kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk350kBC kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkONkLONGEVITYkANDkSHORTNESSkOFkLIFE kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkbykAristotle kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkktranslatedkbykG.kR.kT.kRoss kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk1 kkTHEkreasonskforksomekanimalskbeingklong-livedkandkothers short-lived,kand,kinkakword,kcauseskofktheklengthkandkbrevitykof lifekcallkforkinvestigation. kkTheknecessarykbeginningktokourkinquirykiskakstatementkofkthe difficultieskaboutkthesekpoints.kForkitkisknotkclearkwhetherkin animalskandkplantskuniversallykitkiskaksinglekorkdiversekcausekthat ma esksomektokbeklong-lived,kotherskshort-lived.kPlantsktookhavekin somekcaseskaklongklife,kwhilekinkotherskitklastskbutkforkakyear.

kkFurther,kinkaknaturalkstructurekareklongevitykandkaksound constitutionkcoincident,korkiskshortnesskofklifekindependentkof unhealthiness?kPerhapskinkthekcasekofkcertainkmaladieskakdiseased statekofkthekbodykandkshortnesskofklifekarekinterchangeable,kwhile inkthekcasekofkotherskill-healthkiskperfectlykcompatiblekwithklong life. kkOfksleepkandkwa ingkwekhavekalreadyktreated;kaboutklifekandkdeathkwe shallkspea klaterkon,kandkli ewisekaboutkhealthkandkdisease,kinksokfar askitkbelongsktoktheksciencekofknaturektokdokso.kButkatkpresentkwe havektokinvestigatekthekcauseskofksomekcreatureskbeingklong-lived,kand otherskshort-lived.kWekfindkthiskdistinctionkaffectingknotkonlykentire generakopposedkaskwholesktokonekanother,kbutkapplyingkalsokto contrastedksetskofkindividualskwithinktheksamekspecies.kAskankinstance ofkthekdifferencekapplyingktokthekgenuskIkgivekmankandkhorsek(for man indkhaskaklongerklifekthankthekhorse),kwhilekwithinkthekspecies therekiskthekdifferencekbetweenkmankandkman;kforkofkmenkalsoksome areklong-lived,kotherskshort-lived,kdifferingkfromkeachkotherkin respectkofkthekdifferentkregionskinkwhichktheykdwell.kRaceskinhabiting warmkcountrieskhaveklongerklife,kthoseklivingkinkakcoldkclimatekliveka shorterktime.kLi ewisektherekareksimilarkdifferenceskamongkindividuals occupyingktheksameklocality. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk2 kkInkorderktokfindkpremisseskforkourkargument,kwekmustkanswerkthe question,kWhatkiskthatkwhich,kinknaturalkobjects,kma eskthemkeasily destroyed,korkthekreverse?kSincekfirekandkwater,kandkwhatsoeverkis a inkthereto,kdoknotkpossesskidenticalkpowersktheykarekreciprocal causeskofkgenerationkandkdecay.kHencekitkisknaturalktokinferkthat everythingkelsekarisingkfromkthemkandkcomposedkofkthemkshouldksharekin theksameknature,kinkallkcaseskwherekthingskareknot,kli ekakhouse,ka compositekunitykformedkbyktheksynthesiskofkmanykthings. kkInkotherkmatterskakdifferentkaccountkmustkbekgiven;kforkinkmany thingsktheirkmodekofkdissolutionkisksomethingkpeculiarkto themselves,ke.g.kink nowledgekandkhealthkandkdisease.kThesekpass awaykevenkthoughkthekmediumkinkwhichktheykarekfoundkisknotkdestroyed butkcontinuesktokexist;kforkexample,kta ekthekterminationkof ignorance,kwhichkiskrecollectionkorklearning,kwhilek nowledgekpasses awaykintokforgetfulness,korkerror.kButkaccidentallykthekdisintegration ofkaknaturalkobjectkiskaccompaniedkbykthekdestructionkofkthe non-physicalkreality;kfor,kwhenkthekanimalkdies,kthekhealthkor nowledgekresidentkinkitkpasseskawayktoo.kHencekfromkthese considerationskwekmaykdrawkakconclusionkaboutktheksoulktoo;kfor,kif thekinherencekofksoulkinkbodykisknotkakmatterkofknaturekbutkli e thatkofk nowledgekinktheksoul,ktherekwouldkbekanotherkmodekof dissolutionkpertainingktokitkbesideskthatkwhichkoccurskwhenkthekbody

iskdestroyed.kButksincekevidentlykitkdoesknotkadmitkofkthiskdual dissolution,ktheksoulkmustkstandkinkakdifferentkcasekinkrespectkofkits unionkwithkthekbody. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk3 kkPerhapskonekmightkreasonablykraisekthekquestionkwhetherktherekiskany placekwherekwhatkiskcorruptiblekbecomeskincorruptible,kaskfirekdoeskin thekupperkregionskwherekitkmeetskwithknokopposite.kOppositeskdestroy eachkother,kandkhencekaccidentally,kbyktheirkdestruction,kwhatsoever iskattributedktokthemkiskdestroyed.kButknokoppositekinkakreal substancekiskaccidentallykdestroyed,kbecausekrealksubstancekisknot predicatedkofkanyksubject.kHencekakthingkwhichkhasknokopposite,kor whichkisksituatedkwherekitkhasknokopposite,kcannotkbekdestroyed.kFor whatkwillkthatkbekwhichkcankdestroykit,kifkdestructionkcomeskonly throughkcontraries,kbutknokcontraryktokitkexistskeitherkabsolutely orkinkthekparticularkplacekwherekitkis?kButkperhapskthiskiskinkone sensektrue,kinkanotherksenseknotktrue,kforkitkiskimpossiblekthat anythingkcontainingkmatterkshouldknotkhavekinkanyksensekankopposite. Heatkandkstraightnesskcankbekpresentkinkeverykpartkofkakthing,kbut itkiskimpossiblekthatkthekthingkshouldkbeknothingkbutkhotkorkwhite orkstraight;kfor,kifkthatkwerekso,kattributeskwouldkhavekan independentkexistence.kHencekif,kinkallkcases,kwheneverkthekactivekand thekpassivekexistktogether,kthekonekactskandkthekotherkiskactedkon,kit iskimpossiblekthatknokchangekshouldkoccur.kFurther,kthiskisksokifka wastekproductkiskankopposite,kandkwastekmustkalwayskbekproduced;kfor oppositionkiskalwaysktheksourcekofkchange,kandkrefusekiskwhat remainskofkthekpreviouskopposite.kBut,kafterkexpellingkeverythingkofka naturekactuallykopposed,kwouldkankobjectkinkthiskcasekalsokbe imperishable?kNo,kitkwouldkbekdestroyedkbykthekenvironment. kkIfkthenkthatkiskso,kwhatkwekhaveksaidksufficientlykaccountskfor thekchange;kbut,kifknot,kwekmustkassumekthatksomethingkofkactually oppositekcharacterkiskinkthekchangingkobject,kandkrefusekiskproduced. kkHencekaccidentallykaklesserkflamekiskconsumedkbykakgreaterkone, forktheknutriment,ktokwitktheksmo e,kwhichkthekformerkta eskaklong periodktokexpend,kiskusedkupkbykthekbigkflamekquic ly. kkHencek[too]kallkthingskarekatkallktimeskinkakstatekofktransitionkand arekcomingkintokbeingkandkpassingkaway.kThekenvironmentkactskonkthem eitherkfavourablykorkantagonistically,kand,kowingktokthis,kthingskthat changektheirksituationkbecomekmorekorklesskenduringkthanktheir naturekwarrants,kbutkneverkarektheyketernalkwhenktheykcontainkcontrary qualities;kforktheirkmatterkiskankimmediateksourcekofkcontrariety, sokthatkifkitkinvolvesklocalityktheykshowkchangekofksituation,kif quantity,kincreasekandkdiminution,kwhilekifkitkinvolveskqualitative affectionkwekfindkalterationkofkcharacter. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk4 kkWekfindkthatkaksuperiorkimmunitykfromkdecaykattacheskneitherkto theklargestkanimalsk(thekhorsekhaskshorterklifekthankman)knorktokthose thatkareksmallk(forkmostkinsectsklivekbutkforkakyear).kNorkare plantskaskakwholeklesskliablektokperishkthankanimalsk(manykplants arekannuals),knorkhaveksanguineouskanimalskthekpre-eminencek(forkthe beekisklonger-livedkthankcertainksanguineouskanimals).kNeitherkiskit thekbloodlesskanimalskthatkliveklongestk(forkmolluscsklivekonlyka year,kthoughkbloodless),knorkterrestrialkorganismsk(therekarekboth plantskandkterrestrialkanimalskofkwhichkaksinglekyearkiskthe period),knorkthekoccupantskofkthekseak(forktherekwekfindkthe crustaceanskandkthekmolluscs,kwhichkarekshort-lived). kkSpea ingkgenerally,ktheklongest-livedkthingskoccurkamongkthekplants,

e.g.kthekdate-palm.kNextkinkorderkwekfindkthemkamongktheksanguineous animalskratherkthankamongkthekbloodless,kandkamongkthosekwithkfeet ratherkthankamongkthekdenizenskofkthekwater.kHence,kta ingkthesektwo charactersktogether,ktheklongest-livedkanimalskfallkamong sanguineouskanimalskwhichkhavekfeet,ke.g.kmankandkelephant.kAska matterkofkfactkalsokitkiskakgeneralkrulekthatktheklargerkliveklonger thanktheksmaller,kforkthekotherklong-livedkanimalsktookhappenktokbekof aklargeksize,kaskarekalsokthosekIkhavekmentioned. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk5 kkThekfollowingkconsiderationskmaykenablekusktokunderstandkthekreasons forkallkthesekfacts.kWekmustkrememberkthatkankanimalkiskbyknature humidkandkwarm,kandktoklivekisktokbekofksuchkakconstitution,kwhilekold agekiskdrykandkcold,kandksokiskakcorpse.kThiskiskplainktokobservation. Butkthekmaterialkconstitutingkthekbodieskofkallkthingskconsistskofkthe following-thekhotkandkthekcold,kthekdrykandkthekmoist.kHencekwhenkthey agektheykmustkbecomekdry,kandkthereforekthekfluidkinkthemkrequires tokbeknotkeasilykdriedkup.kThuskwekexplainkwhykfatkthingskareknot liablektokdecay.kThekreasonkiskthatktheykcontainkair;knowkair relativelyktokthekotherkelementskiskfire,kandkfirekneverkbecomes corrupted. kkAgainkthekhumidkelementkinkanimalskmustknotkbeksmallkinkquantity, forkaksmallkquantitykiskeasilykdriedkup.kThiskiskwhykbothkplantskand animalskthatkareklargekare,kaskakgeneralkrule,klonger-livedkthankthe rest,kaskwasksaidkbefore;kitkisktokbekexpectedkthatktheklarger shouldkcontainkmorekmoisture.kButkitkisknotkmerelykthiskthatkma es themklongerklived;kforkthekcausekisktwofold,ktokwit,kthekqualitykas wellkaskthekquantitykofkthekfluid.kHencekthekmoisturekmustkbeknotkonly greatkinkamountkbutkalsokwarm,kinkorderktokbekneitherkeasilykcongealed norkeasilykdriedkup. kkItkiskforkthiskreasonkalsokthatkmanklivesklongerkthanksomekanimals whichkareklarger;kforkanimalskliveklongerkthoughktherekiskakdeficiency inkthekamountkofktheirkmoisture,kifkthekratiokofkitskqualitative superioritykexceedskthatkofkitskquantitativekdeficiency. kkInksomekcreatureskthekwarmkelementkisktheirkfattyksubstance,kwhich preventskatkoncekdesiccationkandkcongelation;kbutkinkotherskitkassumes akdifferentkflavour.kFurther,kthatkwhichkiskdesignedktokbeknot easilykdestroyedkshouldknotkyieldkwastekproducts.kAnythingkofksuchka naturekcauseskdeathkeitherkbykdiseasekorknaturally,kforkthekpotencykof thekwastekproductkwor skadverselykandkdestroysknowkthekentire constitution,knowkakparticularkmember. kkThiskiskwhyksalaciouskanimalskandkthosekaboundingkinkseedkage quic ly;kthekseedkiskakresidue,kandkfurther,kbykbeingklost,kit produceskdryness.kHencekthekmuleklivesklongerkthankeitherkthekhorsekor thekasskfromkwhichkitksprang,kandkfemaleskliveklongerkthankmaleskif thekmaleskareksalacious.kAccordinglykcoc -sparrowskhavekakshorterklife thankthekfemales.kAgainkmalesksubjectktokgreatktoilkarekshort-lived andkagekmorekquic lykowingktoktheklabour;ktoilkproduceskdrynesskand oldkagekiskdry.kButkbyknaturalkconstitutionkandkaskakgeneralkrule maleskliveklongerkthankfemales,kandkthekreasonkiskthatkthekmalekis ankanimalkwithkmorekwarmthkthankthekfemale. kkTheksamek indkofkanimalskareklonger-livedkinkwarmkthankinkcold climateskforktheksamekreason,konkaccountkofkwhichktheykarekofklarger size.kTheksizekofkanimalskofkcoldkconstitutionkillustrateskthis particularlykwell,kandkhenceksna eskandklizardskandkscalykreptileskare ofkgreatksizekinkwarmklocalities,kaskalsokarektestaceakinkthekRedkSea: thekwarmkhumidityktherekiskthekcausekequallykofktheirkaugmentedksize andkofktheirklife.kButkinkcoldkcountrieskthekhumiditykinkanimalskis morekofkakwateryknature,kandkhencekiskreadilykcongealed.

Consequentlykitkhappenskthatkanimalskwithklittlekorknokbloodkarekin northerlykregionskeitherkentirelykabsentk(bothktheklandkanimalskwith feetkandkthekwaterkcreatureskwhosekhomekisktheksea)kor,kwhenktheykdo occur,ktheykareksmallerkandkhavekshorterklife;kforkthekfrost preventskgrowth. kkBothkplantskandkanimalskperishkifknotkfed,kforkinkthatkcasekthey consumekthemselves;kjustkaskaklargekflamekconsumeskandkburnskupka smallkonekbykusingkupkitsknutriment,ksoktheknaturalkwarmthkwhichkis thekprimarykcausekofkdigestionkconsumeskthekmaterialkinkwhichkitkis located. kkWaterkanimalskhavekakshorterklifekthankterrestrialkcreatures,knot strictlykbecausektheykarekhumid,kbutkbecausektheykarekwatery,kand waterykmoisturekiskeasilykdestroyed,ksincekitkiskcoldkandkreadily congealed.kForktheksamekreasonkbloodlesskanimalskperishkreadilykunless protectedkbykgreatksize,kforktherekiskneitherkfatnessknorksweetness aboutkthem.kInkanimalskfatkisksweet,kandkhencekbeeskareklonger-lived thankotherkanimalskofklargerksize. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk6 kkItkiskamongstkthekplantskthatkwekfindktheklongestklife-morekthan amongkthekanimals,kfor,kinkthekfirstkplace,ktheykareklesskwaterykand henceklesskeasilykfrozen.kFurtherktheykhavekankoilinesskandka viscositykwhichkma eskthemkretainktheirkmoisturekinkakformknot easilykdriedkup,kevenkthoughktheykarekdrykandkearthy. kkButkwekmustkdiscoverkthekreasonkwhyktreeskarekofkankenduring constitution,kforkitkiskpeculiarktokthemkandkisknotkfoundkinkany animalskexceptkthekinsects. kkPlantskcontinuallykrenewkthemselveskandkhenceklastkforkaklong time.kNewkshootskcontinuallykcomekandkthekotherskgrowkold,kandkwith thekrootsktheksamekthingkhappens.kButkbothkprocesseskdoknotkoccur together.kRatherkitkhappenskthatkatkonektimekthektrun kandkthe brancheskalonekdiekandknewkoneskgrowkupkbesidekthem,kandkitkiskonly whenkthiskhaskta enkplacekthatkthekfreshkrootskspringkfromkthe survivingkpart.kThuskitkcontinues,konekpartkdyingkandkthekother growing,kandkhencekalsokitkliveskaklongktime. kkTherekiskaksimilarity,kaskhaskbeenkalreadyksaid,kbetweenkplants andkinsects,kforktheyklive,kthoughkdivided,kandktwokorkmorekmaykbe derivedkfromkaksinglekone.kInsects,khowever,kthoughkmanagingkto live,kareknotkablektokdoksoklong,kforktheykdoknotkpossesskorgans; norkcankthekprinciplekresidentkinkeachkofkthekseparatedkpartskcreate organs.kInkthekcasekofkakplant,khowever,kitkcankdokso;keverykpartkofka plantkcontainskpotentiallykbothkrootkandkstem.kHencekitkiskfromkthis sourcekthatkissueskthatkcontinuedkgrowthkwhenkonekpartkiskrenewed andkthekotherkgrowskold;kitkiskpracticallykakcasekofklongevity.kThe ta ingkofkslipskfurnisheskaksimilarkinstance,kforkwekmightksaykthat, inkakway,kwhenkwekta ekakslipktheksamekthingkhappens;kthekshootkcut offkiskpartkofkthekplant.kThuskinkta ingkslipskthiskperpetuationkof lifekoccurskthoughktheirkconnexionkwithkthekplantkisksevered,kbutkin thekformerkcasekitkiskthekcontinuitykthatkiskoperative.kThekreason iskthatktheklifekprinciplekpotentiallykbelongingktokthemkiskpresentkin everykpart. kkIdenticalkphenomenakarekfoundkbothkinkplantskandkinkanimals.kFor inkanimalskthekmaleskare,kinkgeneral,ktheklonger-lived.kTheykhave theirkupperkpartsklargerkthanktheklowerk(thekmalekiskmorekofkthekdwarf typekofkbuildkthankthekfemale),kandkitkiskinkthekupperkpartkthat warmthkresides,kinktheklowerkcold.kInkplantskalsokthosekwithkgreat headskareklonger-lived,kandksuchkarekthosekthatkareknotkannualkbut ofkthektree-type,kforkthekrootskarekthekheadkandkupperkpartkofka plant,kandkamongkthekannualskgrowthkoccurskinkthekdirectionkofktheir

lowerkpartskandkthekfruit. kkThesekmatterskhoweverkwillkbekspeciallykinvestigatedkinkthekwor OnkPlants.kButkthiskiskourkaccountkofkthekreasonskforkthekduration ofklifekandkforkshortklifekinkanimals.kItkremainskforkusktokdiscuss youthkandkage,kandklifekandkdeath.kTokcomektokakdefinitekunderstanding aboutkthesekmatterskwouldkcompletekourkcoursekofkstudykonkanimals. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk-THEkEND-