0
C/ m
2
, T
is in degrees Celsius and x in meters.
(a) What is the heat generation rate in the slab?
(b) Determine the heat fluxes at the two wall faces. From the given temperature distribution
and the heat fluxes obtained, can you comment on the heat generation rate?

Known: Temperature distribution in a one dimensional wall with prescribed thickness and
thermal conductivity.

Find: (a) the heat generation rate, q in the wall, (b) heat fluxes at the wall faces and relation
to q.

Schematic:







Assumptions: (1) steady-state conditions, (2) one dimensional heat flow, (3) constant
properties.

Analysis: (a) the appropriate form of heat equation for steady state, one dimensional
condition with constant properties is
3 5 2 0
.
2
.
.
m / W 10 0 . 2 K . m / W 50 ) m / CC 2000 ( 2 q
bk 2 ] bx 2 [
dx
d
k
) bx a ( dx
d
dx
d
k q
dx
dT
dx
d
K q
= =
= =

+
=

=



(b) The heat fluxes at the wall faces can be evaluated from Fouriers law,

x
' '
x
dx
dT
k ) x ( q =


Using the temperature distribution T(x) to evaluate the gradient, find

dx
d
k ) x ( q
' '
x
= [a+bx
2
]= -2kbx.
The flux at the face, is then x=0

2
x
' '
2 0 ' '
x
x
' '
m / W 000 , 10 ) L ( q
m 050 . 0 ) m / C 2000 ( K . m / W 50 2 kbL 2 ) l ( q , L atX
0 ) 0 ( q
=
= = =
=


Comments: from an overall energy balance on the wall, it follows that
0 E E E g
.
out
.
in
.
= + 0 L q ) L ( q ) 0 ( q
.
x
' ' ' '
x
= +


3 5
2 "
x
"
x
.
m / W 10 0 . 2
m 050 . 0
0 m / w 00 , 10
L
) 0 ( q ) L ( q
q =

=
Problem 2:
Consider a solar pond having three distinct layers of water-salt solution. The top and bottom
layers are well mixed with salt. These layers are subjected to natural convention, but the
middle layer is stationary. With this arrangement, the top and bottom surfaces of the middle
layer is maintained at uniform temperature T
1
and T
2
, where T
1
>T
2
. Solar radiation is
absorbed in the middle layer in the form q=Ae
-mx
, resulting in the following temperature
distribution in the central layer
C Bx e
ka
A
x T
mx
+ + =

2
) (
In the above equation, k is the thermal conductivity, and the constants A (W/m
3
), a (1/m), B
(K/m) and C(K) are also known.
Obtain expressions for the interfacial heat flux from the bottom layer to the middle layer, and
from the middle layer to the top layer. Are the conditions are steady or transient? Next,
obtain an expression for the rate at which thermal energy is generated in the entire middle
layer, per unit surface area.

Known: Temperature distribution and distribution of heat generation in central layer of
a solar pond.

Find: (a) heat fluxes at lower and upper surfaces of the central layer, (b) whether
conditions are steady or transient (c) rate of thermal energy generation for the entire
central layer.

Schematic:





Assumptions: (1) central layer is stagnant, (2) one-dimensional conduction, (3)constant
properties.

Analysis (1) the desired fluxes correspond to conduction fluxes in the central layer at the
lower and upper surfaces. A general form for the conduction flux is

+ = =

+ = =

=
=

=
+
B
km
A
k q q B e
km
A
k q q
Hence
B e
km
A
k q
x cond u
ml
L x cond l
mx
cond
"
) 0 (
" "
0 (
"
"

(b) Conditions are steady if cT/ct=0. Applying the heat equation,

t
T 1
k
q
t
T
.
2
2
c
c
o
= +
c
c

t
e
k
A
e
k
A
mx mx
c
T c
= +

o
1



Hence conditions are steady since

t
T
c
c
=0 (for all 0<=x<=L)

For the central layer, the energy generation is

) 1 ( ) 1 (
0
.
0 0
"
.
mL mL
L
mx
g
L L
g
e
a
A
e
a
A
e
a
A
E
mxdx e A qdx E

= = =
= =


Alternatively, from an overall energy balance,
g
.
"
1
"
2
E q q + =0 = (-q
cond(x=0)
)-(q
cond(x=L)
)
"
g
.
E =
"
1
q -
"
2
q
) 1 (
.
mL mL
g e
m
A
B e
km
A
K B
km
A
k E

= + + =

Comments: Conduction is the negative x-direction, necessitating use of minus signs in the
above energy balance.
Problem 3:
Consider 1D heat transfer across a slab with thermal conductivity k and thickness L. The
steady state temperature is of the form T=Ax
3
+Bx
2
+Cx+D. Find expressions for the heat
generation rate per unit volume in the slab and heat fluxes at the two wall faces (i.e. x=0, L).

Known: steady-state temperature distribution in one-dimensional wall of thermal
conductivity, T(x)=Ax
3
+Bx
2
+CX+d.

Find: expressions for the heat generation rate in the wall and the heat fluxes at the two wall
faces(x=0, L).

Assumptions: (1) steady state conditions, (2) one-dimensional heat flow, (3) homogeneous
medium.

Analysis: the appropriate form of the heat diffusion equation for these conditions is
0
k
q
dx
T d
.
2
2
= + Or
2
2
.
dx
T d
k q =

Hence, the generation rate is

] B 2 Ax 6 [ k q
] 0 C Bx 2 Ax 3 [
dx
d
k
dx
dT
dx
d
q
.
2
.
+ =
+ + + =

=


which is linear with the coordinate x. The heat fluxes at the wall faces can be evaluated from
Fouriers law,
] C Bx 2 Ax 3 [ k
dx
dT
k q
2 "
x
+ + = =
Using the expression for the temperature gradient derived above. Hence, the heat fluxes are:
Surface x=0; (0)=-kC
"
x
q
Surface x=L;
"
x
q (L) = -K [3AL
2
+2BL+C]

COMMENTS: (1) from an over all energy balance on the wall, find
BkL 2 AkL 3 E
0 E ] C BL 2 AL 3 )[ K ( ) kC ( ) L ( q ) 0 ( q
0 E E E
2
' '
g
.
g
.
2
x
"
x
"
g
.
out
.
in
.
=
= + + + =
= +


From integration of the volumetric heat rate, we can also find
BkL 2 AkL 3 E
] Bx 2 Ax 3 [ k dx ] B 2 Ax 6 [ k dx ) x ( q E
2
g
' '
.
L
0
L
0
2
.
L
0
' '
g
.
=
+ = + = =


Problem 4:
Consider a one dimensional system of mass M with constant properties and no internal heat
generation as shown in the figure below. The system is initially at a uniform temperature T
i
.
The electrical heater is suddenly switched ON, resulting in a uniform heat flux q
o
at the
surface x=0 . The boundaries at x=L and elsewhere are perfectly insulated.

(a) Set up the differential equation along with the boundary and initial conditions for the
temperature T(x,t).
(b) Sketch the temperature variation with x for the initial condition (t<=0) and for several
times after the heater is switched ON. Comment whether a steady-state temperature
distribution will ever be reached.
(c) For any given time, sketch the heat flux variation with x. Choose the following
planes: x=0, x=L/2, and x=L.
(d) After time t
e
, the heater power is switched off. Assuming no heat loss, derive an
expression determine T
f
, the final uniform temperature, as a function of the relevant
parameters.

Known: one dimensional system, initially at a uniform temperature Ti, is suddenly exposed
to a uniform heat flux at one boundary while the other boundary is insulated.

Find: (a) proper form of heat diffusion equation; identify boundary and initial conditions, (b)
sketch temperature distributions for following conditions: initial condition (t<=0), several
times after heater is energized ;will a steady-state condition be reached?, (c) sketch heat flux
for x=0, L/2, L as a function of time, (d) expression for uniform temperature, Tf, reached
after heater has been switched off the following an elapsed time , te, with the heater on.]

Schematic:


Assumptions: (1) one dimensional conduction, (2) no internal heat generation, (3) constant
properties.

Analysis: (a) the appropriate form of the heat equation follows. Also the appropriate
boundary and initial conditions are:

t
T 1
x
T
2
2
c
c
o
=
c
c
Initial condition: T(x, 0) =T
i
uniform temperature


Boundary conditions: x=0 0 t ) x / T k q
0
"
o
> c c =
x=L 0 ) x / T
L
= c c Insulated



(b) The temperature distributions are as follows:



No steady-state condition will be reached since is constant. in
. .
out
in
.
E and E E

(c) The heat flux as a function of time for positions x=0, L/2 and L appears as:


( d) If the heater is energized until t=t
o
and then switched off, the system will eventually reach
a uniform temperature , T
f.
Perform an energy balance on the system, for an interval of time
At=t
e
,


.
st
in
.
E E =
e s
"
o s
"
0
t
0 in in
t A q dt A q Q E
e
= = = ) T T ( Mc E
i f st
=
It follows that = OR
e s
"
o
t A q ) T T ( Mc
i f
+ =
i f
T T
Mc
t A q
e s
"
o





Problem 5:

A 1m-long metal plate with thermal conductivity k=50W/m.K is insulated on
its sides. The top surface is maintained at 100
0
C while the bottom surface is
convectively cooled by a fluid at 20
0
C. Under steady state conditions and with
no volumetric heat generation, the temperature at the midpoint of the plate is
measured to be 85
0
C. Calculate the value of the convection heat transfer
coefficient at the bottom surface.

Known: length, surface thermal conditions, and thermal conductivity of a
Plate. Plate midpoint temperature.

Find: surface convection coefficient
Schematic:



Assumptions: (1) one-dimensional, steady conduction with no generation, (2)
Constant properties

Analysis: for prescribed conditions, is constant. Hence,


2 / L
T T
q
2 1 "
cond

= =
2
0
m / W 1500
k . m / W 50 / m 5 . 0
C 15
=

K . m / W 30 h
m / W 1500
W / K . m ) h / 1 02 . 0 (
C 30
) h / 1 ( ) k / L (
T T
" q
2
2
2
0
1
=
=
+
=
+

=




Comments: The contributions of conduction and convection to the thermal
resistance are

W / K . m 033 . 0
h
1
R
W / K . m 02 . 0
K
L
R
2
cond , t
"
2
cond , t
"
= =
= =


Problem 6:
The wall of a building is a multi-layered composite consisting of brick (100-mm
layer), a 100-mm layer of glass fiber(paper faced. 28kg/m
2
), a 10-mm layer of
gypsum plaster (vermiculite), and a 6-mm layer of pine panel. If h
inside
is
10W/m
2
.K and h
outside
is 70W/m
2
.K, calculate the total thermal resistance and the
overall coefficient for heat transfer.


Known: Material thickness in a composite wall consisting of brick, glass fiber,
and vermiculite and pine panel. Inner and outer convection coefficients.

Find: Total thermal resistance and overall heat transfer coefficient.

Schematic:





K
b
K
gl
Brick
Gypsum glass
Pine panel,K
p
100mm 10mm 6mm
hi=10W/m
2.
K
h
0
=70W/m
2
.K
0
h
1
b
b
K
L
gl
l
g
k
L
gy
gy
k
L
p
p
K
L
i
h
1
Assumptions: (1) one dimensional conduction, (2) constant properties, (3)
negligible contact resistance.

Properties: T= 300K: Brick, k
b
=1.3 W/m.K: Glass fiber (28kg/m
3
), k
g1
=
0.038W/m.K: gypsum, k
gy
=0.17W/m.K: pine panel, k
p
=0.12W/m.K.

Analysis: considering a unit surface Area, the total thermal resistance


W / K .. m 93 . 2 R
W / K . m ) 1 . 0 0500 . 0 0588 . 0 6316 . 2 0769 . 0 0143 . 0 ( R
W
K . m
10
1
12 . 0
006 . 0
17 . 0
01 . 0
038 . 0
1 . 0
3 . 1
1 . 0
70
1
R
h
1
K
L
k
L
k
L
K
L
h
1
R
2 "
tot
2 "
tot
2
"
tot
i p
p
gy
gy
1 g
1 g
B
B
0
"
tot
=
+ + + + + =

+ + + + + =
+ + + + + =


The overall heat transfer coefficient is


. K . m / W 341 . 0 U
) W / K . m 93 . 2 (
R
1
A R
1
U
2
1 2
tot
"
tot
=
= = =



Comments: an anticipated, the dominant contribution to the total resistance is
made by the insulation.

Problem 7:
The wall of an oven is a composite of the following layers. Layers A has a
thermal conductivity k
A
=20W/m.K, and layer C has a thermal conductivity
k
C
=50W/m.K. The corresponding thicknesses are L
A
=0.30m and L
C
=0.15m,
respectively. Layer B is sandwiched between layers A and C, is of known
thickness, L
B
=0.15m, but unknown thermal conductivity k
B.
Under steady-state
operating conditions, the outer surface temperature is measured to be
T
s,0
=200C. Measurements also tell us that the inner surface temperature T
s,i
is
600
0
C and the oven air temperature is T =800
0
C. The inside convection
coefficient h is known to be 25W/m
2
.K. Find the value of k
B
.


Known: Thickness of three material which form a composite wall and thermal
conductivities of two of the materials. Inner and outer surface temperatures of
the composites; also, temperature and convection coefficient associated with
adjoining gas.


Find: value of unknown thermal conductivity, k
B.
Schematic:

T
s
,
0
=20
0
C
L
A
=0.3m
L
B
=L
C
=0.15m
k
A
=20W/m.K
k
C
=50W/m.K
K
C

T

=800
0
C
h= 25W/m
2
.K

K
B
K
A

T
s,i
=600
0
C
L
A
L
B
L
C




Assumptions: (1) steady state conditions, (2) one-dimensional conduction, (3)
constant properties, (4) negligible contact resistance, (5) negligible radiation
effects.

Analysis: Referring to the thermal circuit, the heat flux may be expressed as



2
B
B
0
C
C
B
B
A
A
0 , s i , s "
m / W
K / 15 . 0 018 . 0
580
K . m / W 50
m 15 . 0
K
m 15 . 0
018 . 0
m 3 . 0
C ) 20 600 (
K
L
K
L
K
L
T T
q
+
=
+ +

=
+ +

=


The heat flux can be obtained from

2 ' '
0 2
i , s
"
m / W 5000 q
C ) 600 800 ( K . m / W 25 ) T T ( h q
=
= =



Substituting for heat flux,

. K . m / W 53 . 1 K
098 . 0 018 . 0
5000
580
018 . 0
q
580
K
15 . 0
B
"
B
=
= = =



Comments: In an over, radiation effects are likely to have a significant influence on the
net heat flux at the inner surface of the oven.
Problem 8:
A steam pipe of 0.12 m outside diameter is insulated with a 20-mm-thick layer
of calcium silicate. If the inner and outer surfaces of the insulation are at
temperatures of T
s,1
=800 K and T
s,2
=490 K, respectively, what is the heat loss
per unit length of the pipe?

Known: Thickness and surface temperature of calcium silicate insulation on
a steam pipe.

Find: heat loss per unit pipe length.

Schematic:

T
s,1
=800K
D
2
=0.16m


Steam
T
s,2
=490K
D
1
=0.12m
Calcium silicate insulation

Assumptions: (steady state conditions, (2) one-dimensional conduction, (3)
constant properties.

Properties: calcium silicate (T=645K): k=0.089W/m.K

Analysis: The heat per unit length is


m / W 603 q
) m 12 . 0 / m 16 . 0 ln(
K ) 490 800 )( K . m / W 089 . 0 ( 2
q
) D / D ln(
) T T ( K 2
q
q
q
'
r
'
r
1 2
2 , s 1 , s
L
r '
r
=
t
=
t
= =

Comments: heat transferred to the outer surface is dissipated to the surroundings
by convection and radiation.
Problem 9:
A cylindrical nuclear fuel rod of 0.1m dia has a thermal conductivity
k=0.0W/m.K and generates uniformly 24,000W/m
3
. This rod is encapsulated
within another cylinder having an outer radius of 0.2m and a thermal
conductivity of 4W/m.K. The outer surface is cooled by a coolant fluid at
100
0
C, and the convection coefficient between the outer surface and the coolant
is 20W/m
2
.K. Find the temperatures at the interface between the two cylinders
and at the outer surface.

Known: A cylindrical rod with heat generation is cladded with another cylinder
whose outer surface is subjected to a convection process.
Find: the temperature at the inner surfaces, T
1,
and at the outer surface, T
c
.

Schematic:








Assumptions: (1) steady-state conditions, (2) one-dimensional radial
conduction, (3), negligible contact resistance between the cylinders.

Analysis: The thermal circuit for the outer cylinder subjected to the
convection process is



o
'
2
2
1 o '
1
r 2 h
1
R
k 2
r / r ln
R
t
=
t
=



Using the energy conservation requirement, on the inner cylinder,

g
.
out
.
E E =

Find that

2
1
.
1
'
r q q t =

The heat rate equation has the form hence , R / T q
'
.
A =

' ' '
2
'
1
'
i
R / T andq ) R R ( q T T A = =



Numerical values:
m / W 0 . 754 m ) 1 . 0 ( m / W 000 , 24 q
W / m . K 0398 . 0 m 20 . 0 2 K . m / W 20 / 1 R
W / m . K 0276 . 0 K . m / W 4 2 / 1 . 0 / 2 . 0 ln R
2 2 3 '
2 '
2
'
1
= t =
= t =
= t =

Hence
C 130 30 100 W / m . K 0398 . 0 m / W 0 . 754 C 100 T
C 8 . 150 8 . 50 100 W / m . K ) cccc 0276 . 0 ( m / W 0 . 754 C 100 T
0 0
C
0 0
i
= + = + =
= + = + + =



Comments: knowledge of inner cylinder thermal conductivity is not
needed.
Problem 10:
A steel cable having a diameter of 0.005m and an electrical resistance of 6*10
-4

/m carries an electrical current of 700 A. The surrounding temperature of the
cable is 300C, and the effective coefficient associated with heat loss by
convection and radiation between the cable and the environment is
approximately 25W/m
2
.K.

(a) If the cable is uncoated, what is its surface temperature?

(b) If a very thin coating of electrical insulation is applied to the cable, with a
contact resistance of 0.02m
2
K/W, what are the insulation and cable surface
temperatures?

(c) What thickness of this insulation (k=0.5W/m.K) will yields the lowest
value of the maximum insulation temperature? What is the value of the
maximum temperature when the thickness is used?

Known: electric current flow, resistance, diameter and environmental
conditions associated with a cable.

Find: (a) surface temperature of bare cable, (b) cable surface and insulation
temperatures for a thin coating of insulation, (c) insulation thickness which
provides the lowest value of the maximum insulation temperature.
Corresponding value of this temperature.
Schematic:


T

T
s
E
g
q




Assumptions: (1) steady-state conditions, (2) one-dimensional conduction in r,
(3) constant properties.

Analysis: (a) the rate at which heat is transferred to the surroundings is fixed by
the rate of heat generation in the cable. Performing an energy balance for a
control surface about the cable, it follows that or, for the bare cable,

q Eg
.
=
/ 10
4
O

. m / W 294 ) m 6 ( ) A 700 ( R I withq ). T T )( L D ( h L R I

2 '
e
2 '
s i
'
e
2
= = = t =


It follows that

C 7 . 778 T
) m 005 . 0 ( ) K . m / W 25 (
m / W 294
C 30
D h
q
T T
0
s
2
0
i
'
s
=
t
+ =
t
+ =




(b) With thin coating of insulation, there exists contact and convection
resistances to heat transfer from the cable. The heat transfer rate is
determined by heating within the cable, however, and therefore remains the
same,
h
1
R
) T T ( D
q
L D h
1
L D
R
T T
L D h
1
R
T T
q
c , t
s i '
i i
c , t
s
i
c , t
s
+
t
=
t
+
t

=
t
+

And solving for the surface temperature, find


C 1153 T
C 30
W
K . m
04 . 0
W
K . m
02 . 0
) m 005 . 0 (
m / W 294
T
h
1
R
D
q
T
0
s
0
2 2
c , t
i
'
s
=
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
t
= +
|
.
|

\
|
+
t
=




The insulation temperature is then obtained from

e , t
s
R
T T
q

=

Or
C 7 . 778 T
) m 005 . 0 (
W
K . m
02 . 0
m
W
294
C 1153
L D
R
q C 1153 qR T T
0
i
2
0
i
c , t
"
0
c , t s i
=
t

=
t
= =


(c) The maximum insulation temperature could be reduced by reducing the
resistance to heat transfer from the outer surface of the insulation. Such a
reduction is possible D
i
<D
cr.

m 02 . 0
K . m / W 25
K . m / W 5 . 0
h
k
r
2
cr
= = =

Hence, D
cr =
0.04m> D
i =
0.005m. To minimize the maximum temperature, which
exists at the inner surface of the insulation, add insulation in the amount.

m t
m D D D D
t
i cr i
0175 . 0
2
) 005 . 0 04 . 0 (
2 2
0
=

=


The cable surface temperature may then be obtained from
( )
C 318.2 T
(0.005m)
W
.K m
0.02
m
W
294
C 692.5
L D
R
q T qR T T
/R T T q , that g recognizin
C 692.5 T
2.25m.K/W
C 30 T
0.32)m.K/W 0.66 (1.27
C 30 T
m
W
294
hence,
(0.04m)
.K m
W
25
1
) 2(0.5W/.
005) ln(0.04/0.
(0.005m)
.K/W 0.02m
C 30 T
h
1
2
) /D ln(D
D
R
T T
q
0
i
2
0
i
"
c t,
s c, t, s i
c, t, i s
0
s
0
s
0
s
2
2
0
s
r c,
i r c,
i
"
c t,
s '`
=

= = =
=
=

=
+ +

=
+ +

=
+ +

=



Comments: use of the critical insulation in lieu of a thin coating has the
effect of reducing the maximum insulation temperature from 778.7
0
C to
318.2
0
C. Use of the critical insulation thickness also reduces the cable
surface temperatures to 692.5
0
C from 778.7
0
C with no insulation or fro
1153
0
C with a thin coating.




MODULE 6

CONVECTION

6.1 Objectives of convection analysis:

Main purpose of convective heat transfer analysis is to determine:
- flow field
- temperature field in fluid
- heat transfer coefficient, h

How do we determine h ?
Consider the process of convective cooling, as we pass a cool fluid past a heated wall. This
process is described by Newtons law of Cooling:
q=hA(T
S
-T

)


q
y
y
U

T(y)
T
s

u(y)
U













Near any wall a fluid is subject to the no slip condition; that is, there is a stagnant sub layer.
Since there is no fluid motion in this layer, heat transfer is by conduction in this region.
Above the sub layer is a region where viscous forces retard fluid motion; in this region some
convection may occur, but conduction may well predominate. A careful analysis of this
region allows us to use our conductive analysis in analyzing heat transfer. This is the basis of
our convective theory.

At the wall, the convective heat transfer rate can be expressed as the heat flux.



( )

=
=
|
|
.
|
c
c
= ' ' T T h
y
T
k q
s
y
f conv
0


y
T(y)
T

U




T
s






Hence,
( )

|
|
.
|
c
c

=
T T
y
T
k
h
s
y
f
0


But
0 =
|
|
.
|
c
c
y
y
T
depends on the whole fluid motion, and both fluid flow and heat transfer
equations are needed


The expression shows that in order to determine h, we must first determine the temperature
distribution in the thin fluid layer that coats the wall.

2.2 Classes of Convective Flows



extremely diverse
several parameters involved (fluid properties, geometry, nature of flow, phases etc)
systematic approach required
classify flows into certain types, based on certain parameters
identify parameters governing the flow, and group them into meaningful non-
dimensional numbers
need to understand the physics behind each phenomenon

Common classifications:
A. Based on geometry:
External flow / Internal flow
B. Based on driving mechanism
Natural convection / forced convection / mixed convection
C. Based on number of phases
Single phase / multiple phase
D. Based on nature of flow
Laminar / turbulent






Forced convection (induced by
external means)
Convection
Free or natural convection
(induced by buoyancy forces)
May occur
with phase
change
(boiling,
condensation)


Table 6.1. Typical values of h (W/m
2
K)

Free convection gases: 2 - 25
liquid: 50 100

Forced convection gases: 25 - 250
liquid: 50 - 20,000

Boiling/Condensation 2500 -100,000












2.3 How to solve a convection problem ?
Solve governing equations along with boundary conditions
Governing equations include
1. conservation of mass
2. conservation of momentum
3. conservation of energy
In Conduction problems, only (3) is needed to be solved. Hence, only few parameters
are involved
In Convection, all the governing equations need to be solved.
large number of parameters can be involved


2.4 FORCED CONVECTION: external flow (over flat plate)
An internal flow is surrounded by solid boundaries that can restrict the development of its
boundary layer, for example, a pipe flow. An external flow, on the other hand, are flows over
bodies immersed in an unbounded fluid so that the flow boundary layer can grow freely in
one direction. Examples include the flows over airfoils, ship hulls, turbine blades, etc


U
U < U

U




Fluid particle adjacent to the solid surface is at rest
These particles act to retard the motion of adjoining layers
boundary layer effect

Inside the boundary layer, we can apply the following conservation principles:
Momentum balance: inertia forces, pressure gradient, viscous forces, body forces
Energy balance: convective flux, diffusive flux, heat generation, energy storage







2.5 Forced Convection Correlations
Since the heat transfer coefficient is a direct function of the temperature gradient next to the
wall, the physical variables on which it depends can be expressed as follows:
h=f(fluid properties, velocity field ,geometry,temperature etc.)

As the function is dependent on several parameters, the heat transfer coefficient is usually
expressed in terms of correlations involving pertinent non-dimensional numbers.

Forced convection: Non-dimensional groupings

Nusselt No. Nu = hx / k = (convection heat transfer strength)/
(conduction heat transfer strength)
Prandtl No. Pr = v/o = (momentum diffusivity)/ (thermal diffusivity)
Reynolds No. Re = U x / v = (inertia force)/(viscous force)
Viscous force provides the dampening effect for disturbances in the fluid. If dampening is
strong enough laminar flow
Otherwise, instability turbulent flow critical Reynolds number

For forced convection, the heat transfer correlation can be expressed as
Nu=f (Re, Pr)



The convective correlation for laminar flow across a flat plate heated to a constant wall
temperature is:







x
U

Nu
x
= 0.323Re
x

Pr
1/3


where
Nu
x
hx/k
Re
x
(U

xp)/u
Pr c
P
u/k

Physical Interpretation of Convective Correlation

The Reynolds number is a familiar term to all of us, but we may benefit by considering what
the ratio tells us. Recall that the thickness of the dynamic boundary layer, o, is proportional
to the distance along the plate, x.
Re
x
(U

xp)/u (U

op)/u = (pU

2
)/( uU

/o)
The numerator is a mass flow per unit area times a velocity; i.e. a momentum flow per unit
area. The denominator is a viscous stress, i.e. a viscous force per unit area. The ratio
represents the ratio of momentum to viscous forces. If viscous forces dominate, the flow will
be laminar; if momentum dominates, the flow will be turbulent.

Physical Meaning of Prandtl Number
The Prandtl number was introduced earlier.
If we multiply and divide the equation by the fluid density, p, we obtain:
Pr (u/p)/(k/pc
P
) = u/o
The Prandtl number may be seen to be a ratio reflecting the ratio of the rate that viscous
forces penetrate the material to the rate that thermal energy penetrates the material. As a
consequence the Prandtl number is proportional to the rate of growth of the two boundary
layers:
o/o
t
= Pr
1/3

Physical Meaning of Nusselt Number
The Nusselt number may be physically described as well.
Nu
x
hx/k
If we recall that the thickness of the boundary layer at any point along the surface, o, is also a
function of x then
Nu
x
ho/k (o/kA)/(1/hA)
We see that the Nusselt may be viewed as the ratio of the conduction resistance of a material
to the convection resistance of the same material.

Students, recalling the Biot number, may wish to compare the two so that they may
distinguish the two.
Nu
x
hx/k
fluid
Bi
x
hx/k
solid

The denominator of the Nusselt number involves the thermal conductivity of the fluid at the
solid-fluid convective interface; The denominator of the Biot number involves the thermal
conductivity of the solid at the solid-fluid convective interface.

Local Nature of Convective Correlation
Consider again the correlation that we have developed for laminar flow over a flat plate at
constant wall temperature

Nu
x
= 0.323Re
x

Pr
1/3


To put this back into dimensional form, we replace the Nusselt number by its equivalent, hx/k
and take the x/k to the other side:
h = 0.323(k/x)Re
x

Pr
1/3

Now expand the Reynolds number
h = 0.323(k/x)[(U

xp)/u]

Pr
1/3

We proceed to combine the x terms:
h = 0.323k[(U

p)/( xu)]

Pr
1/3

And see that the convective coefficient decreases with x

.











We see that as the boundary layer thickens, the convection coefficient decreases. Some
designers will introduce a series of trip wires, i.e. devices to disrupt the boundary layer, so
that the buildup of the insulating layer must begin anew. This will result in regular
thinning of the boundary layer so that the convection coefficient will remain high.


Averaged Correlations
If one were interested in the total heat loss from a surface, rather than the temperature at a
point, then they may well want to know something about average convective coefficients.








U

x
Hydrodynamic
Boundary Layer, o
Convection
Coefficient, h.
Thermal Boundary
Layer, o
t
x
Average Convection
Coefficient, h
L
U

Local Convection
Coefficient, h
x
.



The desire is to find a correlation that provides an overall heat transfer rate:

Q = h
L
A[T
wall
-T

] =
h T T dA h T T dx
x wall x
L
wall
=

[ ] [ ]
0

where h
x
and h
L
, refer to local and average convective coefficients, respectively.

Compare the second and fourth equations where the area is assumed to be equal to A = (1L):

h
L
L[T
wall
-T

] =
h T T dx
x
L
wall 0

[ ]

Since the temperature difference is constant, it may be taken outside of the integral and
cancelled:

h
L
L=
h dx
x
L
0



This is a general definition of an integrated average.

Proceed to substitute the correlation for the local coefficient.

h
L
L= 0323
0
0
1/ 3
. P
.5

k
x
U x
dx
L
p
u
r

Take the constant terms from outside the integral, and divide both sides by k.
h
L
L/k =
0

323
1
0
1/ 3
0
0
. Pr
.5
.5

U
x
dx
L
p
u

Integrate the right side.

h
L
L/k =
0323
05
0
1/ 3
0
0
. Pr
.
.5
.5

U x
L
p
u

The left side is defined as the average Nusselt number, Nu
L
. Algebraically rearrange the right
side.

Nu
L
=
3
1
5 . 0
5 . 0
3
1
5 . 0
Pr 646 . 0 Pr
5 . 0
323 . 0

u
p
u
p L U
L
U


The term in the brackets may be recognized as the Reynolds number, evaluated at the end of
the convective section. Finally,


3
1
5 . 0
Pr Re 646 . 0
L
Nu
L
=

This is our average correlation for laminar flow over a flat plate with constant wall
temperature.

Reynolds Analogy
In the development of the boundary layer theory, one may notice the strong relationship
between the dynamic boundary layer and the thermal boundary layer. Reynolds noted the
strong correlation and found that fluid friction and convection coefficient could be related.
This is known as the Reynolds Analogy.


Conclusion from Reynolds analogy: Knowing the frictional drag, we know the Nusselt
Number. If the drag coefficient is increased, say through increased wall roughness, then the
convective coefficient will also increase.

Turbulent Flow
We could develop a turbulent heat transfer correlation in a manner similar to the von Karman
analysis. It is probably easier, having developed the Reynolds analogy, to follow that course.
The local fluid friction factor, C
f
, associated with turbulent flow over a flat plate is given as:

C
f
= 0.0592/Re
x
0.2


Substitute into the Reynolds analogy:
(0.0592/Re
x
0.2
)/2 = Nu
x
/Re
x
Pr
1/3


Rearrange to find

Nu
x
= 0.0296Re
x
0.8
Pr
1/3


Local Correlation
Turbulent Flow Flat Plate.


In order to develop an average correlation, one would evaluate an integral along the plate
similar to that used in a laminar flow:


Laminar Region Turbulent region





h
L
L =
h dx h dx h dx
x
L
x la ar
L
x turbulent L
L
crit
crit
0 0
= +
, min ,

Note: The critical Reynolds number for flow over a flat plate is 510
5
; the critical Reynolds
number for flow through a round tube is 2000.

The result of the above integration is:


Nu
x
= 0.037(Re
x
0.8
871)Pr
1/3


Note: Fluid properties should be evaluated at the average temperature in the boundary layer,
i.e. at an average between the wall and free stream temperature.

T
prop
= 0.5(T
wall
+ T

)

2.6 Free convection
Free convection is sometimes defined as a convective process in which fluid motion is caused
by buoyancy effects.


Heated boundary
layer
T

< T
boundry. layer
< T
w


p

< p
boundry. layer



T
w






Velocity Profiles

Compare the velocity profiles for forced and natural convection shown below:
Forced Convection Free Convection
U

= 0
U

> 0










Coefficient of Volumetric Expansion
The thermodynamic property which describes the change in density leading to buoyancy in
the Coefficient of Volumetric Expansion, |.

|
p
cp
c

=
1
T
P Const .


Evaluation of |

- Liquids and Solids: | is a thermodynamic property and should be found from
Property Tables. Values of | are found for a number of engineering fluids in Tables
given in Handbooks and Text Books.
- Ideal Gases: We may develop a general expression for | for an ideal gas from the
ideal gas law:


P = pRT
Then,
p = P/RT

Differentiating while holding P constant:

d
dT
P
R T
R T
R T T
P Const
p p
=
=

=
.
2 2
p


Substitute into the definition of |

| =
1
T
abs

Grashof Number
Because U

is always zero, the Reynolds number, [pU

D]/u, is also zero and is no longer

suitable to describe the flow in the system. Instead, we introduce a new parameter for natural
convection, the Grashof Number. Here we will be most concerned with flow across a vertical
surface, so that we use the vertical distance, z or L, as the characteristic length.

Gr
g T L

|
v
A
3
2


Just as we have looked at the Reynolds number for a physical meaning, we may consider the
Grashof number:
Ideal Gas

Gr
g T L
g T L
L
U
U
L
Buoyant Force
Area
Momentum
Area
ViscousForce
Area

=
|
\

|
.
|
|
\

|
.
|
|
\

|
.
|
p |
u
p |
p
u
2 3
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
A
A
( ) ( )
max
max

Free Convection Heat Transfer Correlations
The standard form for free, or natural, convection correlations will appear much like those for
forced convection except that (1) the Reynolds number is replaced with a Grashof number
and (2) the exponent on Prandtl number is not generally 1/3 (The von Karman boundary layer
analysis from which we developed the 1/3 exponent was for forced convection flows):

Nu
x
= CGr
x
m
Pr
n
Local Correlation

Nu
L
= CGr
L
m
Pr
n
Average Correlation

Quite often experimentalists find that the exponent on the Grashof and Prandtl numbers are
equal so that the general correlations may be written in the form:


Nu
x
= C[Gr
x
Pr]
m
Local Correlation

Nu
L
= C[Gr
L
Pr]
m
Average Correlation

This leads to the introduction of the new, dimensionless parameter, the Rayleigh number, Ra:

Ra
x
= Gr
x
Pr

Ra
L
= Gr
L
Pr

So that the general correlation for free convection becomes:

Nu
x
= CRa
x
m
Local Correlation

Nu
L
= CRa
L
m
Average Correlation



Laminar to Turbulent Transition

Just as for forced convection, a boundary layer will form for free convection. The boundary
layer, which acts as a thermal resistance, will be relatively thin toward the leading edge of the
surface resulting in a relatively high convection coefficient. At a Rayleigh number of about
10
9
the flow over a flat plate will become transitional and finally become turbulent. The
increased turbulence inside the boundary layer will enhance heat transfer leading to relative
high convection coefficients because of better mixing.

T
u
r
b
u
l
e
n
t

F
l
o
w

L
a
m
i
n
a
r

F
l
o
w



















Ra < 10
9
Laminar flow. [Vertical Flat Plate]

Ra > 10
9
Turbulent flow. [Vertical Flat Plate]


Generally the characteristic length used in the correlation relates to the distance over which
the boundary layer is allowed to grow. In the case of a vertical flat plate this will be x or L,
in the case of a vertical cylinder this will also be x or L; in the case of a horizontal cylinder,
the length will be d.

Critical Rayleigh Number
Consider the flow between two surfaces, each at different temperatures. Under developed
flow conditions, the interstitial fluid will reach a temperature between the temperatures of the
two surfaces and will develop free convection flow patterns. The fluid will be heated by one
surface, resulting in an upward buoyant flow, and will be cooled by the other, resulting in a
downward flow.














If the surfaces are placed closer together, the flow patterns will begin to interfere:












T
1










Q

T
2









Q

L
T
1










Q

T
2









Q

L
T
1










Q

T
2









Q

L
Free Convection Inside an
Enclosure With Complete Flow
Interference (Channel flow
limit)
Free Convection Inside an Enclosure
(boundary layer limit)
Note that for enclosures it is
customary to develop
correlations which describe the
overall (both heated and cooled
surfaces) within a single
correlation.
Free Convection Inside an
Enclosure With Partial Flow
Interference






In the case of complete flow interference, the upward and downward forces will cancel,
canceling circulation forces. This case would be treated as a pure convection problem since
no bulk transport occurs.
The transition in enclosures from convection heat transfer to conduction heat transfer occurs
at what is termed the Critical Rayleigh Number. Note that this terminology is in clear
contrast to forced convection where the critical Reynolds number refers to the transition from
laminar to turbulent flow.
Ra
crit
= 1000 (Enclosures With Horizontal Heat Flow)
Ra
crit
= 1728 (Enclosures With Vertical Heat Flow)
The existence of a Critical Rayleigh number suggests that there are now three flow regimes:
(1) No flow, (2) Laminar Flow and (3) Turbulent Flow. In all enclosure problems the
Rayleigh number will be calculated to determine the proper flow regime before a correlation
is chosen.


MODULE 6: Worked-out Problems



Problem 1:

For laminar free convection from a heated vertical surface, the local
convection coefficient may be expressed as h
x
=Cx
-1/4
, where h
x
is the
coefficient at a distance x from the leading edge of the surface and the
quantity C, which depends on the fluid properties, is independent of x.
Obtain an expression for the ratio , where is the average
coefficient between the leading edge (x=0) and the x location. Sketch the
variation of h
x
and with x.
x
x h h /

x h

x h

Schematic:



Boundary layer,
h
x
=C
x
-1/4
where C
is a constant
T
s
x

Analysis: It follows that average coefficient from 0 to x is given by


x
1/4
x
x
0
1/4
x
0
x x
h
3
4
Cx
3
4
x3/4
x
C
3
4
h
dx x
x
C
dx h
x
1
h
= = =
= =

Hence
3
4
h
h
x
x
=

The variation with distance of the local and average convection coefficient is
shown in the sketch.



x
x
h h

x
x
h h
3
4
=

4 / 1
=Cx h
x


Comments: note that
x
=4/3,

independent of x. hence the average
coefficients for an entire plate of length L is =4/3L, where h
L
is the local
coefficient at x=L. note also that the average exceeds the local. Why?

h h
x
/
L h

Problem 2:

Experiments to determine the local convection heat transfer coefficient
for uniform flow normal to heated circular disk have yielded a radial
Nusselt number distribution of the form

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
n
o
D
r
r
a 1
k
h(r)D
Nu
Where n and a are positive. The Nusselt number at the stagnation
point is correlated in terms of the Reynolds number (Re
D
=VD/v) and
Prandtl


0.36 1/2
D o
Pr 0.814Re
k
0)D h(r
Nu =
=
=

Obtain an expression for the average Nusselt number, ,
corresponding to heat transfer from an isothermal disk. Typically
boundary layer development from a stagnation point yields a decaying
convection coefficient with increasing distance from the stagnation
point. Provide a plausible for why the opposite trend is observed for
the disk.
k D h Nu
D
/

=


Known: Radial distribution of local convection coefficient for flow
normal to a circular disk.

Find: Expression for average Nusselt number.


Schematic:


Assumptions: Constant properties.


Analysis: The average convection coefficient is


o
o
s
r
0
n
o
2 n 2
3
o
n
o 0
r
0
2
o
A
s
s
2)r (n
ar
2
r
r
kNuo
h
]22r ) a(r/r [1 Nu
D
k
r
1
h
hdA
A
1
h

+
+ =
+ =
=
+

Where Nu
o
is the Nusselt number at the stagnation point (r=0).hence,

( )
0.36 1/2
D
o
r
o
2 n 2
o
Pr 2)]0.841Re 2a/(n [1 NuD
2)] 2a/(n [1 Nu NuD
ro
r
2) (n
a
2
r/ro
2Nu
k
D h
NuD
o
+ + =
+ + =

|
.
|

\
|
+
+ = =

Comments: The increase in h(r) with r may be explained in terms of
the sharp turn, which the boundary layer flow must take around the
edge of the disk. The boundary layer accelerates and its thickness
decreases as it makes the turn, causing the local convection coefficient
to increase.

Problem 3:

In a flow over a surface, velocity and temperature profiles are of the forms

u(y)=Ay+By
2
-Cy
3
and T(y)=D+Ey+Fy
2
-Gy
3

Where the coefficients A through G are constants. Obtain expressions
for friction coefficients C
f
and the convection coefficient h in terms of
u

, T

and appropriate profile coefficients and fluid properties.

Known: form of the velocity and temperature profiles for flow over a
surface.

Find: expressions for the friction and convection coefficients.


Schematic:
u

,T

T(y)=D+Ey+Fy
2
-Gy
3
Ts=T(0)=D
U(y)=Ay-By
2
-Cy
3
y y


Analysis: The shear stress at the wall is

. ] 3 2 [
0
2
0
u u u t A Cy By A
y
u
y
y
s
= + =
c
c
=
=
=

Hence, the friction coefficient has the form,

2
f
2 2
s
f
u
2A
C
u
2A
/2 u

=
= =


The convection coefficient is

+
=

c c
=
T D
E k
h
T D
] 3Gy 2Fy [E k
T T
y) T/ ( k
h
f
0 y
2
f
s
0 y f


Comments: It is a simple matter to obtain the important surface
parameters from knowledge of the corresponding boundary layers
profile. However is rarely simple matter to determine the form of the
profile.























Problem 4:

In a particular application involving airflow over a heated surface, the
boundary layer temperature distribution may be approximated as

|
.
|

\
|
=

v
y u
Pr exp 1
T T
T T
s
s


Where y is the distance normal to the surface and the Prandtl number,
Pr=c
p
u/k=0.7, is a dimensionless fluid property. If T

=400K, T
s
=300K,
and u

/v=5000m
-1
, what is the surface heat flux?


Known: Boundary layer temperature distribution

Find: Surface heat flux.

Schematic:
) Pr exp( 1
) (
v
y u
T T
T y T
s
s

Properties:
Air ( ): k = 0.0263 W/m.k k T
S
300 =

Analysis:
Applying the Fouriers law at y=0, the heat flux is

0 y
s
0 y
"
s

y u
Pr exp

u
Pr ) T k(T
y
T
k q
=

=
c
c
=

u
)Pr T k(T q
s
"
s

=


1/m 0.7x5000 .K(100K) 0.02063w/m q
"
s
=


Comments: (1) Negligible flux implies convection heat transited
surface (2) Note use of k at to evaluate from Fouriers law.
s
T
"
s
q






















Problem 5:

Consider a lightly loaded journal bearing using oil having the constant
properties u=10
-2
kg/s-m and k=0.15W/m. K. if the journal and the
bearing are each mentioned at a temperature of 400C, what is the
maximum temperature in the oil when the journal is rotating at 10m/s?

Known: Oil properties, journal and bearing temperature, and journal
speed for lightly loaded journal bearing.

Find: Maximum oil temperature.

Schematic:


Assumptions: (1) steady-state conditions, (2) Incompressible fluid
with constant properties, (3) Clearances is much less than journal
radius and flow is Couette.

Analysis: The temperature distribution corresponds to the result
obtained in the text example on Couette flow.

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
2
o
L
y
L
y
U
2k

T T(y)

The position of maximum temperature is obtained from

|
.
|

\
|
= =
2
2
L
2y
L
1
U
2k

0
dy
dT


y=L/2.

Or,
The temperature is a maximum at this point since hence 0. T/dy d
2 2
<


2
2
2
U
8k

To
4
1
2
1
U
2k

To T(l/2) ax Tm, + =

+ = =

C 40.83 T
0.15W/m.K 8
/s) kg/s.m(10m 10
C 40 T
max
2 2
max

=

+ =

Comments: Note that T
max
increases with increasing and U, decreases
with increasing k, and is independent of L.



























Problem 6:

Consider two large (infinite) parallel plates, 5mm apart. One plate is
stationary, while the other plate is moving at a speed of 200m/s. both plates
are maintained at 27C. Consider two cases, one for which the plates are
separated by water and the other for which the plates are separated by air.

For each of the two fluids, which is the force per unit surface area
required to maintain the above condition? What is the corresponding
requirement?
What is the viscous dissipation associated with each of the two fluids?
What is the maximum temperature in each of the two fluids?


Known: conditions associated with the Couette flow of air or water.

Find: (a) Force and power requirements per unit surface area, (2) viscous
dissipation,(3) maximum fluid temperature.

Schematic:




Assumptions: (1) Fully developed Couette flow, (2) Incompressible fluid
with constant properties.

Properties: Air (300K); =184.6*10-7 N.s/m2, k=26.3*10-3W/m.K; water
(300K): =855*106N.s/m2,k=0.613W/m.K

Analysis: (a) the force per unit area is associated with the shear stress.
Hence, with the linear velocity profile for Couette flow = (du/dy) =
(U/L).


34.2N/m
0.005m
200m/s
N.s/m 10 855 : Water
0.738N/m
0.005m
200m/s
N.s/m 10 184.6 : Air
2 2 6 -
water
2 2 7 -
air
= =
= =


With the required power given by P/A= .U t

6840W/m 200m/s ) (34.2N/m (P/A) : Water
147.6W/m 200m/s ) (0.738N/m (P/A) : Air
2 2
water
2 2
air
= =
= =


(b) The viscous dissipation is .hence (U/L) (du/dy)
2 2
= = m



W/m 10 1.37
0.005m
200m/s
N.s/m 10 855 ( : Water
W/m 10 2.95
0.005m
200m/s
N.s/m 10 184.6 ( : Air
3 6
2
2 6 -
water
3 4
2
2 7 -
air
=

=
=

=

The location of the maximum temperature corresponds to y
max
=L/2. Hence
T
max
=To+U
2
/8k and


C 34.0
K 80.613W/m.
(200m/s)2 N.s/m 10 855
C 27 (T : Water
C 30.5
K 0.0263W/m. 8
(200m/s)2_ N.s/m 10 184.6
C 27 ) (T : Air
2 6 -
water
max)
2 -7
air max
=

+ =
=

+ =

Comments: (1) the viscous dissipation associated with the entire fluid layer,
), (LA uo must equal the power, P.

(2) Although
ater w
) (uo >>
air
) (uo , k
water
>>k
air
. Hence, T
max,water ~
T
max,air .








Problem 7:

A flat plate that is 0.2m by 0.2 m on a side is orientated parallel to an
atmospheric air stream having a velocity of 40m/s. the air is at a
temperature of T

=20C, while the plate is maintained at T

s
=120C. The
sir flows over the top and bottom surfaces of the plate, and measurement
of the drag force reveals a value of 0.075N. What is the rate of heat
transfer from both sides of the plate to the air?


Known: Variation of h
x
with x for flow over a flat plate.

Find: Ratio of average Nusselt number for the entire plate to the local
Nusselt number at x=L.

Schematic:



Analysis: The expressions for the local and average Nusselt number
are


2.
NuL
NuL
and
k
2CL
k
(L) 2CL
NuL
Hence
2CL L
L
2C
dx x
L
C
dx h
L
1
h
where
k
L h
Nu
k
CL
k
)L (CL
k
L h
Nu
-
1/2 1/2
-
1/2 1/2
L
0
1/2
L
0
x L
L
L
1/2 1/2
L
L
=
= =
= = = =
=
= = =

Comments: note the manner in which is defined in terms of . Also
note that
-
NuL L h

L
0
x L
dx Nu
L
1
Nu





















Problem 8:

For flow over a flat plate of length L, the local heat transfer coefficient h
x

is known to vary as x
-1/2
, where x is the distance from the leading edge of
the plate. What is the ratio of the average Nusslet number for the entire
plate to the local Nusslet number at x=L (Nu
L
)?


Known: Drag force and air flow conditions associated with a flat plate.

Find: Rate of heat transfer from the plate.

Schematic:


Assumptions: (1) Chilton-Colburn analogy is applicable.

Properties: Air(70C,1atm): p=1.018kg/m
3
, c
p
=1009J/kg.K, pr=0.70,
v=20.22*10
-6
m
2
/s.

Analysis: the rate of heat transfer from the plate is

) T (T (L) h 2 q
s
2

=

Where may be obtained from the Chilton-Colburn analogy,

h

240W q
C 20) (120 .K)(0.3m) 2(30W/m q
is rate heat The
.K 30W/m h
2/3 .70) 9J/kg.K)(0 )40m/s(100 (1.018kg/m 10 5.76 h
Pr c u
2
C
h
hence,
10 5.76
/2 (40m/s) 1.018kg/m
(0.2m) (0.075N/2)
2
1
/2 u

2
1
2
C
Pr
c u
h
tPr S
2
C
j
2 2
2
-
3 4
-
2/3
p
f
-
4
2 3
2
2
s f
2/3
p
2/3 f
H
=
=
=
=
=
= = =
= = =

Comments: Although the flow is laminar over the entire surface
( , the pressure gradient is zero
and the Chilton-Colburn analogy is applicable to average, as well as local,
surface conditions. Note that the only contribution to the drag force is made
by the surface shear stress.
) 10 0 . 4 / 10 22 . 20 / 2 . 0 / 40 / Re
5 2 6
= = =

s m m s m L u
L
v



Problem 9:


Consider atmospheric air at 25C in parallel flow at 5m/s over both surfaces of 1-m-
long flat plate maintained at 75C. Determine the boundary layer thickness, the
surface shear stress, and the heat flux at the trailing edge. Determine the drag force on
the plate and the total heat transfer from the plate, each per unit width of the plate.


Known: Temperature, pressure, and velocity of atmospheric air in parallel flow over a
Plate of prescribed length and temperature.

Find: (a) Boundary layer thickness, surface shear stress and heat flux at trailing edges,
(b) drag force and total heat transfer flux per unit width of plate.

Schematic:

Fluid

=5m/s
T

=25C
P

=1 atm
L=1m
x)
T
s
=75C


Assumptions: (1) Critical Reynolds number is 5*10
5
, (2) flow over top and bottom
surfaces


Properties: (T
f
=323K, 1atm) Air: p=1.085kg/m
3
,v=18.2*10-
6m
2
/s,k=0.028W/m.K,pr=0.707


Analysis: (a) calculate the Reynolds number to know the nature of flow


5
2 6
L
10 2.75
/s m 10 18.2
m 1 m/s 5

L u
Re =

= =

Hence the flow is laminar, and at x=L

2 2
L s,
1/2 5 2
3
1/2
L
2
L s,
1/2 5 1/2
L
0.0172N/m .s 0.0172kg/m
) 10 5 0.664/(2.7 (5m/s)
m
kg
2
1.085
/2)0.664Re (
9.5mm ) 10 1m/(2.75 5 5LRe
= =
= =
= = =

Using the correct correlation,

2 2
s
2
L
1/3 1/2 1/3 1/2
L
L
L
C)217W/m 25 C .K(75 4.34W/m ) T hL(T s(L) q"
.K 4.34W/m 8W/m.K)/1m 155.1(0.02 h
hence,
155.1 (0.707) 105) 0.332(2.75 Pr 0.332Re
k
hL
Nu
= =
= =
= = = =

(b) The drag force per unit area plate width is where the factor of two is
included to account for both sides of the plate. Hence with
L s
L D

= t 2
'

868W/m C 25) .K(75 /m 2(1m)8.68W ) T (T 2Lh q
.K 8.68W/m 2hL h with also
0.0686N/m 3N/m 2(1m)0.034 D
0.0343N/m
is drag The
) 10 1.328(2.75 /2)(5m/s) (1.085kg/m /2)1.328Re (
2
s
-
L
"
2
-
L
2 '
2
L s
1/2 5 2 3 1/2
L
2
L s
= = =
= =
= =
=
= =

Problem 10:
Engine oil at 100C and a velocity of 0.1m/s flows over both surfaces of a 1-m-long
flat plate maintained at 20C. Determine

a. The velocity and thermal boundary thickness at the trailing edge.
b. The local heat flux and surface shear stress at the trailing edge.
c. The total drag force and heat transfer per unit area width of the plate.

Known: Temperature and velocity of engine oil Temperature and length of flat plate.

Find: (a) velocity and thermal boundary thickness at the trailing edge, (b)
Heat flux and surface shear stress at the trailing edge, (c) total drag force and heat
transfer per unit plate width.

Schematic:


Assumptions: engine oil (T
f
=33K): p=864kg/m
3
,v=86.1*10
6
m
2
/s, k=0.140W/m /K,
Pr=1081.

Analysis: (a) calculate the Reynolds number to know the nature of flow

1161
/s m 10 * 86.1
1m 0.1m/s

L u
ReL
2 6 -
=

= =



Hence the flow is laminar at x=L, and

0.0143m ) 0.147(1081 Pr
0.147m ) 5(1m)(1161 5LRe
1/3 1/3
t
1/2 1/2
L
= = =
= = =






(b) The local convection coefficient and heat flux at x=L are

2 2
s
2 1/3 1/3 1/2
L L
1300W/m C 100) .K(20 16.25W/m ) T hL(T q"
.K 16.25W/m )(1081) 0.332(1161
1m
0.140W/m.K
Pr 0.3325LRe
L
k
h
= = =
= = =

Also the local shear stress is



2 2
L s
1/2 2
3
1/2
L
2
L s
0.0842N/m .s 0.0842kg/m
) 0.664(1161 (0.1m/s)
2
864kg/m
/2)0.664Re (
= =
= =

(c) With the drag force per unit width given by where the factor of 2 is
included to account for both sides of the plate, is follows that
L s
L D

= t 2
'

5200W/m C 100) .K(20 /m 2(1m)32.5W ) T (T h 2L q
that follows also it .K, 32.5W/m 2h h with
0.673N/m ) 1.328(1161 (0.1m/s) /m 2(1m)864kg /2)1.328Re (
2
s
L
_
2
L
L
_
1/2 2 3 1/2
L
2
L s
= = =
= =
= = =

Comments: Note effect of Pr on (o/o
t
).














Problem 11:

Consider water at 27C in parallel flow over an isothermal, 1-m-long, flat plate with a
velocity of 2m/s. Plot the variation of the local heat transfer coefficient with distance
along the plate. What is the value of the average coefficient?


Known: velocity and temperature of air in parallel flow over a flat plate of prescribed
length.

Find: (a) variation of local convection coefficient with distance along the plate, (b)
Average convection coefficient.

Schematic:


Assumptions: (1) Critical Reynolds number is 5*10
5
.

Properties: Water (300K):p =997kg/m
3
,u=855*10
-6
N.s/m
2
, v=u/p=0.858*10
-6
m
2
/s,
k=0.613W/m. K, Pr=5.83

Analysis: (a) With

5
2 6
L
10 2.33
/s m 10 0.858
1m 2m/s

L u
Re =

= =

Boundary layer conditions are mixed and

4055 4240 4491 4871 5514 .K) (W/m h
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.0215 x(m)
x Pr

u
0.0296k Pr 0.0296Re
x
k
hx 0.215m, x for
1206 1768 hx(W/m2.K)
0.215 0.1 x(m)
x Pr

u
0.332k Pr 0.332Re
x
k
hx 0.215m, x for
0.215m ) 10 /2.33 10 1m(5 ) /Re L(Re x
x
0.2 1/3
4/5
1/3 4/5
x
1/2 1/3
1/2
1/3 1/2
x
6 5
L c x, c
2


|
.
|

\
|
= = >
|
.
|

\
|
= = s
= = =



The Spatial variation of the local convection coefficient is shown above

(b) The average coefficient is

.K 4106W/m h
871(5.83) ) 10 33 [0.0379(2.
1m
0.613W/m.K
871)Pr (0.037Re
L
k
h
2
L
_
1/3 4/5 6 1/3 4/5
L
L
_
=
= =




















Problem 12:

A circular cylinder of 25-mm diameter is initially at 150C and is quenched by
immersion in a 80C oil bath, which moves at a velocity of 2m.s in cross flow over the
cylinder. What is the initial rate of heat loss unit length of the cylinder?



Known: Diameter and initial temperature of a circular cylinder submerged in an oil bath
f prescribed temperature and velocity.

Find: initial rate of heat loss unit per length.

Schematic:


Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) uniform surface temperature.

Properties: Engine oil (T

=353K): v=38.1*10
-6
m
2
/s, k=0.138W/m. K, Pr

=501;
(T
s
=423K): Pr
s
=98.

Analysis: The initial heat loss per unit length is

( ) 8.8W/m C 80) 0.025m(150 .K 1600W/m q'
.K 1600W.m h
98
501
(501) 0.26(1312)
0.025m
0.138W/m.K
)1/4 /Pr (Pr Pr CRe
D
k
h
hence . 7.4 table from 0.6 m and 0.26 C Find
1312
/s m 10 38.1
m) 2m/s(0.025

VD
Re
when relation. Zhukauskas the from computed be may where
) T D(T h q
2
2
_
1/4
0.37 0.6
s
n m
D
_
2 6
D
s
_
= =
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =
= =
=

= =
=

_
h





Comments: Evaluating properties at the film temperature, T
f
=388K(v=14.0*10
-6
m
2
/s,
k=0.135W/m. K, Pr=196), find Re
D
=3517.



















Problem 13:

An uninsulated steam pipe is used to transport high-temperature steam from one
building to one another. The pipe is 0.5-m diameter, has a surface temperature of
150C, and is exposed to ambient air at -10C.the air moves in cross flow over the pipe
with a velocity of 5m.s.What is the heat loss per unit length of pipe?


Known: Diameter and surface temperature of uninsulated steam pipe. Velocity and
temperature of air in cross flow.

Find: Heat loss per unit length.

Schematic:
V=5m/s
T

=263K
Air D=0.5mm
T
s
=150 C




Assumptions: (1) steady-state conditions, (2) uniform surface temperature

Properties: Air (T=263K, 1atm):v=12.6*10
-6
m
2
/s, k=0.0233W/m. K, Pr=0.72;(Ts=423K,
1atm); Prs=0.649.

Analysis: the heat loss per unit length is



) T D(T h q
s
_

=
.K 1600W.m h
98
501
(501) 0.26(1312)
0.025m
0.138W/m.K
)1/4 /Pr (Pr Pr CRe
D
k
h
hence . 7.4 table from 0.6 m and 0.26 C Find
1312
/s m 10 38.1
m) 2m/s(0.025

VD
Re
when relation. Zhukauskas the from computed be may where
2
_
1/4
0.37 0.6
s
n m
D
_
2 6
D
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =
= =
=

= =

=
_
h


Hence the heat rate is


( ) 4100W/m C 10) ( - 0.5m(150 .K 16.3W/m q'
2
= =


Comments: Note that qoD
m
, in which case the heat loss increases significantly with
increasing D.






















Problem 14:

Atmospheric air at 25C and velocity of 0.5m/s flows over a 50-W incandescent bulb
whose surface temperature is at 140C. The bulb may be approximated as a sphere of
50-mm diameter. What is the rate of heat loss by convection to the air?

Known: Conditions associated with airflow over a spherical light bulb of prescribed
diameter and surface temperature.

Find: Heat loss by convection.

Schematic:



Assumptions: (1) steady-state conditions, (2) uniform surface temperature.
roperties: Air (T
f
=25C, 1atm): v=15.71*10 m /s, k=0.0261W/m. /K.Pr=.
Analysis:


-6 2
P
0.71,u=183.6*10
-7
N.s/m
2
; Air (T
s
=140C, 1atm): u=235.5*10
-7
N.s/m
2

) T D(T h q
s
=
_
10.3W C 25) (140 (0.05m)
.K m
W
11.4 q
is rate heat the and
.K 11.4W/m h
235.5
183.6
](0.71) 0.06(1591) [0.4(1591) 2
0.05m
K 0.0261W/m.
h
hence
1591
/s m 10 15.71
0.05m 0.5m/s

VD
Re
Where
] ) (/ )Pr 0.06Re (0.4Re [2
D
k
h
when relation. Whitaker the from computed be may where
2
2
2
_
1/4
0.4 2/3 1/2
_
2 6
D
1/4
s
0.4 2/3
D
1/2
D
_
= =
=

|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
=

= =
+ + =

_
h




Comments: (1) The low value of suggests that heat transfer by free convection may
be significant and hence that the total loss by convection exceeds 10.3W
_
h

(2) The surface of the bulb also dissipates heat to the surroundings by radiation. Further,
in an actual light bulb, there is also heat loss by conduction through the socket.

(3) The Correlation has been used its range of application (u/u
s
)<1.


Problem 15:


Water at 27 C flows with a mean velocity of 1m/s through a 1-km-long
cast iron pipe at 0.25 m inside diameter.

(a) Determine the pressure drop over the pipe length and the
corresponding pump power requirement, if the pipe surface is
clean.
(b) If the pipe surface roughness is increased by 25% because of
contamination, what is the new pressure drop and pump power
requirement.

Known: Temperature and velocity of water in a cast iron pipe of prescribed
dimensions.

Find: pressure drops and power requirement for (a) a clean surface and (b) a
surface with a 25% larger roughness.

Schematic:


Assumptions: (1) Steady, fully developed flow.

Properties: Water (300K):p=1000 kg/m
3,
u=855*10
-6
N.s/m
2
.

Analysis: (a) from eq.8.22, the pressure drop is

L
2D
u
f p
2
m
=


e=2.6*10
-4
m for clean cast iron; hence e/D=1.04*10
-3
. With

5
3 2 6
m
D
10 2.92
/1000kg/m N.s/m 10 855
0.25m 1m/s

D u
Re =

= =



0.42bar N/m 10 4.2 P
.m kg/s 10 4.2 1000m
2(0.25m)
(1m/s) (1000kg/m
0.021 P
, hence 0.021. f that 8.3 fig from find
2 4
2 4
2 3
= = A
= = A
~
)


The pump power requirement is

2.06kW 1m/s /4)m 0.25 ( N/m 10 4.2 P
/4)u p(D V p. P
2 2 2 4
m
2
.
= =
= =


(b) Increasing c by 25% it follows that c=3.25*10-4m and e/D=0.0013. With
Re
D
unchanged, from fig 8.3, it follows that f ~ 0.0225. Hence

2.21kW )P /f (f P bar 0.45 ) /f (f P
1 1 2 2 1 2 2
= = = =
1
p


Comments: (1) Note that L/D=4000>>(x
fd
,
h
/D) ~10 for turbulent flow and
the assumption of fully developed conditions is justified.
(2) Surface fouling results in increased surface and increases operating costs
through increasing pump power requirements.






Problem 16:

Consider flow in a circular tube. Within the test section length (between
1 and 2) a constant heat flux q
s
is maintained.

(a) For the two cases identified, sketch, qualitatively, the surface
temperature T
s
(x) and the fluid mean temperature Tm(x) as a function
of distance along the test section x. in case A flow is hydro
dynamically and thermally fully developed. In case B flow is not
developed.
(b) Assuming that the surface flux q
s
and the inlet mean temperature
T
m,1
are identical for both cases, will the exit mean temperature T
m,2

for case A be greater than, equal to , or less than T
m,2
for case B?
Briefly explain why?



Known: internal flow with constant surface heat flux, .
"
s
q

Find: (a) Qualitative temperature distributions (x), under developing and
fully developed flow, (b) exit mean temperature for both situations.

Schematic:
Flow
1
2
q
s
=constant



Assumptions: (a) Steady-state conditions, (b) constant properties, (c)
incompressible flow.

Analysis: Based upon the analysis, the constant surface heat flux conditions,

constant
dx
dT
m
=

Hence, regardless of whether the hydrodynamic or thermal boundary layer is
fully developed, is follows that

T
m
(x) is linear

T
m,2
will be the same for all flow conditions.

The surface heat flux can be written as

(x)] T h[T q
m s
"
s
=

Under fully developed flow and thermal conditions, h=h
fd
is a constant.
When flow is developing h> h
fd
. Hence, the temperature distributions appear
as below.












Problem 17:

A thick-walled, stainless steel (AISI 316) pipe of inside and outside
diameter D
i
=20mm and D
o
=40m is heated electrically to provide a
uniform heat generation rate of . The outer surface of the
pipe is insulated while water flows through the pipe at a rate of

3 6
.
/ 10 m W q =
s kg m / 1 . 0
.
=
(a) If the water inlet temperature is T
m,1
=20C and the desired outlet
temperature is T
m,o
=40C, what is the required pipe length

(b) What are the location and value of the maximum pipe temperature?



Known: Inner and outer diameter of a steel pipe insulated on the outside and experiencing
uniform heat generation. Flow rate and inlet temperature of water flowing through the
pipe.


Find: (a) pipe length required to achieve desired outlet temperature, (b)
location and value of maximum pipe temperature.

Schematic:


Assumptions: (1) steady-state conditions, (2) constant properties, (3)
negligible kinetic energy, potential energy and flow work changes, (4) one-
dimensional radial conduction in pipe wall, (5) outer surface is adiabatic.

Properties: Stainless steel 316 (T~ 400K): k=15W/m.k; water ( );
c
p
=4178J/kg. K, k=0.617W/m. K,p=803*10
-6
N.s/m
2
, Pr=5.45
303K T
.
m
=

Analysis: (a) performing an energy balance for a control volume
about the inner tube, it follows that

8.87m L
] (0.02) 4m (/4)[(0. W/m 10
C )20 178(J/kg.K (0.1kg/s)4
)L D (/4)( q
) T (T mc
L
)L D (/4)( q q ) T (T c m
2 2 3 6
2
i
2
0
.
.
i m, o m, p
2
i
2
0
.
i m, o m, p
.
=

=
= =


(b) The maximum wall temperature exists at the pipe exit (x=L) and the
insulated surface (r=r
o
). The radial temperature distribution in the wall is of
the form






T nr
2k
qr
- r
4k
q
C C nr
2k
qr
r
4k
q -
T ) T(r : r r

2k
qr
C
r
C
r
2k
q
0
dr
dT
; r r
; conditions boundary the g considerin
C nr C r
4k
q
T(r)
s i
.
2
o 2
i
.
2 2 i
.
2
o 2
i
.
s i 1
.
2
o
1
o
1
o
.
r r
o
2 1
2
.
o
+ = + + = = =
= +

= =
|
.
|
=
+ + =
=

The temperature distribution and the maximum wall temperature (r=r
o
) are


) T h(T
4D
) D (D q
L D
)L D q((/4)
q
from follows it exit, at wall the of temperture suraface inner the Ts, where
T
r
r
n
2k
qr
) r - (r
4k
q
- ) T(r T
T
r
r
n
2k
qr
) r - (r
4k
q
T(r)
o m, s
i
2
i
2
o
.
i
.
2
i
2
o "
s
s
i
o
.
2
o 2
i
2
o
.
o max w,
s
i
.
2
o 2
i
2
.
=

=
+ + = =
+ + =

Where h is the local convection coefficient at the exit. With

7928
N.s/m 10 3 (0.02m)80
0.1kg/s 4
D
m 4
Re
2 6
i
.
D
=

= =



The flow is turbulent and, with (L/D
i
)=(8.87m/0.02m)=444>>(x
fd
/D)~10,it is
also fully developed. Hence, from the Dittus-Boelter correlation,

.K 1840W/m 5.45 ) 0.023(7928
0.02m
0.617W/m.K
) pr (0.023Re
D
k
h
2 0.4 4/5 0.4 4/5
D
i
= = =

Hence the inner surface temperature of the wall at the exit is

C 52.4 C 48.2
0.01
0.02
n
215W/m.K
(0.02) W/m 10
] (0.01) [(0.02)
415W/m.K
W/m 10
T
and
C 48.2 C 40
.K(0.02m) 180W/m 4
] (0.02m) [(0.04m) W/m 10
T
4D
) D (D q
2 3 6
2 2
3 6
max w,
2
2 2 3 6
o m,
i
2
i
2
o
.
s
= + + =
= +

= +

T



Comments: The physical situation corresponds to a uniform surface heat
flux, and T
m
increases linearly with x. in the fully developed region, Ts also
increases linearly with x.
T
x
fd
T
s
(x)
T
m
(x)
x































Problem 18:

The surface of a 50-mm diameter, thin walled tube is maintained thin
walled tube is maintained at 100C. In one case air is cross flow very the
tube with a temperature of 25C and a velocity of 30m/s. In another case
air is in fully developed flow through the tube with a temperature of 25C
and a mean velocity of 30m/s. compare the heat flux from the tube to the
air for the two cases.

Known: surface temperature and diameter of a tube. Velocity and
temperature of air in cross flow. Velocity and temperature of air in fully
developed internal flow.

Find: convection heat flux associated with the external and internal flows.

Schematic:
Air
U
m
=30m/s
T
m
=25C
V=30m/s
T =25 C
T
s
=100 C
D=0.05m
Air


Assumptions: (1) steady-state conditions, (2) uniform cylinder surface
temperature, (3) fully developed internal flow

Properties: Air (298K): v=15.71*10-6m
2
/s, k=0.0261W/m.K, Pr=0.71

Analysis: for the external and internal flow

4
2 6
10 55 . 9
/ 10 71 . 15
05 . / 30
Re =

= = =

s m
m s m D u VD
m
D
v v



From the Zhukauskas relation for the external flow, with C=0.26 and m=0.6

223 ) 1 ( ) 71 . 0 ( ) 10 55 . 9 ( 26 . 0 ) Pr Pr(Pr/ Re
4 / 1 37 . 0 6 . 0 4 4 / 1
_
= = =
s
m
D D
C u N



Hence, the convection coefficient and heat rate are

2 3 2 "
2
_
_
/ 10 73 . 8 ) 25 100 ( . / 4 . 116 ) (
. / 4 . 116 223
05 . 0
. / 0261 . 0
m W C k m W T T h q
K m W
m
K m W
NuD
D
k
h
s
= = =
= = =

Using the Dittus-Boelter correlation, for the internal flow, which is
Turbulent,



2 3 2
_ _
4 . 0 5 / 4
2
4 4 . 0 5 / 4
_
/ 10 58 . 7 ) 25 100 ( . / 101 ) (
. 2 / 101 193
05 . 0
. / 0261 . 0
193 ) 71 . 0 ( ) 10 55 . 9 ( 023 . 0 Pr Re 023 . 0
m W C K m W T T h
K m W
K m W
Nu
D
k
h
NU
m s
D
D
D
= = =
= = =
= = =
"
q
is flux heat the and



Comments: Convection effects associated with the two flow conditions are
comparable.









Problem 19:

Cooling water flows through he 25.4 mm diameter thin walled tubes of a
stream condenser at 1m/s, and a surface temperature of 350K is maintained
by the condensing steam. If the water inlet temperature is 290 K and the
tubes are 5 m long, what is the water outlet temperature? Water properties
may be evaluated at an assumed average temperature of 300K

Known: Diameter, length and surface temperature of condenser tubes. Water
velocity and inlet temperature.

Find: Water outlet temperature.

Schematic:
L=5m
D=0.0254m
T
m,i
=290K
U
m
=1m/s
T
s
=350K



Assumptions: (1) Negligible tube wall conduction resistance, (2) Negligible
kinetic energy, potential energy and flow work changes.

Properties: Water (300K):p=997kg/m
3,
c
p
=4179J/kg.K, u=855*10-
6kg/s.m,k=0.613W/m.K, Pr=5.83

Analysis:

29,618
kg/s.m 10 855
54m (1m/s)0.02 997kg/m

D u
Re
] h ) c m (DL )exp[ T (T T T
6
3
m
D
_
p
.
i m, s s o m,
=

= =
=

The flow is turbulent. Since L/D=197, it is reasonable to assume fully
developed flow throughout the tube. Hence
323K
K) (4179J/kg. (0.505kg/s
.K) 5m(4248W/m (0.0254m)
(60K)exp 350K T
0.505kg/s 4m) m/s)(0.025 (1 /m (/4)997k /4) ( u m
With
.K 4248W/m 4m) /m.K/0.025 176(0.613W NuD(k/D) h
2
o m,
2 3 2
m
.
2
_
~

=
= = =
= = =

Comments: The accuracy of the calculations may be improved slightly by
reevaluating properties at . 306.5K T
_
m
=

















Problem 20:

The air passage for cooling a gas turbine vane can be approximated as a tube
of 3-mm diameter and 75-mm length. If the operating temperature of the
vane is 650C, calculate the outlet temperature of the air if it enters the tube
at 427C and 0.18kg/h.


Known: gas turbine vane approximation as a tube of prescribed diameter and
length maintained at an known surface temperature. Air inlet temperature
and flow rate.

Find: outlet temperature of the air coolant.

Schematic:
h kg m / 18 . 0
.
=

Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) negligible Kinetic and
potential energy changes.

Properties: Air (assume : cp=1094J/kg. K, k=0.0563 W/m.
K, u=363.7*10
-7
N.s/m2, Pr=0.706; Pr=0.706;(Ts=650C=923K, 1atm):
u=404.2*10
-7
N.s/m
2
.
) 1 , 780
_
atm K T
m
=

Analysis: For constant wall temperatures heating,

|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

.
_
,
,
exp
p
i m s
o m s
mc
h PL
T T
T T


Where P=tD. for flow in circular passage,

N.s/m 10 3.7 (0.03m)36
/3600s/h) 0.18kg/h(1 4
D
m 4
Re
7
.
D

= =

The flow is laminar, and since L/D=75mm/3mm=25, the Sieder-Tate
correlation including combined entry length fields.

.K 87.5W/m
10 404.2
10 363.7
25
0.706 584
1.86
0.003m
K 0.0563W/m.
h

L/D
Pr Re
1.86
k
D h
Nu
2
0.14
7
7
1/3
_
0.14
s
1/3
D
_
_
D
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

Hence, the air outlet temperature is


|
|
.
|

\
|

1094J/kg.K )kg/s (0.18/3600

.K 87.5W/m 0.075m (0.003m)
exp
C 427) (650
T 650
2
o m,



T
m,o
=578C

Comments: (1) based upon the calculations for T
m,o
=578C, =775K which
is in good agreement with our assumption to evaluate the thermo physical
properties.
_
m
T



Problem 21

A household oven door of 0.5-m height and 0.7-m width reaches an average
surface temperature of 32C during operation. Estimate the heat loss to the
room with ambient air at 22C. If the door has an emissivity of 1.0 and the
surroundings are also at 22C, comment on the heat loss by free convection
relative to that by radiation.

Known: Oven door with average surface temperature of 32C in a room
with ambient temperature at 22C.

Find: Heat loss to the room. Also, find effect on heat loss if emissivity of
door is unity and the surroundings are at 22C.

Schematic:
0
.
7
m
L
=
0
.
5
m


Assumptions: (1) Ambient air in quiescent, (2) surface radiation effects
are negligible.

Properties: Air (T
f
=300K, 1atm): v=15.89*10
-6
m
2
/s, k=0.0263W/m. K,
o=22.5*10
-6
m
2
/s, Pr=0.707, |=1/T
f
=3.33*10-3K
-1

Analysis: the heat rate from the oven door surface by convection to the
ambient air is

) T (T A h q
s s
_

=

Where can be estimated from the free convection correlation for a
vertical plate,
_
h

| |
2
8/27
9/16
1/6
L
_
_`
(0.492/Pr) 1
0.387Ra
0.825
k
L h
L Nu

+
+ = =

The Rayleigh number,

4
2 6 2 6
3 2 2
s
L
10 1.142
/s m 10 22.5 /s m 10 15.89
m3 22)K0.5 2 (1/300k))3 9.8m/s

)L T (T g
Ra =


=

|




Substituting numerical values into equation, find


| |
.K 3.34W/m 63.5
0.5m
K 0.0263W/m.
L Nu
L
h
63.5
(0.492/Pr) 1
) 10 2 0.387(1.14
0.825
k
L h
L Nu
2
_` _
2
8/27
9/16
1/8 8
_
_`
= = =
=

+

+ = =
k
L


The heat rate using equation is

11.7W 22)K (32 0.7)m .k(0.5 3.34W/m q
2 2
= =

Heat loss by radiation, assuming c=1 is

21.4W ]k 22) (273 32) [(273 .K W/m 5.6710 0.7)m 1(0.5 q
) T (T A q
4 2 4 4 2 8 2
rad
4
sur
4
s s rad
= + + =
=

Note that heat loss by radiation is nearly double that by free convection.

Comments: (1) Note the characteristics length in the Rayleigh number is the
height of the vertical plate (door).





Problem 22

An Aluminum alloy (2024) plate, heated to a uniform temperature of
227C, is allowed to cool while vertically suspended in a room where the
ambient air and surroundings are at 27C. The late is 0.3 m square with a
thickness of 15 mm and an emissivity of 0.25.
a. Develop an expression for the time rate of change of the plate
temperature assuming the temperature to be uniform at any
time.
b. Determine the initial rate of cooling of the plate temperature is
227C.
c. Justify the uniform plate temperature assumption.

Known: Aluminum plate alloy (2024) at uniform temperature of 227C
suspended in a room where the ambient air and the surroundings are at 27C

Find: (1) expression for the time rate of change of the plate, (2) Initial
rate of cooling (K/s) when the plate temperature is 227C. (3) justify the
uniform plate temperature assumption.
Schematic:


Properties: Aluminium alloy 2024 (T=500K):p=2270 kg/m
3
,
k=186W/m.K, c=983 J/kg.K; Air (T
f
=400K, 1atm):v=26.41*10-
6m
2
/s,k=0.0338 W/m.K,o=38.3*10
-6
m
2
/s, Pr=0.690.
Analysis :( a) from an energy balance on the plate considering free
convection and radiation exchange .
. .
st
out E E =
) T (T ) T (T h [
c
2
dt
dT
or
dt
dT
A ) T (T 2A ) T (T 2A h
4
sur
4
s s
L
.
c s
4
sur
4
s s s s
_
L
+

= =

Where T
s
is the plate temperature assumed to be uniform at any time.
(b) To evaluate (dt/dx), estimate . Find first the Rayleigh number
_
L
h
8
2 6 2 6
3 2 2
s
L
10 1.308
/s m 10 .3 3 /s m 10 26.41
0.3m 27)K 27 (1/400k)(2 9.8m/s

)L T (T g
Ra =


=

8
|

Substituting numerical values, find
| | | |
5 . 55
)
=

+

+ =

+
+ =
4/9
9/16
8
2
4/9
9/16
1/4
L
_`
90) (0.492/0.6 1
10 8 0.670(1.30
0.68
(0.492/Pr) 1
0.670Ra
0.68 L Nu
0.099K/s
)K 300 .K)(500 W/m 10 0.25(5.67 27)K .K(227 6.25W/m
983J/kg.K 0.015m 2770Kg/m
2
dt
dT
.K 6.25W/m K/0.3m 0.0338W/m. 55.5 k/L Nu h
4 4 2 8 2
3
2
_`
L
_
=
+


=
= = =

(c) The uniform temperature assumption is justified if the Biot number
criterion is satisfied. With = = ) /A . (A ) (V/A L
s s s c
_
1 . 0 / s k

and . Using the linearized radiation coefficient
relation find,
_ _ _
, = + = h Bi h h h
tot rad conv tot



.K 3.86W/m 3002)K 300)(5002 )(500 .K 8W/m 10 0.25(5.67 ) T )(T T (T h
2 3 4 2 2
sur
2
s sur s
rad
_
= + + = + + =
Hence Bi=(6.25+3.86) W/m
2
.k (0.015m)/186W/m. K=8.15*10
-4
. Since
Bi<<0.1, the assumption is appropriate.




Problem 23

The ABC Evening News Report in news segment on hypothermia research
studies at the University of Minnesota claimed that heat loss from the body
is 30 times faster in 1 0C water than in air at the same temperature. Is
that a realistic statement?
Known: Person, approximated as a cylinder, experiencing heat loss in
water or air at 10C.

Find: Whether heat loss from body in water is 30 times that in air.

Assumptions: (1) Person can be approximated as a vertical cylinder of
diameter D=0.3 m and length L=1.8m, at 25C, (2) Loss is only from the
lateral surface.

Properties: Air (
_
T =(25+10) C/2=290K, 1atm); K=0.0293 W/m. K,
v==19.91*10
-6
m
2
/s, o=28.4*10
-6
m
2
/s; Water (290K); k=0.598 W/m.K;
v=uv
f
=1.081*10
-6
m
2
/s, o=k v
f
/cp =1.431*10
-7
m
2
/s, |
f
=174*10
-6
K
-1
.

Analysis: in both water (wa) an air(a), the heat loss from the lateral
surface of the cylinder approximating the body is

) T DL(T h q
s
_

= t
Where T
s
and T

are the same for both situations. Hence,

_
a
wa
_
a
wa
h
h
q
q
=


Vertical cylinder in air:

9
2 6 2 6
3 2 3
L
10 5.228
/s m 28.410 /s m 10 * 19.91
10)k(1.8m) 5 (1/290K)(2 9.8m/s

gT
Ra =

= =



.K 2.82W/m h 173.4 ) 10 0.1(5.228 CRa
k
L h
Nu
1/3, n and 0.1 C with
2
L
_
1/3 9 n
L
_
_
L
L
= = = = =
= =


Vertical cylinder in water.

11
2 7 2 6
3 1 6 2
L
10 9.643
/s m 10 1.431 /s m 10 1.081
10)K(1.8m) (25 K 10 174 9.8m/s
Ra =


=




.K 328W/m h 978.9 ) 10 0.1(9.643 CRa
k
hL
Nu
1/3, n and 0.1 C with
2
L
_
1/3 11 n
L
_
_
L
= = = = =
= =


Hence, from this analysis we find

30 of claim the with poorly compares which 117
.K 2.8W/m
.K 328W/m
q
q
2
2
a
wa
= =



















Problem 24

In a study of heat losses from buildings, free convection heat transfer from
room air at 305 K to the inner surface of a 2.5-m-high wall at 295 K is
simulated by performing laboratory experiments using water in a smaller test
cell. In the experiments the water and the inner surface of the test cell are
maintained at 300 and 290K, respectively. To achieve similarity between
conditions in the room and the test cell, what is the required test cell height?
If the average Nusselt number for the wall may be correlated exclusively in
terms of the Rayleigh number, what is the ratio f the average convection
coefficient for the room wall to the average coefficient for the test cell wall?

Known: Air temperature and wall temperature and height for a room. Water
temperature and wall temperature for a simulation experiment.

Find: Required test cell height for similarity. Ratio and height convection
coefficient for the two cases.

Schematic:
L
a
=
2
.
5
m
L
w


Assumptions: (1) Air and water are quiescent; (2) Flow conditions
correspond to free convection boundary layer development on an isothermal
vertical plate, (3) constant properties.

Properties: Air (T
f
=300K, 1 atm); K=0.0293 W/m.K, v==15.9*10
-6
m
2
/s,
o=22.5*10
-6
m
2
/s; |=1/T
f
=3.33*10
-3
K
-1
, k=0.0263W/m.K; water
(T
f
=295K):=998kg/m
3
, u=959*10
-6
N.s/m
2
, c
p
=4181 J/kg.K, |=227.5*10
-
6
K
-1
, k=0.606 W/m.K; Hence v=u/ =9.61/s, o=k / cp =1.45*10
-7
m
2
/s.

Analysis: Similarity requires that Ra
L,a
=Ra
L,w
where


m m L
o H L
L
hence
w
a
air w
a
w
45 . 0 ) 179 . 0 ( 5 . 2
10 * 228 . 0
10 * 33 . 3
10 * 5 . 22 * 9 . 15
10 * 45 . 1 * 61 . 9
) (
) (
,
)L -T (T g
Ra
3
3
12
14
3 / 1
2
3
s
L
= =

=
=

| ov
| ov
vo
|



3
w
a
a
w
w
_
_
a
_
w L,
_
a L, w L, a L,
10 * 7.81
0.606
0.0263
2.5
0.45
k
k
L
L
h
h

.hence Nu Nu that follows it , Ra Ra if

= = =
= =


Comments: Similitude allows us to obtain valuable information for one
system by performing experiments for a smaller system and a different
fluid.

















Problem 25
square plate of pure aluminum, 0.5 m on a side and 16 mm hick, is
nown: Initial temperature and dimensions of an aluminum plate.
ind: (a) initial cooling rate, (2) validity of assuming negligible temperature
chematic:

A
initially at 300C and is suspended in a large chamber. The walls of the
chamber are maintained at 27C, as is the enclosed air. If the surface
emissivity of the plate temperature during the cooling process? Is it
reasonable to assume a uniform plate temperature during the cooling
process?

K
Conditions of the plate surroundings.

F
gradients in the plate during the cooling process.

S
L


ssumptions: (1) plate temperature is uniform; (2) chamber air is quiescent,
roperties: Aluminum (573k); k=232W/m.k, c
p
=1022J/kg.K, =2702 kg/m
3
:
nalysis: (a) performing an energy balance on the plate,
A
(3) Plate surface is diffuse-gray, (4) Chamber surface is much larger than
that of plate, (5) Negligible heat transfer from edges.

P
Air (T
f
=436K, 1 atm):=30.72*10
-6
m
2
/s,=44.7*10
-6
m
2
/s,k=0.0363W/m.K,
Pr=0.687, =0.00229K
-1
.

A

p sur s s
p
st
sur s s
wc T T T T h A dt dT
dt dT Vc E T T T T h A q
p co
p co
/ )] 4 ( ) ( [ 2 /
] / [ )] 4 ( ) ( [ 2
4
_
.
4
_
+ =
= = + =

8
2 6 2 6
3 2 3
s
L
10 5.58
/s m 0 1 7 . 4 4 /s m 10 * 30.72
)K(0.5m) 7 2 1(300 - 0.00229K 9.8m/s )L -T (T g
Ra =


= =

vo
|


K m W h
Ra
L
k
h
L
. / 8 . 5
] ) 687 . 0 / 492 . 0 ( 1 [
) 10 58 . 5 ( 670 . 0
68 . 0
5 . 0
0363 . 0
] Pr) / 492 . 0 ( 1 [
670 . 0
68 . 0
2
_
9 / 4 16 / 9
4 / 1 8
9 / 4 16 / 9
4 / 1
_
=
)
`

+

+ =
)
`

+
+ =


ence the initial cooling rate is H

{ }
s K
dt
dT
k kg J m m kg
K K K m W C K m W
dt
dT
/ 136 . 0
. / 1022 ) 016 . 0 ( / 2702
] ) 300 ( ) 573 [( . / 10 67 . 5 25 . 0 ) 27 300 ( . / 8 . 5 2
3
4 4 4 2 8 2
=
+
=



) To check the Validity of neglecting temperature gradients across the

nd the assumption is excellent.
omments: (1) Longitudinal (x) temperature gradients are likely to me more
(b
plate thickness, calculate
2 2 "
. / 0 . 11 273 / / ) 1413 1583 ( ) /( / ) 2 / ( = + = = =

k m W K m W T T q h where k w h Bi
i tot eff eff
A
4 -
10 3.8 32W/m.K (0.008m)/2 (11W/m2.K) Bi = = hence

C
severe than those associated with the plate thickness due to the variation of h
with x. (2) Initially q
conv
~q
rad
.








Problem 26
eer in cans 150 mm long and 60 mm in diameter is initially at 27C and is
nown: Dimensions and temperature of beer can in refrigerator
ind: orientation which maximum cooling rate.
Schematic:

B
to be cooled by placement in a refrigerator compartment at 4C. In the
interest of maximizing the cooling rate, should the cans be laid horizontally
or vertically in the compartment? As a first approximation, neglect heat
transfer from the ends.

K
compartment.

F

Air,
T

=4C
P=1 atm
D=0.06m
Horizontal, (h)
Vertical, (V)
T
s
=27 C
L
=
1
5
0
m
m


Assumptions: (1) End effects are negligible, (2) Compartment air is
roperties: Air (T
f
=288.5K, 1 atm): =14.87*10
-6
m
2
/s, k=0.0254W/m.K,
nalysis: The ratio of cooling rates may be expressed as
quiescent, (3) constant properties.

P
=21.0*10
-6
m
2
/s, Pr=0.71, =1/T
f
=3.47*10
-3
K
-1
.

A


h
v
s
s
h
v
qh
v
h
h
T T
T T
DL
DL
h
h q
_
_
_
_
) (
) (
=

= =

t
t


For the vertical surface, find


6 3 9
L
3 9 3
2 6 - 2 6 -
-1 -3 2 3
s
L
10 44 . 8 ) 15 . 0 ( 10 5 . 2 Ra
L 10 5 . 2 L
/s) m 10 /s)(21 m 10 (14.87
C) (23 K 10 3.47 9.8m/s )L -T (T g
Ra
= =
=


= =

vo
|


Using the correct correlation

K m W
m
K m W
L
k
Nu h h
NuL
L
v
L
. / 03 . 5
15 . 0
. / 0254 . 0
7 . 29 hence,
7 . 29
] ) 71 . 0 / 492 . 0 ( 1 [
) 10 44 . 8 ( 387 . 0
825 . 0
2
_ _ _
2
27 / 8 16 / 9
6 / 1 6
= = = =
=
)
`

+

+ =


Using the correct correlation,

97 . 0
18 . 5
03 . 5
,
. / 18 . 5
06 . 0
. / 0254 . 0
24 . 12
24 . 12
] ) 71 . 0 / 559 . 0 ( 1 [
) 10 4 . 5 ( 387 . 0
60 . 0
2
_ _ _
2
27 / 8
6
1 / 9
6 / 1 5
_
= =
= = = =
=

+

+ =
h
v
D
h
D
D
q
q
hence
K m W
m
K m W
D
k
Nu h h
Nu


Comments: in view of the uncertainties associated with equations and the
neglect of end effects, the above result is inconclusive. The cooling rates are
are approximately the same.







MODULE I

RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
Radiation

Definition

Radiation, energy transfer across a system boundary due to a
AT, by the mechanism of photon emission or electromagnetic
wave emission.


Because the mechanism of transmission is photon emission, unlike
conduction and convection, there need be no intermediate matter to enable
transmission.






The significance of this is that radiation will be the only mechanism for
heat transfer whenever a vacuum is present.

Electromagnetic Phenomena.
We are well acquainted with a wide range of electromagnetic phenomena in
modern life. These phenomena are sometimes thought of as wave
phenomena and are, consequently, often described in terms of
electromagnetic wave length, . Examples are given in terms of the wave
distribution shown below:




10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
-0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5

Wavelength, , um
Thermal
Radiation
UV
X Rays
V
i
s
i
b
l
e

L
i
g
h
t
,

0
.
4
-
0
.
7
u
m



Microwave
radiation

One aspect of electromagnetic radiation is that the related topics are more
closely associated with optics and electronics than with those normally
found in mechanical engineering courses. Nevertheless, these are widely
encountered topics and the student is familiar with them through every day
life experiences.

From a viewpoint of previously studied topics students, particularly those
with a background in mechanical or chemical engineering, will find the
subject of Radiation Heat Transfer a little unusual. The physics
background differs fundamentally from that found in the areas of
continuum mechanics. Much of the related material is found in courses
more closely identified with quantum physics or electrical engineering, i.e.
Fields and Waves. At this point, it is important for us to recognize that
since the subject arises from a different area of physics, it will be important
that we study these concepts with extra care.


Stefan-Boltzman Law
Both Stefan and Boltzman were physicists; any student taking a course
in quantum physics will become well acquainted with Boltzmans work as
he made a number of important contributions to the field. Both were
contemporaries of Einstein so we see that the subject is of fairly recent
vintage. (Recall that the basic equation for convection heat transfer is
attributed to Newton.)

E
b
= oT
abs
4


where: E
b
= Emissive Power, the gross energy emitted from an
ideal surface per unit area, time.
o = Stefan Boltzman constant, 5.6710
-8
W/m
2
K
4

T
abs
= Absolute temperature of the emitting surface, K.

Take particular note of the fact that absolute temperatures are used in
Radiation. It is suggested, as a matter of good practice, to convert all
temperatures to the absolute scale as an initial step in all radiation
problems.

You will notice that the equation does not include any heat flux term, q.
Instead we have a term the emissive power. The relationship between these
terms is as follows. Consider two infinite plane surfaces, both facing one
another. Both surfaces are ideal surfaces. One surface is found to be at
temperature, T
1
, the other at temperature, T
2
. Since both temperatures are
at temperatures above absolute zero, both will radiate energy as described
by the Stefan-Boltzman law. The heat flux will be the net radiant flow as
given by:

q" = E
b1
- E
b2
= oT
1
4
- oT
2
4


Planks Law
While the Stefan-Boltzman law is useful for studying overall energy
emissions, it does not allow us to treat those interactions, which deal
specifically with wavelength, . This problem was overcome by another of
the modern physicists, Max Plank, who developed a relationship for wave-
based emissions.

E
b
= ]()

We plot a suitable functional relationship below:
Area = E
b
Wavelength, , um
E
b

,

W
/
m
2

u
m




We havent yet defined the Monochromatic Emissive Power, E
b
. An
implicit definition is provided by the following equation:

E E
b b
=

0
d


We may view this equation graphically as follows:


Area of the
curve = E
b
Wavelength, , um
E
b

,

W
/
m
2

u
m











A definition of monochromatic Emissive Power would be obtained by
differentiating the integral equation:


E
dE
d
b
b

The actual form of Planks law is:

| |
E
C
e
b
T
C

1
5
2
1


where: C
1
= 2thc
o
2
= 3.74210
8
Wum
4
/m
2

C
2
= hc
o
/k = 1.43910
4
umK

Where: h, c
o
, k are all parameters from quantum physics. We need
not worry about their precise definition here.

This equation may be solved at any T, to give the value of the
monochromatic emissivity at that condition. Alternatively, the function
may be substituted into the integral to find the Emissive
power for any temperature. While performing this integral by hand is
difficult, students may readily evaluate the integral through one of several
computer programs, i.e. MathCad, Maple, Mathmatica, etc.
E E d
b b
=

0

E E d
b b
= =

o
0
4
T
d


Emission Over Specific Wave Length Bands
Consider the problem of designing a tanning machine. As a part of the
machine, we will need to design a very powerful incandescent light source.
We may wish to know how much energy is being emitted over the
ultraviolet band (10
-4
to 0.4 um), known to be particularly dangerous.


( )
E E
b b m
m
00001 04
0 001
0 4
. .
.
.
=

u
u

With a computer available, evaluation of this integral is rather trivial.
Alternatively, the text books provide a table of integrals. The format used is
as follows:

( ) E
E
E d
E d
E d
E d
E d
E d
F F
b
b
b m
m
b
b
m
b
b
m
b
0001 04
0 0 4 0 00001
0 001
0 4
0
0
0 4
0
0
0 0001
0
. .
( . ) ( .
.
.
.
.
.

=


=





=

u
u

)


Referring to such tables, we see the last two functions listed in the second
column. In the first column is a parameter, T. This is found by taking the
product of the absolute temperature of the emitting surface, T, and the
upper limit wave length, . In our example, suppose that the incandescent
bulb is designed to operate at a temperature of 2000K. Reading from the
table:

., um
T, K
T, umK F(0)
0.0001 2000 0.2 0
0.4 2000 600 0.000014
F(0.40.0001um) = F(00.4um)- F(00.0001um)
0.000014

This is the fraction of the total energy emitted which falls within the IR
band. To find the absolute energy emitted multiply this value times the
total energy emitted:

E
bIR
= F(0.40.0001um)oT
4
= 0.0000145.6710
-8
2000
4
= 12.7 W/m
2



Solar Radiation

The magnitude of the energy leaving the Sun varies with time and is closely
associated with such factors as solar flares and sunspots. Nevertheless, we
often choose to work with an average value. The energy leaving the sun is
emitted outward in all directions so that at any particular distance from the
Sun we may imagine the energy being dispersed over an imaginary
spherical area. Because this area increases with the distance squared, the
solar flux also decreases with the distance squared. At the average distance
between Earth and Sun this heat flux is 1353 W/m
2
, so that the average heat
flux on any object in Earth orbit is found as:

G
s,o
= S
c
fcos

Where S
c
= Solar Constant, 1353 W/m
2

f = correction factor for eccentricity in Earth Orbit,
(0.97<f<1.03)
= Angle of surface from normal to Sun.

Because of reflection and absorption in the Earths atmosphere, this number
is significantly reduced at ground level. Nevertheless, this value gives us
some opportunity to estimate the potential for using solar energy, such as in
photovoltaic cells.


Some Definitions

In the previous section we introduced the Stefan-Boltzman Equation to
describe radiation from an ideal surface.

E
b
= T
abs
4


This equation provides a method of determining the total energy leaving a
surface, but gives no indication of the direction in which it travels. As we
continue our study, we will want to be able to calculate how heat is
distributed among various objects.

For this purpose, we will introduce the radiation intensity, I, defined as the
energy emitted per unit area, per unit time, per unit solid angle. Before
writing an equation for this new property, we will need to define some of
the terms we will be using.

Angles and Arc Length

We are well accustomed to
thinking of an angle as a two
dimensional object. It may be
used to find an arc length:

L = r
L




Solid Angle

We generalize the idea of an
angle and an arc length to three
dimensions and define a solid
angle, , which like the standard
angle has no dimensions. The
solid angle, when multiplied by
the radius squared will have
dimensions of length squared, or area, and will have the magnitude of the
encompassed area.
A = r
2
d
r

Projected Area

The area, dA
1
, as seen from the
prospective of a viewer, situated at an
angle from the normal to the
surface, will appear somewhat
smaller, as cos dA
1
. This smaller
area is termed the projected area.

A
projected
= cos A
normal


Intensity

The ideal intensity, I
b
, may now be defined as the energy emitted from an
ideal body, per unit projected area, per unit time, per unit solid angle.

O
=
d dA
dq
I
1
cosu


dA
1
cos

dA
1

Spherical Geometry

Since any surface will emit radiation outward in all directions above the
surface, the spherical coordinate system provides a convenient tool for
analysis. The three basic
coordinates shown are R, , and ,
representing the radial, azimuthal
and zenith directions.

In general dA
1
will correspond to
the emitting surface or the source.
The surface dA
2
will correspond to
the receiving surface or the target.
Note that the area proscribed on the
hemisphere, dA
2
, may be written as:

Rsin
R

dA
1
dA
2



] [ ] ) sin [(
2
u m u d R d R dA =

or, more simply as:
] sin
2
2
u m u d d R dA =

Recalling the definition of the solid angle,

dA = R
2
d
we find that:
d = R
2
sin dd

Real Surfaces

Thus far we have spoken of ideal surfaces, i.e. those that emit energy
according to the Stefan-Boltzman law:

E
b
= T
abs
4


Real surfaces have emissive powers, E, which are somewhat less than that
obtained theoretically by Boltzman. To account for this reduction, we
introduce the emissivity, .

b
E
E
c

so that the emissive power from any real surface is given by:

E = T
abs
4



Receiving Properties

Targets receive radiation in
one of three ways; they
absorption, reflection or
transmission. To account for
these characteristics, we
introduce three additional
properties:

- Absorptivity, , the
fraction of incident
radiation absorbed.
Transmitted
Radiation
Absorbed
Radiation
Incident
Radiation,
G
Reflected
Radiation
- Reflectivity, , the fraction of incident radiation reflected.
- Transmissivity, , the fraction of incident radiation transmitted.

We see, from Conservation of Energy, that:
+ + = 1
In this course, we will deal with only opaque surfaces, = 0, so that:
Opaque Surfaces
+ = 1

Relationship Between Absorptivity,, and Emissivity,
Consider two flat, infinite planes, surface A and
surface B, both emitting radiation toward one
another. Surface B is assumed to be an ideal
emitter, i.e.
B
= 1.0. Surface A will emit
radiation according to the Stefan-Boltzman law
as:

E
A
=
A
T
A
4

and will receive radiation as:
G
A
=
A
T
B
4

The net heat flow from surface A will be:
q =
A
T
A
4
-
A
T
B
4

Now suppose that the two surfaces are at exactly the same temperature.
The heat flow must be zero according to the 2
nd
law. If follows then that:

A
=
A
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

A
,

T
A

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

B
,

T
B


Because of this close relation between emissivity, , and absorptivity, ,
only one property is normally measured and this value may be used
alternatively for either property.

Lets not lose sight of the fact that, as thermodynamic properties of the
material, and may depend on temperature. In general, this will be the
case as radiative properties will depend on wavelength, . The wave length
of radiation will, in turn, depend on the temperature of the source of
radiation.

The emissivity, , of surface A will depend on the material of which surface
A is composed, i.e. aluminum, brass, steel, etc. and on the temperature of
surface A.


The absorptivity, , of surface A will depend on the material of which
surface A is composed, i.e. aluminum, brass, steel, etc. and on the
temperature of surface B.

In the design of solar collectors, engineers have long sought a material
which would absorb all solar radiation, ( = 1, T
sun
~ 5600K) but would not
re-radiate energy as it came to temperature ( << 1, T
collector
~ 400K).
NASA developed an anodized chrome, commonly called black chrome as
a result of this research.

Black Surfaces
Within the visual band of radiation, any material, which absorbs all visible
light, appears as black. Extending this concept to the much broader thermal
band, we speak of surfaces with = 1 as also being black or thermally
black. It follows that for such a surface, = 1 and the surface will behave
as an ideal emitter. The terms ideal surface and black surface are used
interchangeably.

Lamberts Cosine Law:
A surface is said to obey Lamberts cosine law if the intensity, I, is uniform
in all directions. This is an idealization of real surfaces as seen by the
emissivity at different zenith angles:


0 .2 .4 .6 .8
1.0
Dependence of Emissivity on
Zenith Angle, Typical Metal.
0 .2 .4 .6 .8
1.0
Dependence of Emissivity on
Zenith Angle, Typical Non-Metal.









The sketches shown are intended to show is that metals typically have a
very low emissivity, , which also remain nearly constant, expect at very
high zenith angles, . Conversely, non-metals will have a relatively high
emissivity, , except at very high zenith angles. Treating the emissivity as a
constant over all angles is generally a good approximation and greatly
simplifies engineering calculations.

Relationship Between Emissive Power and Intensity

By definition of the two terms, emissive power for an ideal surface, E
b
, and
intensity for an ideal surface, I
b
.

O =
hemisphere
b b
d I E u cos


Replacing the solid angle by its equivalent in spherical angles:

=
t
t
m u u u
2
0
2
0
sin cos d d I E
b b

Integrate once, holding I
b
constant:

=
2
0
sin cos 2
t
u u u t d I E
b b

Integrate a second time. (Note that the derivative of sin is cos d.)

b b b
I I E = = t
u
t
t
2
0
2
2
sin
2


E
b
= I
b





Radiation Exchange

During the previous lecture we introduced the intensity, I, to describe
radiation within a particular solid angle.

O
=
d dA
dq
I
1
cosu

This will now be used to determine the fraction of radiation leaving a given
surface and striking a second surface.

Rearranging the above equation to express the heat radiated:

O = d dA I dq
1
cosu


Next we will project the receiving surface onto the hemisphere surrounding
the source. First find the projected area of surface dA
2
, dA
2
cos
2
. (
2
is
the angle between the normal to surface 2 and the position vector, R.)
Then find the solid angle, , which encompasses this area.
dA
2

Substituting into the heat flow
equation above:

2
2 2 1 1
cos cos
R
dA dA I
dq
u u
=


To obtain the entire heat transferred
from a finite area, dA
1
, to a finite
area, dA
2
, we integrate over both
surfaces:
dA
2
cos
2
R


=

2 1
2
2 2 1 1
2 1
cos cos
A A
R
dA dA I
q
u u



To express the total energy emitted from surface 1, we recall the relation
between emissive power, E, and intensity, I.


q
emitted
= E
1
A
1
= I
1
A
1

View Factors-Integral Method

Define the view factor, F
1-2
, as the fraction of energy emitted from surface
1, which directly strikes surface 2.

1
2
2 2 1 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
cos cos
A I
R
dA dA I
q
q
F
A A
emitted


= =

t
u u


after algebraic simplification this becomes:




=

2 1
2
2 1 2 1
1
2 1
cos cos 1
A A
R
dA dA
A
F
t
u u


Example Consider a diffuse
circular disk of diameter D and
area A
j
and a plane diffuse
surface of area A
i
<< A
j
. The
surfaces are parallel, and A
i
is
located at a distance L from the
center of A
j
. Obtain an
expression for the view factor F
ij
.
dr

dA
j

dA
i
D
dA
i
R
L
R

i

j

A
j


The view factor may be obtained from:




=

2 1
2
2 1 2 1
1
2 1
cos cos 1
A A
R
dA dA
A
F
t
u u


Since dA
i
is a differential area

1
2
1 2 1
2 1
cos cos
A
R
dA
F
t
u u


Substituting for the cosines and the differential area:

( )

1
2
2
2 1
2
A
R
dr r
R
L
F
t
t

After simplifying:

1
4
2
2 1
2
A
R
dr r L
F


Let
2
L
2
+ r
2
= R
2
. Then 2d = 2rdr.

1
4
2
2 1
2
A
d L
F
p
p p

After integrating,
2
0
2 2
2
2
2
2 1
1
2
2
2
D
A
L
L L F

+
= =

p
p



Substituting the upper & lower limits
2 2
2
2
0
2 2 2
2
2 1
4
1
4
4
D L
D
L D L
L F
D
+
=

+
=

This is but one example of how the view factor may be evaluated using the
integral method. The approach used here is conceptually quite straight
forward; evaluating the integrals and algebraically simplifying the resulting
equations can be quite lengthy.

Enclosures
In order that we might apply conservation of energy to the radiation
process, we must account for all energy leaving a surface. We imagine that
the surrounding surfaces act as an enclosure about the heat source which
receive all emitted energy. Should there be an opening in this enclosure
through which energy might be lost, we place an imaginary surface across
this opening to intercept this portion of the emitted energy. For an N
surfaced enclosure, we can then see that:

1
1
,
=

=
N
j
j i
F

This relationship is
known as the
Conservation Rule.

Example: Consider the previous problem of a small disk radiating to a
larger disk placed directly above at a distance L.









From our conservation rule we have:

The view factor was shown to be
given by the relationship: 2
2 2
2
2 1
4 D L
D
F
+
=

Here, in order to provide an
enclosure, we will define an
imaginary surface 3, a truncated
cone intersecting circles 1 and 2.

1
3

3 , 1 2 , 1 1 , 1
1
,
F F F F
N
j
j i
+ + =

=


Since surface 1 is not convex F
1,1
= 0. Then:

2 2
2
3 1
4
1
D L
D
F
+
=

Reciprocity

We may write the view factor from surface i to surface j as:




=

j i
A A
j i j i
j i i
R
dA dA
F A
2
cos cos
t
u u


Similarly, between surfaces j and i:




=

j i
A A
i j i j
i j j
R
dA dA
F A
2
cos cos
t
u u


Comparing the integrals we see that they are identical so that:

i j j j i i
F A F A

=



This relationship
is known as
Reciprocity.

Example: Consider two concentric spheres shown to the
right. All radiation leaving the outside of surface 1
will strike surface 2. Part of the radiant energy leaving
the inside surface of object 2 will strike surface 1, part
will return to surface 2. To find the fraction of energy
leaving surface 2 which strikes surface 1, we apply reciprocity:

2
1
2
1
2 , 1
2
1
1 , 2 2 , 1 1 1 , 2 2
D
D
A
A
F
A
A
F F A F A = = = =


Associative Rule

Consider the set of surfaces shown to the right: Clearly,
from conservation of energy, the fraction of energy
leaving surface i and striking the combined surface j+k
will equal the fraction of energy emitted from i and
striking j plus the fraction leaving surface i and
striking k.

k i j i k j i
F F F
+
+ =
) (




Radiosity

We have developed the concept of intensity, I, which let to the concept of
the view factor. We have discussed various methods of finding view
factors. There remains one additional concept to introduce before we can
consider the solution of radiation problems.

Radiosity, J, is defined as the total energy leaving a surface per unit area
and per unit time. This may initially sound much like the definition of
emissive power, but the sketch below will help to clarify the concept.




1 2
i
j
k
This relationship is
known as the
Associative Rule.


E
b
G G
J E
b
+ G



Net Exchange Between Surfaces

Consider the two surfaces shown. Radiation will travel from surface i to
surface j and will also travel from j to i.

q
ij
= J
i
A
i
F
ij
J
j


likewise,
q
ji
= J
j
A
j
F
jj
J
i

The net heat transfer is then:

q
ji

(net)
= J
i
A
i
F
ij
- J
j
A
j
F
jj


From reciprocity we note that F
12
A
1
= F
21
A
2
so that

q
ji

(net)
= J
i
A
i
F
ij
- J
j
A
i
F
ij
= A
i
F
ij
(J
i
J
j
)


Net Energy Leaving a Surface

The net energy leaving a surface will be
the difference between the energy leaving
a surface and the energy received by a
surface:
E
b
G G

q
1
= [E
b
G]A
1

Combine this relationship with the definition of Radiosity to eliminate G.

J E
b
+ G G = [J - E
b
]/


q
1
= {E
b
[J - E
b
]/}A
1

Assume opaque surfaces so that + = 1 = 1 , and substitute for .
q
1
= {E
b
[J - E
b
]/(1 )}A
1

Put the equation over a common denominator:

( )
1 1 1
1 1
1
A
J E
A
E J E
q
b b b

+
=

o
o c
o
c o o c o


If we assume that = then the equation reduces to:

( ) J E
A
A
J E
q
b
b

c
c
c
c c
1 1
1
1 1

Electrical Analogy for Radiation
We may develop an electrical analogy for radiation, similar to that
produced for conduction. The two analogies should not be mixed: they
have different dimensions on the potential differences, resistance and
current flows.


Equi val ent
Cur r ent
Equi val ent
Resi st anc e
Pot ent i al
Di f f er enc e
Ohms Law
I R V
Net Ener gy
Leavi ng Sur f ac e
q
1

A c
c 1

E
b
- J
Net Ex c hange
Bet w een
Sur f ac es
q
ij

2 1 1
1

F A
J
1
J
2










- Count the number of surfaces. (A surface must be at a uniform
factor resistances, 1/A
i
F
ij
.

Alternate Procedure for Developing Networks

temperature and have uniform properties, i.e. , , .)
- Draw a radiosity node for each surface.
- Connect the Radiosity nodes using view
- Connect each Radiosity node to a grounded battery, through a surface
resistance,
| |
A

c
c 1
.

This procedure should lead to exactly the same circuit as we obtain
implifications to the Electrical Network
- Insulated surfaces. In steady state heat transfer, a surface cannot
lectrically cannot flow
ot grounded.
urface 3 is not grounded so that the battery and surface
wing.

- lack surfaces: A black, or ideal surface, will have no surface
previously.


S

receive net energy if it
is insulated. Because
the energy cannot be
stored by a surface in
steady state, all energy
must be re-radiated
back into the enclosure.
Insulated surfaces are
often termed as re-
radiating surfaces.

E
through a battery if it is n

S
resistance serve no purpose and are removed from the dra
B
resistance:
R
3

3
3
1
A c
c

0
1
1 1 1
=

A A c
c

In this case the nodal Radiosity and emissive power will be equal.

This result gives some insight into the physical meaning of a black
surface. Ideal surfaces radiate at the maximum possible level. Non-
black surfaces will have a reduced potential, somewhat like a battery
with a corroded terminal. They therefore have a reduced potential to
cause heat/current flow.

- Large surfaces: Surfaces having a large surface area will behave as
black surfaces, irrespective of the actual surface properties:

0
1 1
=

c
c
c
c
A


Physically, this corresponds to the characteristic of large surfaces that as
they reflect energy, there is very little chance that energy will strike the
smaller surfaces; most of the energy is reflected back to another part of
the same large surface. After several partial absorptions most of the
energy received is absorbed.

Solution of Analogous Electrical Circuits.

- Large Enclosures

Consider the case of an object, 1, placed inside a large enclosure, 2.
The system will consist of two objects, so we proceed to construct a
circuit with two radiosity nodes.


1/(A
1
F
12
)

J
1
J
2

Now we ground both Radiosity nodes through a surface
resistance.

1/(A
1
F
12
)
J J
1 2


(1-c
1
)/(c
1
A
1
) (1-







Since A
2
is large, R
2
= 0. The view factor, F
12
= 1













Sum the series resistances:

R
Series
= (1-c
1
)/(c
1
A
1
) + 1/A
1
= 1/(c
1
A
1
)

Ohms law:

i = AV/R
or by analogy:
q = AE
b
/R
Series
= c
1
A
1
o(T
1
4
T
2
4
)

You may recall this result from Thermo I, where it was
introduced to solve this type of radiation problem.
- Networks with Multiple Potentials


E
b1
oT
1
4

E
b2
oT
2
4
c
2
)/( A
2
) c
2

R
1
R
12
R
2
(1-c
1
)/(c
1
A
1
) 1/(A
1
F
12
)
J
1
J
2

E
b1
oT
1
4
R
1
R
12

E
b2
oT
2
4

Systems with 3 or more
grounded potentials
will require a slightly
different solution, but
one which students
have previously
encountered in the
Circuits course.
J
2
J
3

2 1 1
1

F A

R
12
R
13

The procedure will be to
apply Kirchoffs law to each
of the Radiosity junctions.

0
3
1
=

= i
i
q


In this example there are three junctions, so we will obtain three
equations. This will allow us to solve for three unknowns.

Radiation problems will generally be presented on one of two ways:

o The surface net heat flow is given and the surface temperature is
to be found.
o The surface temperature is given and the net heat flow is to be
found.

Returning for a moment to the coal grate furnace, let us assume that
we know (a) the total heat being produced by the coal bed, (b) the
temperatures of the water walls and (c) the temperature of the super
heater sections.

Apply Kirchoffs law about node 1, for the coal bed:

0
13
1 3
12
1 2
1 1 3 1 2 1
=

+ = + +

R
J J
R
J J
q q q q


Similarly, for node 2:
E
b1



J
1

E
b3



0
23
2 3
12
2 1
2
2 2
2 3 2 1 2
=

= + +

R
J J
R
J J
R
J E
q q q
b


(Note how node 1, with a specified heat input, is handled differently
than node 2, with a specified temperature.

And for node 3:

0
23
3 2
13
3 1
3
3 3
3 2 3 1 3
=

= + +

R
J J
R
J J
R
J E
q q q
b


The three equations must be solved simultaneously. Since they
are each linear in J, matrix methods may be used:

3
3
2
2
1
3
2
1
23 13 3 23 13
23 13 12 2 12
13 12 13 12
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
R
E
R
E
q
J
J
J
R R R R R
R R R R R
R R R R
b
b



The matrix may be solved for the individual Radiosity. Once
these are known, we return to the electrical analogy to find the
temperature of surface 1, and the heat flows to surfaces 2 and 3.



Surface 1: Find the coal bed temperature, given the heat flow:

25 . 0
1 1 1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1 1
1

+
=

=

=
o
o J R q
T
R
J T
R
J E
q
b


Surface 2: Find the water wall heat input, given the water wall
temperature:

2
2
4
2
2
2 2
2
R
J T
R
J E
q
b

=

=
o


Surface 3: (Similar to surface 2) Find the water wall heat input,
given the water wall temperature:

3
3
4
3
3
3 3
3
R
J T
R
J E
q
b

=

=
o




Module 9: Worked out problems


1. A spherical aluminum shell of inside diameter D=2m is evacuated
and is used as a radiation test chamber. If the inner surface is coated
with carbon black and maintained at 600K, what is the irradiation on
a small test surface placed in the chamber? If the inner surface were
not coated and maintained at 600K, what would the irradiation test?

Known: Evacuated, aluminum shell of inside diameter D=2m,
serving as a radiation test chamber.

Find: Irradiation on a small test object when the inner surface is
lined with carbon black and maintained at 600K.what effect will
surface coating have?

Schematic:


Assumptions: (1) Sphere walls are isothermal, (2) Test surface area
is small compared to the enclosure surface.

Analysis: It follows from the discussion that this isothermal sphere
is an enclosure behaving as a black body. For such a condition, the
irradiation on a small surface within the enclosure is equal to the
black body emissive power at the temperature of the enclosure. That
is

2 4 2 8
1
4
1
/ 7348 ) 600 ( . / 10 67 . 5
) (
m W K K m W G
T T E G
s s b
= =
= =

o


The irradiation is independent of the nature of the enclosure surface
coating properties.

Comments: (1) The irradiation depends only upon the enclosure
surface temperature and is independent of the enclosure surface
properties.

(2) Note that the test surface area must be small compared to the
enclosure surface area. This allows for inter-reflections to occur
such that the radiation field, within the enclosure will be uniform
(diffuse) or isotropic.

(3) The irradiation level would be the same if the enclosure were not
evacuated since; in general, air would be a non-participating
medium.
























2 Assuming the earths surface is black, estimate its temperature
if the sun has an equivalently blackbody temperature of
5800K.The diameters of the sun and earth are 1.39*10
9
and
1.29*10
7
m, respetively, and the distance between the sun and
earth is 1.5*10
11
m.

Known: sun has an equivalently blackbody temperature of
5800K. Diameters of the sun and earth as well as separation
distances are prescribed.

Find: Temperature of the earth assuming the earth is black.


Schematic:



Assumptions: (1) Sun and earth emit black bodies, (2) No
attenuation of solar irradiation enroute to earth, and (3) Earth
atmosphere has no effect on earth energy balance.

Analysis: performing an energy balance on the earth

( )
4 / 1
4 2 2
, ,
. .
4 /
) 4 / (
) ( . .
0
o
o t t
S e
e e S e
e b s e S p e
out in
G T
T D G D
T E A G A
E E
=
=
=
=


Where A
s,p
and A
e,s
are the projected area and total surface
area of the earth, respectively. To determine the irradiation
GS at the earths surface, perform an energy bounded by the
spherical surface shown in sketch



2
2 2 7 11
4 2 8 2 9
2
,
4 2
. .
/ 5 . 1377
] 2 / 10 29 . 1 10 5 . 1 [ 4
) 5800 ( . / 10 67 . 5 ) 10 39 . 1 (
] 2 / [ 4 .
0
m W G
G m
K K m W m
G D R T D
E E
S
S
S e e S S S
out in
=

=
=
=

t
t
t o t


Substituting numerical values, find

K K m W m W T
e
279 ) . / 10 67 . 5 4 / / 5 . 1377 (
4 / 1 4 2 8 2
= =



Comments:

(1) The average earths temperature is greater than 279 K since
the effect of the atmosphere is to reduce the heat loss by
radiation.

(2) Note carefully the different areas used in the earth energy
balance. Emission occurs from the total spherical area, while
solar irradiation is absorbed by the projected spherical area.







3 The spectral, directional emissivity of a diffuse material at
2000K has the following distribution.

Determine the total, hemispherical emissivity at
2000K.Determine the emissive power over the spherical range
0.8 t0 2.5 um and for the directions 0sus30.

Known: Spectral, directional emissivity of a diffuse material
at 2000K.

Find: (1) The total, hemispherical emissivity, (b) emissive
power over the spherical range 0.8 t0 2.5 um and for the
directions 0sus30.

Schematic:




Assumptions: (1) Surface is diffuse emitter.


Analysis: (a) Since the surface is diffuse,c
,u
is independent of
direction; from Eq. c
,u
= c


) ( / ) , ( ) ( ) (
,
0
T E d T E T
b b
c c

=


b b b b
E d E E d E T / ) 2000 , ( ) / ) 2000 , ( ) ) (
,
5 . 1
0
2 ,
5 . 1
0
1
c c c


+ =

Written now in terms of F
(0)
, with F
(01.5)
=0.2732 at
T=1.5*2000=3000um.K, find

| | 636 . 0 ] 2732 . 0 1 [ 8 . 0 2732 . 0 2 . 0 1 ) 2000 (
) 5 . 1 0 ( 2 ) 5 . 1 0 ( 1
= + = + =

F F K c c c


(b) For the prescribed spectral and geometric limits,

write can we , E to equal and direction of
inde is nothing and , diffuse, is surface the Since ). , ( ) , , ( where
sin cos ) , (
b/ ,
, , , , ,
,
5 . 2
8 . 0
2
0
6 /
0
,
t
c c c o u
o u u u c

u u

tt
u
b b e
b
I T I I
d d d T I E
= =
= A


) (
) , (
) (
) , (
) (
sin cos
5 . 2
5 . 1
, 2
5 . 1
8 . 0
, 1
2
0
6 /
0
T E
d T E
T E
d T E
T E
d d E
b
b
b
b
b


+
)
`

= A
c c
t
o u u u

tt


Or in terms F
(0)
values,

{ } ]} [ ] [
2
sin
) 5 . 1 0 ( ) 5 . 2 0 ( 2 ) 8 . 0 0 ( ) 5 . 1 0 ( 1
4
6 /
0
2
2
0

+
)
`

= A F F F F
T
E c c
t
o u
o
t t


From table
K m T
K m T
. 5000 2000 5 . 2
. 1600 2000 8 . 0
u
u
= =
= =
6337
0197


. 0
. 0
) 5 . 2 0 (
) 8 . 0 0 (
=
=

F
F

{ }
2 2 4 8
2
4 8 2
/ 89 . 76 339 . 0 / 2000 10 67 . 5 ( 25 . 0
] 2732 . 0 6337 . 80 . 0 [ ] 0197 . 0 2732 . 0 [ 2 . 0
2000 10 67 . 5
2
6 / sin
2
m W m W E
m
W
E
= = A
+

= A

t
t
t



































4. A diffusely emitting surface is exposed to a radiant source
causing the irradiation on the surface to be 1000W/m
2
.The
intensity for emission is 143W/m
2
.sr and the reflectivity of the
surface is 0.8.Determine the emissive power ,E(W/m
2
),and
radiosity ,J(W/m
2
),for the surface. What is the net heat flux to
the surface by the radiation mode?

Known: A diffusely emitting surface with an intensity due to
emission of I
s
=143W/m
2
.sr and a reflectance p=0.8 is
subjected to irradiation=1000W/m
2
.

Find: (a) emissive power of the surface, E (W/m
2
), (b)
radiosity, J (W/m
2
), for the surface, (c) net heat flux to the
surface.


Schematic:




Assumptions: (1) surface emits in a diffuse manner.

Analysis: (a) For a diffusely emitting surface, I
s
(u) =I
e
is a
constant independent of direction. The emissive power is

2 2
/ 449 . / 143 m W sr m W sr I E
e
= = = t t

Note that t has units of steradians (sr).

(b) The radiosity is defined as the radiant flux leaving the
surface by emission and reflection,

2 2 2
/ 1249 / 1000 8 . 0 / 449 m W m W m W G E J = + = + = p

(c) The net radiative heat flux to the surface is determined
from a radiation balance on the surface.

2 2 2 "
"
,
"
,
"
/ 249 / 1249 / 1000 m W m W m W J G q
q q q
net
out rad in rad net
= = =
=



Comments: No matter how the surface is irradiated, the
intensity of the reflected flux will be independent of direction,
if the surface reflects diffusely.

























5. Radiation leaves the furnace of inside surface temperature
1500K through an aperture 20mm in diameter. A portion of the
radiation is intercepted by a detector that is 1m from the aperture,
as a surface area of 10
-5
m
2
, and is oriented as shown.
If the aperture is open, what is the rate at which radiation leaving
the furnace is intercepted by the detector? If the aperture is
covered with a diffuse, semitransparent material of spectral
transmissivity t

=0.8 for s2um and t

=0 for >2um, what is the

rate at which radiation leaving the furnace is intercepted by the
detector?

Known: Furnace wall temperature and aperture diameter.
Distance of detector from aperture and orientation of detector
relative to aperture.

Find: Rate at which radiation leaving the furnace is intercepted
by the detector, (b) effect of aperture window of prescribed
spectral transmissivity on the radiation interception rate.

Schematic:




Assumptions:

(1) Radiation emerging from aperture has characteristics of
emission from a black body, (2) Cover material is diffuse, (3)
Aperture and detector surface may be approximated as
infinitesimally small.


Analysis: (a) the heat rate leaving the furnace aperture and
intercepted by the detector is

a a s e
w A I q

= u cos
hence
sr
m
m
r
A
r
A
w
sr m W
T T E
I
s
n
a s
f f b
e
. 70710 . 0
) 1 (
45 cos 10 cos .
. / 10 14 . 9
) 1500 ( 10 67 . 5
) (
5
2
2 5
2
2
2
2 4
4 8
4

= = =
=

= = =
u
t t
o
t

W sr m sr m W q
4 5 2 2 4
10 76 . 1 10 707 . 0 30 cos ] 4 / ) 02 . 0 ( [ . / 10 14 . 9

= = t




(b) With the window, the heat rate is

wall. furnace the by emitted radiation to window the of vity transmissi the is where
) cos (
1
t
u t
a a a e
w A I q

=



W 10 0.384 W 10 1.76 0.218 q
find 0.218, 0.8 0.273 with hence
0.273. m) 2 F(0 table from m.K, 3000 1500K m 2 T with
8 . 0 ) / ( 8 . 0
) (
4 - 4 -
) 2 0 (
2
0
,
0
,
0
.
0
0
= =
=
= = =
= = = =

u u u

t t
t
u

m b b
b
f b
F d E E
d E
d T E
d G
d G

6.A horizontal semitransparent plate is uniformly irradiated from
above and below, while air at T=300K flows over the top and
bottom surfaces. providing a uniform convection heat transfer
coefficient of h=40W/m
2
.K.the total, hemispherical absorptivity
of the plate to the irradiation is 0.40.Under steady-state
conditions measurements made with radiation detector above the
top surface indicate a radiosity(which includes transmission, as
well as reflection and emission) of J=5000W/m
2
,while the plate
is at uniform temperature of T=350K

Determine the irradiation G and the total hemispherical
emissivity of the plate. Is the plate gray for the prescribed
conditions?

Known: Temperature, absorptivity, transmissivity, radiosity and
convection conditions for a semi-transparent plate.

Find: Plate irradiation and total hemispherical emissivity.

Schematic:

Plate,T=350K,
h
T
h= W/m
2.
K
q
conv
q
conv
G
G
J=5000W/m
2
J

Assumptions: From an energy balance on the plate

J q G
E E
conv
out
in
2 2 2
"
.
+ =

Solving for the irradiation and substituting numerical values,

G=40W/m
2
.K (350-300) K+5000W/m
2
=7000W/m
2


From the definition of J

G E G G E J ) 1 ( o t p + = + + =

Solving for the emissivity and substituting numerical values,

94 . 0
) 350 ( . / 10 67 . 5
) / 7000 ( 6 . 0 ) / 5000 ( ) 1 (
4 4 2 8
2 2
4
=

=

=

K K m W
m W m W
T
G J
o
o
c

Hence

c o =

And the surface is not gray for the prescribed conditions.

Comments: The emissivity may also be determined by
expressing the plate energy balance as

94 . 0
) 350 ( 4 . / 10 67 . 5
) 50 ( . / 40 ) / 7000 ( 4 . 0
) (
2 2 2
4 2 8
2 2
4
"
=

=
=
=

K K m W
K K m W m W
T T h G T
hence
E q G
conv
c
o co
o







7 An opaque, gray surface at 27C is exposed to irradiation of
1000W/m2, and 800W/m2 is reflected. Air at 17C flows over
the surface and the heat transfer convection coefficient is
15W/m
2
.K.Determine the net heat flux from the surface.

Known: Opaque, gray surface at 27C with prescribed
irradiation, reflected flux and convection process.

Find: Net heat flux from the surface.

Schematic:



Assumptions: (1) Surface is opaque and gray, (2) Surface is
diffuse, (3) Effects of surroundings are included in specified
irradiation.

Analysis: From an energy balance on the surface, the net heat
flux from the surface is

G G T T T h G G E q q
E E q
ref s s ref conv net
in out net
+ + = + + =
=

4 " "
"
.
" "
) ( co

2 2 "
2 4 4 4 2 8 2 "
net
ref
/ 42 / ) 1000 800 9 . 91 150 (
10 / 800 ) 273 27 ( . / 10 67 . 5 2 . 0 ) 17 27 ( . / 15 q
surface the from flux heat net the /G. G where
2 . 0 8 . 0 1 ) 1000 / 800 ( 1 ) / ( 1 1
m W m W q
m W K K m W K K m W
G G
net
ref
= + + =
+ + + =
=
= = = = = =

p
p o c

Comments: (1) For this situation, the radiosity is

2 2
/ 892 / ) 9 . 91 800 ( m W m W E G J
ref
= + = + =


The energy balance can be written involving the radiosity
(radiation leaving the surface) and the irradiation (radiation to the
surface).

2 2 " "
,
/ 42 / ) 150 1000 892 ( m W m W q G J q
conv out net
= + = + =

Note the need to assume the surface is diffuse, gray and opaque
in order that Eq (2) is applicable.


















8. A small disk 5 mm in diameter is positioned at the center of an
isothermal, hemispherical enclosure. The disk is diffuse and gray
with an emissivity of 0.7 and is maintained at 900 K. The
hemispherical enclosure, maintained at 300 K, has a radius of
100 mm and an emissivity of 0.85.

Calculate the radiant power leaving an aperture of diameter 2 mm
located on the enclosure as shown.

Known: Small disk positioned at center of an isothermal,
hemispherical enclosure with a small aperture.

Find: radiant power [uW] leaving the aperture.

Schematic:

Disk(A
1
),T
1
=900K,D
i
=5mm,
Hemispherical enclosure (A
s
)
T
s
=300K,
perture(
z
D mm
R=100mm
q
ap

Assumptions: (1)Disk is diffuse-gray,(2) Enclosure is isothermal
and has area much larger than disk,(3) Aperture area is very
small compared to enclosure area, (4) Areas of disk and aperture
are small compared to radius squared of the enclosure.

Analysis: the radiant power leaving the aperture is due to
radiation leaving the disk and to irradiation on the aperture from
the enclosure. That is

2 2 2 1
. A G q q
ap
+ =



The radiation leaving the disk can be written in terms of the
radiosity of the disk. For the diffuse disk

4
3 1
4
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 1 1 1 2 1
) 1 ( ) ( J
is radiosity the behavior, gray the for with and
. cos .
1
T T G T E
w A J q
b
o c o c p c
o c
u
t
+ = + =
=
=



follows angle solid ).The (T E G G
); (T E enclosure, black the of power emissive the is G irradiatin the Where
-1 2 3 b 2 1
3 b 1
e = =


2
2 1 2
/ R A =

e

Combining equations. (2), (3) and (4) into eq.(1) with G2=oT
4
3
,
the radiant power is

W W q
K K m W m
m
m
m K K K m W q
T A
R
A
A T T q
ap
ap
ap
u u
t t
t
t
o u c c o
t
1479 ) 1443 19 . 0 2 . 36 (
) 300 ( . / 10 67 . 25 ) 002 . 0 (
4 ) 100 . 0 (
) 002 . 0 ( 4 /
45 cos ) 005 . 0 (
4
) 300 )( 7 . 0 1 ( ) 900 ( 7 . 0 [ . / 10 67 . 5
1
. cos ] ) 1 ( [
1
4 4 2 8
2
2
2 4 4 4 2 8
4
3 2
2
2
1 1
4
3 1
4
1 1
= + + =
+
+ =
+ + =

Comments: Note the relative magnitudes of the three radiation
components. Also, recognize that the emissivity of the enclosures
c
3
doesnt enter into the analysis. Why?




MODULE 7

HEAT EXCHANGERS

7.1 What are heat exchangers?

Heat exchangers are devices used to transfer heat energy from one fluid to
another. Typical heat exchangers experienced by us in our daily lives include
condensers and evaporators used in air conditioning units and refrigerators.
Boilers and condensers in thermal power plants are examples of large industrial
heat exchangers. There are heat exchangers in our automobiles in the form of
radiators and oil coolers. Heat exchangers are also abundant in chemical and
process industries.

There is a wide variety of heat exchangers for diverse kinds of uses, hence the
construction also would differ widely. However, in spite of the variety, most
heat exchangers can be classified into some common types based on some
fundamental design concepts. We will consider only the more common types
here for discussing some analysis and design methodologies.

7.2 Heat Transfer Considerations

The energy flow between hot and cold streams, with hot stream in the
bigger diameter tube, is as shown in Figure 7.1. Heat transfer mode is by
convection on the inside as well as outside of the inner tube and by conduction
across the tube. Since the heat transfer occurs across the smaller tube, it is this
internal surface which controls the heat transfer process. By convention, it is
the outer surface, termed A
o
, of this central tube which is referred to in
describing heat exchanger area. Applying the principles of thermal resistance,


t T
d
i
do







Figure 7.1: End view of a tubular heat exchanger



R
h A
r
r
kl h A
o o
o
i
i i
= +
|
\

|
.
|

+
1
2
1
ln
t

If we define overall the heat transfer coefficient, U
c
, as:
U
RA
c
o

1

Substituting the value of the thermal resistance R yields:
1 1
U h
r
r
r
k
A
h A
c o
o
o
i o
i i
= +
|
\

|
.
|
+
ln

Standard convective correlations are available in text books and handbooks for
the convective coefficients, h
o
and h
i
. The thermal conductivity, k, corresponds
to that for the material of the internal tube. To evaluate the thermal resistances,
geometrical quantities (areas and radii) are determined from the internal tube
dimensions available.

7.3 Fouling
Material deposits on the surfaces of the heat exchanger tubes may add
more thermal resistances to heat transfer. Such deposits, which are detrimental
to the heat exchange process, are known as fouling. Fouling can be caused by a
variety of reasons and may significantly affect heat exchanger performance.
With the addition of fouling resistance, the overall heat transfer coefficient, U
c
,
may be modified as:

1 1
U U
R
d c
= + "
where R is the fouling resistance.

Fouling can be caused by the following sources:

1) Scaling is the most common form of fouling and is associated with
inverse solubility salts. Examples of such salts are CaCO
3
, CaSO
4
,
Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
, CaSiO
3
, Ca(OH)
2
, Mg(OH)
2
, MgSiO
3
, Na
2
SO
4
, LiSO
4
, and
Li
2
CO
3
.
2) Corrosion fouling is caused by chemical reaction of some fluid
constituents with the heat exchanger tube material.
3) Chemical reaction fouling involves chemical reactions in the process
stream which results in deposition of material on the heat exchanger
tubes. This commonly occurs in food processing industries.

4) Freezing fouling is occurs when a portion of the hot stream is cooled to
near the freezing point for one of its components. This commonly occurs
in refineries where paraffin frequently solidifies from petroleum products
at various stages in the refining process. , obstructing both flow and heat
transfer.
5) Biological fouling is common where untreated water from natural
resources such as rivers and lakes is used as a coolant. Biological micro-
organisms such as algae or other microbes can grow inside the heat
exchanger and hinder heat transfer.
6) Particulate fouling results from the presence of microscale sized particles
in solution. When such particles accumulate on a heat exchanger surface
they sometimes fuse and harden. Like scale these deposits are difficult to
remove.

With fouling, the expression for overall heat transfer coefficient
becomes:
1 1 1
U
h
r
r
r
r
k h
R
d
i
i
o
o
i
o
=

|
\

|
.
|
+ + +
ln( )
"

7.4 Basic Heat Exchanger Flow Arrangements
Two basic flow arrangements are as shown in Figure 7.2. Parallel and
counter flow provide alternative arrangements for certain specialized
applications. In parallel flow both the hot and cold streams enter the heat
exchanger at the same end and travel to the opposite end in parallel streams.
Energy is transferred along the length from the hot to the cold fluid so the outlet
temperatures asymptotically approach each other. In a counter flow
arrangement, the two streams enter at opposite ends of the heat exchanger and
flow in parallel but opposite directions. Temperatures within the two streams
tend to approach one another in a nearly linearly fashion resulting in a much
more uniform heating pattern. Shown below the heat exchangers are
representations of the axial temperature profiles for each. Parallel flow results
in rapid initial rates of heat exchange near the entrance, but heat transfer rates
rapidly decrease as the temperatures of the two streams approach one another.
This leads to higher exergy loss during heat exchange. Counter flow provides
for relatively uniform temperature differences and, consequently, lead toward
relatively uniform heat rates throughout the length of the unit.






Fig. 7.2 Basic Flow Arrangements for Tubular Heat Exchangers.


7.5 Log Mean Temperature Differences
Heat flows between the hot and cold streams due to the temperature
difference across the tube acting as a driving force. As seen in the Figure 7.3,
the temperature difference will vary along the length of the HX, and this must
be taken into account in the analysis.



Fig. 7.3 Temperature Differences Between Hot and Cold Process Streams

From the heat exchanger equations shown earlier, it can be shown that the
integrated average temperature difference for either parallel or counter flow
may be written as:

|
|
.
|

\
|

= = A
2
1
2 1
ln
u
u
u u
u LMTD

The effective temperature difference calculated from this equation is known as
the log mean temperature difference, frequently abbreviated as LMTD, based on
the type of mathematical average that it describes. While the equation applies
T
2
t
2
T
1
t
1
Counter Flow
t
1
T
1
T
1
T
2
t
2
t
1
Temperature
Position
T
2
t
2
Parallel Flow
T
1
T
2
t
1
t
2
Position
Temperature
Counter Flow
T
1
T
2
t
2
t
1
Position

2

Parallel Flow
T
1
T
2
t
1
t
2
Position

2


to either parallel or counter flow, it can be shown that Au
eff
will always be
greater in the counter flow arrangement.

Another interesting observation from the above Figure is that counter
flow is more appropriate for maximum energy recovery. In a number of
industrial applications there will be considerable energy available within a hot
waste stream which may be recovered before the stream is discharged. This is
done by recovering energy into a fresh cold stream. Note in the Figures shown
above that the hot stream may be cooled to t
1
for counter flow, but may only be
cooled to t
2
for parallel flow. Counter flow allows for a greater degree of
energy recovery. Similar arguments may be made to show the advantage of
counter flow for energy recovery from refrigerated cold streams.


7.6 Applications for Counter and Parallel Flows
We have seen two advantages for counter flow, (a) larger effective
LMTD and (b) greater potential energy recovery. The advantage of the larger
LMTD, as seen from the heat exchanger equation, is that a larger LMTD
permits a smaller heat exchanger area, A
o
, for a given heat transfer, Q. This
would normally be expected to result in smaller, less expensive equipment for a
given application.
Sometimes, however, parallel flows are desirable (a) where the high
initial heating rate may be used to advantage and (b) where it is required the
temperatures developed at the tube walls are moderate. In heating very viscous
fluids, parallel flow provides for rapid initial heating and consequent decrease in
fluid viscosity and reduction in pumping requirement. In applications where
moderation of tube wall temperatures is required, parallel flow results in cooler
walls. This is especially beneficial in cases where the tubes are sensitive to
fouling effects which are aggravated by high temperature.


7.7 Multipass Flow Arrangements
In order to increase the surface area for convection relative to the fluid volume,
it is common to design for multiple tubes within a single heat exchanger. With
multiple tubes it is possible to arrange to flow so that one region will be in
parallel and another portion in counter flow. An arrangement where the tube
side fluid passes through once in parallel and once in counter flow is shown in
the Figure 7.4. Normal terminology would refer to this arrangement as a 1-2
pass heat exchanger, indicating that the shell side fluid passes through the unit
once, the tube side twice. By convention the number of shell side passes is
always listed first.













Fig. 7.4 Multipass flow arrangement

The primary reason for using multipass designs is to increase the average tube
side fluid velocity in a given arrangement. In a two pass arrangement the fluid
flows through only half the tubes and any one point, so that the Reynolds
number is effectively doubled. Increasing the Reynoldss number results in
increased turbulence, increased Nusselt numbers and, finally, in increased
convection coefficients. Even though the parallel portion of the flow results in a
lower effective AT, the increase in overall heat transfer coefficient will
frequently compensate so that the overall heat exchanger size will be smaller for
a specific service. The improvement achievable with multipass heat exchangers
is substantialy large. Accordingly, it is a more accepted practice in modern
industries compared to conventional true parallel or counter flow designs.
The LMTD formulas developed earlier are no longer adequate for
multipass heat exchangers. Normal practice is to calculate the LMTD for
counter flow, LMTD
cf
, and to apply a correction factor, F
T
, such that

Au
eff T CF
F LMTD =

The correction factors, F
T
, can be found theoretically and presented in analytical
form. The equation given below has been shown to be accurate for any
arrangement having 2, 4, 6, .....,2n tube passes per shell pass to within 2%.

( )
( )
( )
F
R
P
R P
R
P R R
P R R
T
=
+

+ +
+ + +

2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2 1
2 1
ln
ln
1
1


where the capacity ratio, R, is defined as:
R
T T
t t
=

1 2
2 1


The effectiveness may be given by the equation:
P
X
R X
N
N
shell
shell
=

1
1
1
/
/

provided that R=1. In the case that R=1, the effectiveness is given by:
( )
P
P
N P N
o
shell o shell
=
1

where
P
t t
T t
o
=

2 1
1 1

and
X
P R
P
o
o
=

1
1


7.8 Effectiveness-NTU Method:
Quite often, heat exchanger analysts are faced with the situation that only the
inlet temperatures are known and the heat transfer characteristics (UA value) are
known, but the outlet temperatures have to be calculated. Clearly, LMTH
method will not be applicable here. In this regard, an alternative method known
as the -NTU method is used.
Before we introduce this method, let us ask ourselves following question:
? conditions inlet given for perform Exchange Heat existing will How

: ess effectiven Define The effectiveness, , is the ratio of the energy recovered
in a HX to that recoverable in an ideal HX.
( ) ( )
have can rate capacity heat C , C of lesser with fluid only the then
since and
fluid One
H.Ex. long infinitely an for is where ,
max B A
A
, , max
max
max
T
T C T C T c m T c m Q
T T T T
Q
Q
Q
B B A B B A A
in c in h
actual
A
A = A = A = A =
= A A
=
& &
&
&
&
&
c
( )
( )

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
=
=

= A =
max
min
min max
min
max
min
min
. . min
. . min
max min max
1
UA -
exp 1
1
UA -
exp - 1

......... ) ( into back Substitute
s. T' outlet contain not does which for expression want We
or,
and i.e.
C
C
C C
C
C
C
C
LMTD UA Q
T T C Q
T T C
Q
T C Q
in c in h
in c in h
c
c
c
c
&
&
&
&






















Fig. 7.5 Calculation of effectiveness-NTU


min
max
min
HEx.) of (size units transfer of No. and
,
C
UA
NTU
C
C
NTU
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= c c







Charts for each Configuration

Procedure:
Determine C
max
, C
min
/C
max

Get UA/C
min,
c from chart


( )
in c in h
T T C Q
. . min
= c
&


U
C NTU
A
C
UA
NTU
min max
min
max
= =



NTU
max
can be obtained from figures in textbooks/handbooks
First, however, we must determine which fluid has Cmin.

Module 7: Solved Problems


1. Deionized water flows through the inner tube of 30-mm diameter in a
thin-walled concentric tube heat exchanger of 0.19-m length. Hot
process water at 95C flows in the annulus formed with the outer tube
of 60-mm diameter. The deionized water is to be heated from 40 to
60C at a flow rate of 5 kg/s. The thermo physical properties of the
fluids are:

DEIONIZED
WATER
PROCESS
WATER
kg/m3)
982.3
4181
0.643
548
3.56
967.1
4197
0.673
324
2.02
c
p
(J/kg.K
k(W/m.K
N.s/m
2
pr


(a) Considering a parallel-flow configuration of the heat exchanger,
determine the minimum flow rate required for the hot process
water.
(b) Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient required for the
conditions of part a.
(c) Considering a counter flow configuration, determine the minimum
flow rate required for the hot process water. What is the
effectiveness of the exchanger for this situation?









Schematic:

Process
water,h
Deionized
water,c
T
c,i
=40 C
T
h,i
=95 C
T
1
T
2
m
c
=5kg/s
T
c,0i
=60 C
T
h,o
T
x
Concentric tube
PF,L=0.19m
D=30mm
0


Assumptions: (1) Negligible heat loss to surroundings, (2) Negligible
kinetic and potential energy changes.


Analysis: (a) from overall energy balances,

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
, ,
.
, ,
.
i c o c h o h i h h
T T c m T T c m q = =

For a fixed term , )
h
will be a minimum when T
h,o
is a minimum.
With the parallel flow configuration, this requires that T
h,o
=T
c,o
=60C.
Hence,
i h
T
,
.
(m

s kg
C K kg J
C K kg J s kg
T T c
T T mc
h m
o h i h h
i c o c c
/ 85 . 2
) 60 95 ( . / 4197
) 40 60 ( . / 4181 / 5
) (
) ( ) (
min ,
, ,
.
, ,
.
=


=

=




(b)From the rate equation and the log mean temperature relation,


T
T
ln
T - T

2
1
2 1
, ,
|
.
|

\
|
A
A
A A
= A A =
PF lm PF lm
T T UA q

And since T
2
=0, T
lm
=0 so that UA=. Since A=tDL is finite, U
must be extremely large. Hence, the heating cannot be accomplished
with this arrangement.


(c) With the CF arrangements will be a minimum when T
ho
is a
minimum. This requires that T
h,o
is a minimum. This requires that T
h,o
is a minimum. This requires that T
h,o
=T
c,i
=40C. Hence, from the
overall energy balance,
h m
.

s kg
K K kg J
K K kg J s kg
m / 81 . 1
) 40 95 ( . / 4197
) 40 60 ( . / 4181 / 5
.
=

=


For this condition, C
min
=C
h
which is cooled from T
h,i
to T
c,i
, hence c=1

Comments: For the counter flow arrangement, the heat exchanger
must be infinitely long.




















2. Water with a flow rate of 0.05kg/s enters an automobile radiator at
400K and leaves at 330 K. The water is cooled by air in cross flow
which enters at 0.75kg/s and leaves at 300K. If the overall heat
transfer coefficient is 200W/m
2
.K, what is the required heat transfer
surface area?

Schematic:

Water
T
h,i
=400K
m
h
=0.05kg/s
T
c,i
=300K
m
c
=0.75kg/s
Air
T
h,o
=330K
T
c,o


Assumptions: (1) Negligible heat loss to surroundings and kinetic and
potential energy changes, (2) Constant properties.


Analysis: The required heat transfer rate is

W K K kg J s kg T T c m q
o h i h h
732 , 14 70 ) . / 4209 ( / 05 . 0 ) ( ) (
, ,
.
= = =

Using the c-NTU method,

700 . 0 045 , 21 / 732 , 14 /
045 , 21 ) 100 ( / 45 . 210 ) ( / ,
, / 25 . 755
/ 45 . 210
max
, , max min
max
min
= = =
= =
= =
= =
W W q q
and
W K K W T T C C hence
K W C C
K W C C
i c i h
c
h
c


From figure, NTU~1.5, hence

2 2
min
58 . 1 ) . / 200 ( / 45 . 210 5 . 1 ) / ( m K m W K W U C NTU A = = =

Comments: (1) the air outlet temperature is

K K W W K C q T T
c i c o c
5 . 319 ) / 25 . 755 / 732 , 14 ( 300 /
, ,
= + = + =

(2) Using the LMTD approach, T
lm
=51.2 K, R=0.279 and P=0.7.
Hence from fig F~0.95 and

. 51 . 1 ] 2 . 51 ) . / 200 ( 95 . 0 /[ ) 732 , 14 ( /
2 2
m K K m W W T FU q A
lm
= = A =
















3. Saturated steam leaves a steam turbine at a flow rate of 1.5kg/s and a
pressure of 0.51 bars. The vapor is to be completely condensed to
saturated liquid in a shell-and tube heat exchanger which uses water
as the coolant. The water enters the thin-walled tubes at 17C and
leaves at 57C. If the overall heat transfer coefficient of 200W/m
2
.K,
determine the required heat exchanger surface area and the water flow
rate. After extended operation, fouling causes the overall heat transfer
coefficient to decrease to 100W/m
2
.K. For the same water inlet
temperature and flow rate, what is the new vapor flow rate required
for complete condensation?


Schematic:



Assumptions: (1) Negligible heat loss to surroundings, (2) Negligible
wall conduction resistance.

Properties: Table for
sat.Water:

2304kJ/kg. h 355K, T : bars) 0.51 (p ; . / 4178 c : ) 310 (
t sa c p,
= = = = =

fg c
K kg J K T

Analysis: (a) The required heat transfer rate is

W kg J s kg h m q
fg
h
6 6
.
10 46 . 3 ) / 10 304 . 2 ( / 5 . 1 = = =

And the corresponding heat capacity rate for the water is

97 . 0 ) 62 . 0 1 ln( ) - -ln(1 NTU
0, /C C since
62 . 0 ) 65 ( / 400 , 86 / 10 46 . 3 ]) [ /( ,
/ 400 , 86 40 / 10 48 . 3 ) /(
max min
6
, , min
6
, , min
= = =
=
= = =
= = = =
c
c K K W W T T C q hence
K W K W T T q C C
i c i h
i c o c c



And

s kg K kg J K W c C m
m K m W K W U C NTU A
c p c
c / 7 . 20 . / 4178 / / 400 , 86 /
2 9 . 41 ) . 2 / 2000 / / 400 , 86 ( 97 . 0 ) / (
,
.
min
= = =
= = =



(b) using the final overall heat transfer coefficient, find

Since 0, /C C
max min
=

s kg kg J W h q m
W K K W T T
NTU
fg
h
i c i h
/ 936 . 0 / 10 304 . 2 / 10 16 . 2 /
16106 . 2 65 ) / 400 , 886 ( 384 . 0 ) ( C q hence,
384 . 0 ) 485 . 0 exp( 1 ) exp( 1
6 6
.
, , min
= = =
= = =
= = =
c
c




Comments: The significant reduction (38%) in represents a
significant loss in turbine power. Periodic cleaning of condenser
surfaces should be employed to minimize the adverse effects of
fouling.
h m
.




4. Water at 225 kg/h is to be heated from 35 to 95C by means of a
concentric tube heat exchanger. Oil at 225kg/h and 210C, with a
specific heat of 2095 J/kg.K, is to be used as the hot fluid. If the
overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outer diameter of the
inner tube if 550W/m
2
.K, determine the length of the exchanger if the
outer diameter is 100mm.

Schematic:



Assumptions: (1) Negligible heat loss to surroundings, (2) Negligible
kinetic and potential energy changes, (3) Constant properties.

Properties: Table for Water:
K kg J c K C T
c p c
. / 4188 : ) 338 2 / ) 95 35 ( (
,
_
= = + =



Analysis: From rate equation with A
o
=tD
o
L, L=q/U
o
D
o
T
m


The heat rate, q, can be evaluated from an energy balance on the cold
fluid,

W K K kg J
h s
h kg
T T c m q
i c c c
c 705 , 15 ) 35 95 ( . / 4188
/ 3600
/ 225
) (
, 0 ,
.
= = =


In order to evaluate T
m
, we need to know whether the exchanger is
operating in CF or PF. From an energy balance on the hot fluid, find

C
K kg
J
h s
h kg
W C c m q T T
h h i h o h
= = =

1 . 90
.
2095
/ 3600
/ 225
/ 705 , 15 210 /
.
, ,


Since T
h,o
<T
c,o
it follows that HXer operation must be CF. From eq.
for log mean temperature difference,
C C
n T T n
T T
T
CF m
=

=
A A
A A
= A 5 . 81
) 1 . 55 / 115 (
) 35 1 . 90 ( ) 95 210 (
) / (
2 1
2 1
,

Substituting numerical values, the HXer length is

m K m K m W W L 12 . 1 4 . 81 ) 10 . 0 ( . / 550 / 705 , 15
2
= = t

Comments: The cNTU method could also be used. It would be
necessary to perform the hot fluid energy balance to determining CF
operation existed. The capacity rate is C
min
/C
max
=0.50. From eq. for
effectiveness, and from with q evaluated from an energy balance on
the hot fluid,

69 . 0
35 210
1 . 90 210
, ,
, ,
=

=
i c i h
o h i h
T T
T T
c
T
h,i
=210 C
T
h,o
=90.1 C
T
c,o
=95 C
T
c,i
=35 C
T1
T2
1
2
T
x

From fig, find NTU~1.5 giving
m m
K m
W
K
W
D U C NTU L
o o
14 . 1 ) 10 . 0 ( .
.
550 94 . 130 5 . 1 / .
2
min
~ ~ = t t


Note the good agreement by both methods.
5. Consider a very long, concentric tube heat exchanger having hot and
cold water inlet temperatures of 85 and 15C. The flow rate of the hot
water is twice that of the cold water. Assuming equivalent hot and
cold water specifies heats; determine the hot water outlet temperature
for the following modes of operation (a) Counter flow, (b) Parallel
flow.

Schematic:

T
h,i
=85 C
T
c,i
=15 C
Cc
C
h
=2Cc


Assumptions: (1) equivalent hot and cold water specific heats, (2)
Negligible Kinetic and potential energy changes, (3) No eat loss to
surroundings.

Analysis: the heat rate for a concentric tube
Heat exchanger with very large surface area
Operating in the counter flow mode is

) (
, , min max i c i h
T T C q q = =

Combining the above relation and rearranging, find

i h i c i h
h
c
i h i c i h
h
o h
T T T
C
C
T T T
C
C
T
, , , , , ,
min
,
) ( ) ( + = + =

Substituting numerical values

C C C T
o h
= + = 50 85 ) 15 85 (
2
1
,


For parallel flow operation, the hot and cold outlet temperatures will
be equal; that is T
c,o
=T
h,o
. Hence

) ( ) (
, , , , o h i h h i c o c c
T T C T T C =
Setting T
c,o
=T
h,o
and rearranging

C C T
C
C
T
C
C
T T
o h
h
c
i c
h
c
i h o h

+ =

+ =
7 . 61
2
1
1 / 15
2
1
85
1 /
,
, , ,




Comments: Note that while c =1 for CF operation, for PF operation
find c= q/q
max
=0.67.










6. A concentric tube heat exchanger uses water, which is available at
15C, to cool ethylene glycol from 100 to 60C. The water and glycol
flow rates are each 0.5 kg/s. Determine the maximum possible heat
transfer rate and effectiveness of the exchanger. Determine which is
preferred, a parallel flow or counter flow mode of operation?

Known: Inlet temperatures and flow rate for a concentric tube heat
exchanger.

Find: (a) Maximum possible heat transfer rate and effectiveness, (b)
Proffered mode of operation.

Schematic:

Ethylene glycol
T
h,i
=100 C
T
ho
=60 C
m
hi
=0.5kg/s
Water
T
c,i
=15 C m
c
=0.5kg/s
U,A


Assumptions: (1) Steady-state operation, (2) Negligible KE and PE
changes, (3) Negligible heat loss to surroundings, (4) Fixed overall
heat transfer and coefficient.

Properties: Table: Ethylene glycol ( cp=2650J/kg.K; ); 80
_
C T in =
K kg J c C T Water
p m
. / 4178 : ) 30 (
_
= ~

Analysis: (a) Using the c-NTU method, find

K W K kg J s kg c m C C
h
p h h
/ 1325 ) . / 2650 )( / 5 . 0 (
,
.
min
= = = =

W C K W T T C x q
i c i h ma
5
, . min
10 13 . 1 ) 15 100 )( / 1325 ( ) ( = = =

W C K kg J s kg T T c m q
i c i h h p h
5
, .
.
,
10 53 . 0 ) 60 100 )( . / 2650 ( / 5 . 0 ) ( = = =

47 . 0 10 13 . 1 / 10 53 . 0 /
5 5
max
= = = q q c

(b)

C
K kg J s kg
C
c m
q
T T
c p c
i c o c
=

+ = + = 4 . 40
. / 4178 / 5 . 0
10 53 . 0
15
5
.
,
, ,


Since T
c,o
<T
h,o,
a parallel flow mode of operation is possible.
However, with (C
min
/C
max
) = =0.63, ) , / (
.
,
.
c p
c
h
p
c m c m
h

From fig (NTU)
PF
~0.95, (NTU)
CF
~0.75

Hence

(A
CF
/A
PF
)= (NTU)
CF
/ (NTU)
PF
~(0.75/0.95)=0.79

Because of the reduced size requirement, hence capital investment,
the counter flow mode of operation is preferred.