Bridge Loads

Bridge Loads
Bridge Loads

An international perspective

Colin OConnor and Peter A.Shaw
Emeritus Professor of Civil Engineering
The University of Queensland, Australia
Senior Engineer
Brisbane City Council, Australia

London and New York

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Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Failure

Chapter 3 Design philosophies

Chapter 4 Codes of practice

CONTENTS vi

Chapter 5 Selection of primary loads and load
factors

Chapter 6 Multiple presence, progressive failure
and fatigue

Chapter 7 Dynamic vehicle loads

Chapter 8 Light rail
Chapter 9 Pedestrian and cycle loads

CONTENTS vii

Chapter 10 Barrier and railing loads

Chapter 11 Stream loads

Chapter 12 Wind, earthquake and temperature
effects

Acknowledgements

Introduction
A Liiuge may Le ueineu as a sriucruie useu ro caiiy loaus ovei an oening,
vlicl may rake rle oim o a valley oi srieam, a ioau oi iailvay. One vay ro
cioss a valley is ro Luilu an emLankmenr vlicl eecrively closes rle oening.
Sucl a sriucruie is nor a Liiuge, anu ir is imoiranr ro iecognise rlar rle
oening ciosseu Ly rle Liiuge geneially eioims a uncrion in irsel, vlicl
musr Le mainraineu.
1le loaus menrioneu in rlis ueinirion incluue rle veiglrs o riucks anu
euesriians oi a ioau Liiuge, anu o locomorives anu iolling srock oi a iailvay
Liiuge. 1lese vill Le calleu iimaiy loaus, oi rley exiess rle uiose oi vlicl
rle Liiuge vas iequiieu. 1leie aie orlei senses in vlicl rle reim 'loau may Le
qualiieu, sucl as in rle reims 'seivice, 'uesign anu 'legal loaus. 1le seconu o
rlese is o aiamounr imoirance in rlis Look, oi Leoie a Liiuge can Le Luilr ir
is necessaiy oi rle uesignei ro cloose uesign loaus rlar aie useu oi rle selecrion
o memLei sizes. Hovevei, rle cloice o uesign loaus cannor Le seaiareu iom a
sruuy o rle orlei rvo: rle seivice loaus, alieu ro rle Liiuge uuiing irs seivice
lie, anu rle legal limirs, inrenueu ro govein rlese loaus.
1leie aie many loaus rlar rle Liiuge musr suoir in auuirion ro irs
iimaiy loaus, anu ir is aioiiare leie ro make a ieliminaiy lisr. Design
loaus incluue:

1. rle sel-veiglr o rle sriucruie,
2. velicle veiglrs,
3. loiizonral velicle loaus, sucl as rlose uue ro Liaking, cenriiugal oice, oi
loiizonral suiging eecrs in some velicles,
4. uynamic veirical loaus, causeu Ly uynamic inreiacrion Lerveen iimaiy
seivice velicles anu rle Liiuge, anu inluenceu Ly sucl acrois as ioau
iouglness anu velicle susension claiacreiisrics,
5. rle veiglr o euesriians,
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION 2
6. loaus alieu Ly velicles oi euesriians ro iailings anu keiLs,
. srieam loaus on rle suL-sriucruie, oi ossiLly alieu also ro rle
sueisriucruie Ly a srieam in loou,
S. vinu loaus, vleie in some cases ir may Le necessaiy ro consiuei rle
aeioelasric inreiacrion Lerveen vinu anu Liiuge, leauing ossiLly ro
aeiouynamic insraLiliry,
9. vinu Luering o a Liiuge rlar is laceu closely uovn-vinu iom a
neiglLouiing sriucruie,
10. collision oices, causeu eirlei Ly a seivice velicle sriiking rle sriucruie, oi Ly
some moving oLjecr in rle clannel Lenearl rle Liiuge, oi rle ounuarion o a
Liiuge may Le sriuck Ly logs, ice, Ly a sli, oi Ly a ueiaileu locomorive,
11. eairlquake loaus, anu
12. rleimal eecrs.

1lese loaus vill Le consiueieu in rle clareis rlar ollov.
Ir las alieauy Leen menrioneu rlar uesign loaus musr Le seciieu oi rle
uesign o a nev Liiuge. 1ley musr Leai a ioei ielarionsli ro velicles ciossing
rle Liiuge, anu ro rle legal limirs rlar conriol rle veiglrs o rlese velicles. 1leie
aie economic Leneirs ro rle riansoir inuusriy i rlese legal limirs aie incieaseu,
anu lisroiy las slovn a giauual inciease in rlese limirs. I ioeily conriolleu,
rlis can Le lanuleu in a sarisacroiy vay in rle uesign o nev Liiuges, Lur ir musr
Le iememLeieu rlar eacl ioau aurloiiry ossesses a laige srock o exisring
Liiuges. I legal limirs aie incieaseu, rlese Liiuges may Le oveiloaueu. A sruuy o
Liiuge loaus musr lave a iegaiu oi rle eioimance o olu Liiuges anu rlis, in
ruin, means rlar rle sriucruial oim o rlese Liiuges is srill ielevanr, even i some
voulu Le consiueieu uneconomic rouay. 1leie aie, oi examle, many srone aicl
Liiuges srill in use aiounu rle voilu. Some aie srill Leing uesigneu anu Luilr in
Clina, virl sans in excess o 100 m, Lur rlis is excerional. In rle same vay,
rleie aie meral riuss Liiuges in seivice rouay virl geomeriies rlar voulu nor nov
Le useu.
Design loaus musr Le sucl rlar rley resr rle Lelavioui o all airs o a Liiuge
o eveiy kinu. Ioi rlis ieason ir is aioiiare ro ieviev rle iange o Liiuge ryes
slovn in Iig. 1.1 (see also OConnoi 191a).

1. 1le oi Liiuge ielies iimaiily on Lenuing acrions. Ir may Le (a)
simly-suoireu, (L) conrinuous, oi (c) airiculareu ro oim vlar may Le
calleu a canrilevei sriucruie.
2. 1le may Le ueineu as a riiangulareu assemLly o sriaiglr memLeis.
Alrlougl essenrially uieienr iom rle Leam, ir Leais some oinrs o
similaiiry ro ir, oi rle cloiu memLeis may Le iegaiueu as equivalenr ro rle
uei anu lovei langes o a Leam, virl rle veL memLeis oiming an oen
sysrem rlar ielaces rle Leams soliu veL. 1le sriengrl o a riuss ielies
essenrially on rle axial loau-caiiying caaciry o irs memLeis.
3. A Leam may Le suoireu Ly auuirional uiagonal memLeis ro oim a
.
4. 1le is a memLei slaeu anu suoireu in sucl a vay rlar inreimeuiare
riansveise loaus aie riansmirreu ro rle suoirs iimaiily Ly axial comiessive
Fig. 1.1 Typical bridge forms
INTRODUCTION 4
oices in rle aicl iiL. 1le slae slovn in Iig. 1.1 is rle simlesr oim o rle
aicl, Lur rlis uiaving is incomlere, oi ir is necessaiy ro suly also a
loiizonral ueck rlar is suoireu in some vay iom rle aicl.
5. 1le consisrs o a main giiuei sysrem ar ueck level,
suoireu on aLurmenrs anu ieis, anu also Ly a sysrem o sriaiglr caLles
assing ovei one oi rvo roveis ro rle giiuei.
6. 1le las some oim o sriening sriucruie eirlei
a riuss oi giiueilung iom conrinuously cuiveu caLles rlar ass iom enu
ancloiages ovei rle ull lengrl, anu aie suoireu Ly inreimeuiare roveis.

1le iange o ossiLle Liiuge geomeriies is mucl giearei rlan rlar slovn in Iig.
1.1. 1le riuss, oi examle, may Le useu ro ielace rle Leam oi giiuei in all irs
oims, as in rle aicl oi caLle-srayeu giiuei, rle ioeu giiuei las Leen selecreu
leie as a geneialiseu oim o vlar some voulu call rle iigiu-iame, anu rleie aie
many airiculai oims o rle riuss, aicl anu caLle-srayeu giiuei. Hovevei, rlese
Lasic examles may Le useu ro illusriare rle vay in vlicl rle selecrion o uesign
loaus may Le aecreu Ly rle oim o rle Liiuge.

(a) 1le maximum loau in rle caLle o a susension Liiuge is aclieveu vlen all
ossiLle veirical loaus aie laceu ovei rle ull lengrl o rle Liiuge, incluuing
Lorl main anu siue sans.
(L) 1le veL memLeis o a riuss aclieve rleii maximum loau vlen rle live loau
is conineu ro ceirain oirions o rle ueck.
(c) In a canrilevei Liiuge, sucl as rlar slovn in 1(c) o Iig. 1.1, ir is necessaiy ro
consiuei ossiLle ulir ar rle enus. Loaus ar miu-san vill renu ro cause rle
ourei enus o rle ancloi aims ro iise, Lur rlis is counreiacreu Ly rle veiglrs
o rle ancloi aims rlemselves. Ir may Le ueciueu ro use rle veiglrs o rle
ancloi aims ro lolu rle enus uovn virlour rle use o veirical, rension
anclois. In sucl a case, rle uesignei musr ueliLeiarely unueiesrimare rle
veiglrs o rle ancloi-aims, vlile maximising loaus on rle cenrial san.

In consiueiing rlese marreis, rle concer o rle is mosr useul. An
inluence line consiueis a closen uncrion, sucl as rle Lenuing momenr ar a
airiculai oinr o a Liiuge giiuei, anu lors rle value o rlis uncrion againsr rle
locarion o a unir loau, as rlis loau is moveu acioss rle ueck. A ev ryical
inluence lines aie slovn in Iig. 1.2.

1. 1le iisr gial (a) slovs rle inluence line oi Lenuing momenr,
ar rle
oinr o a simly-suoireu giiuei. 1le + sign is Laseu on rle convenrion
rlar a osirive Lenuing momenr causes rension in rle lovei iLies o rle
giiuei. Ir ollovs iom rle ueinirion o an inluence line rlar rle oiuinare
slovn gives rle value o
oi a unir loau locareu as slovn.

2. 1le seconu gial (L) slovs rle inluence line oi Lenuing momenr,
ar rle
oinr o a rvo-san conrinuous Leam. Cleaily, ro aclieve maximum
osirive Lenuing momenr, loaus sloulu Le laceu in rle ler san, anu ro
aclieve negarive Lenuing momenrs, rley sloulu Le laceu in rle iiglr. Borl
cases may Le o inreiesr.
Fig. 1.2 Typical influence lines
INTRODUCTION 6
3. 1le rliiu examle (c) is rle inluence line oi rle axial oice (
rension
osirive) in memLei, o a in-joinreu riuss. Ir may laen rlar rle uesign
o rlis memLei is Laseu on irs maximum comiessive oice, even rlougl irs
maximum rension oice is laigei, oi ir may Luckle in comiession. In rlis
case, rle uesign veirical loaus sloulu Le iesriicreu ro rle ler lanu osirion o
rle ueck. 1le quesrion rlar musr Le aceu is: vlar aie ieasonaLle cloices oi
rle uesign loaus rlar may Le alieu in rlis iesriicreu aiea.
4. 1le lasr examle (u) is rle inluence line oi sleai,
ar rle oinr o a
simly-suoireu giiuei, vleie a osirive sleai is assumeu ro Le uvaius ro
rle ler, rlar is, i an elemenr o rle memLei ar is consiueieu, rle sleaiing
oice alieu ro irs ler-lanu ace is uvaius. Heie rleie is an aLiur sre in
rle inluence line, anu ir may Le aigueu rlar oi any sucl inluence line rlis
sre is uniry, i.e. equal in value ro rle unir loau.

1lese oLseivarions musr Le exanueu in a numLei o vays. 1le iisr may Le
illusriareu iom rle rliiu examle (c) o Iig. 1.2, rle analysis o rlis riuss is
Laseu on rvo assumrions: (a) rlar rle loaus aie alieu ro rle riuss only ar rle
noues, anu (L) rlar rleie is a longiruuinal ueck, caaLle o sanning Lerveen
rle lovei-cloiu noues, anu rlar rlis ueck is simly-suoireu ar rlese noues.
1lis assumrion o rle iesence o a ueck alies also ro orlei Liiuge oims. In
mosr cases, rle iimaiy sriucruie slovn in elevarions sucl as rlose o Iig. 1.1
consisrs o a numLei o aiallel sysrems, anu rle iimaiy loaus musr Le
rianseiieu lareially ro rlese sysrems Ly some oim o ueck. 1lis commenr is
riue Lorl vleie rleie is a seaiare ueck sysrem, anu vleie rle 'ueck is sulieu
Ly some air o rle iimaiy sriucruie. 1o rake rle simlesr examle, rle case o
a seaiare ueck, uesign loaus musr Le seciieu virl suicienr lexiLiliry ro
allov rle uesignei ro cleck all comonenrs o rle ueck, anu rlis may iequiie
loaus rlar mouel rle eecrs o a single riuck ryie.
1lis oLseivarion leaus ro a conclusion, namely, rlar rle seciicarion o
iimaiy Liiuge loaus musr Le suicienrly lexiLle ro allov rle esrimarion o rle
maximum roral loau on a ueck some lunuieus o meries in lengrl, anu also on
an aiea o 1 oi 2 squaie meries.
A seconu oLseivarion is o less immeuiare imoirance, Lur sloulu srill Le
maue. A may Le ueineu as a sriucruial comonenr vlose lengrl is
giear comaieu virl irs cioss-secrional uimensions. ôsr comonenrs o Liiuge
sueisriucruies sarisy rlis ueinirion, Lur nor all. 1le loiizonral slaL rlar
oims rle ueck o a ioau Liiuge las rvo majoi uimensions, irs lengrl anu viurl,
only irs rlickness is small. 1le same may Le riue oi orlei Liiuge comonenrs.
An aicl, oi examle, may consisr o a slaL cuiveu ro oim a vaulr, again virl
signiicanr viurl anu lengrl, Lur virl a rlickness rlar is ielarively small. In a
ruLulai oi Lox giiuei Liiuge, rle iimaiy sriucruie may lave a laige viurl,
inueeu, irs ro lange may oim rle ueck. eveirleless, in all o rlese cases rle
veirical uimension o rle sriucruie is ielarively small, anu rlis simliies rle
selecrion o uesign loaus. In a rle loau eecrs may Le suiraLly
exiesseu, arei analysis, Ly rle axial loaus, sleais, Lenuing momenrs oi
rvisring momenrs associareu virl airiculai cioss-secrions o rle memLei,
vleie rlese uncrions aie suicienr ro ueine all sriesses in rle memLei anu aie
INTRODUCTION 7
ieauily lorreu in rle oim o inluence lines. I rle iimaiy sriucruie consisreu,
say, o a veirical vall vlose uerl vas one lal o irs san, rlen irs Lelavioui is
moie comlex anu moie uiiculr ro summaiise. Some airs o a sriucruie uo acr
as uee Leams, anu rlis may iequiie consiueiarion, Lur rlese cases oim rle
excerion iarlei rlan rle iule.
Iuirlei, rle slae o an inluence line may oren Le visualiseu virlour a
ueraileu analysis: rliee examles aie slovn in Iig. 1.3. In rle iisr case, rle
inluence line rlar is iequiieu is oi rle veirical ieacrion, V, ar rle ler lanu enu
o a simly-suoireu Leam. Suose rlar rle memLei is given a unir veirical
uislacemenr ar rle ler lanu enu, in rle assumeu osirive uiiecrion o V, rlen
rle uislaceu slae o rle ueck is slovn. In rlis case rle memLei iemains
sriaiglr, anu rle uvaiu uislacemenr, u, ar a airiculai oinr loau may ieauily
Le calculareu Ly geomeriy. Beinoullis Piincile o Viirual Dislacemenrs
(âislall anu elson 1990, oiiis anu WilLui 1960:322, 1imoslenko anu
Young 1965, 1ouu 19S1) srares rlar, oi a sysrem o oices acring on a iigiu
Louy, in equiliLiium, rle viirual voik uone uuiing any viirual uislacemenr is
zeio. 1lar is,
(1) =0
Oi, oi
=1
Ir ollovs rlar rle uelecreu slae o rle ueck is rle same as rle inluence line oi
rle veirical ieacrion, .
1le seconu examle slovn in Iig. 1.3 conceins rle inluence line oi rle
Lenuing momenr,
in a simly suoireu Leam. Diagiam (L) slovs an elemenr

ar virl a Lenuing momenr,
slovn in rle assumeu osirive sense, causeu

Ly rle unir loau, . 1lese momenrs may Le iegaiueu, alreinarively, as rlose
alieu ro rle Leam on eirlei siue o as in (c). ov rle secrion o rle memLei
ar is caaLle o rianseiiing rliee loaus: axial loaus, sleai oices anu Lenuing
momenrs. Suose irs caaciry ro riansei rle rliiu only is iemoveu, rlen rlis is
equivalenr ro rle inseirion o a in ar as slovn in (u).
Suose rlar, ro some suiraLle scale, a unir iorarion is alieu acioss rle in
ar . 1len rle sloe o one enu o rle memLei ar virl iesecr ro rle orlei is
uniry. 1lis uislacemenr uoes nor cause sriesses in rle Leam. Ir may Le iegaiueu
as a viirual uislacemenr anu rle viirual voik,
(
1)=0
rlar is,

Fig. 1.3 The nature of influence lines
INTRODUCTION 9

INTRODUCTION 10
1lar is, rle uelecreu slae iouuceu Ly a unir ielarive iorarion ar is rle
inluence line oi
ioviueu rlar a osirive oiuinare ro rle inluence line is

raken as uvaiuas slovn in (u).
1lis conclusion is o geneial valiuiry: an inluence line oi rle axial loau in
a memLei can Le iouuceu Ly imosing a unir axial uislacemenr, oi sleai, one
can imose a unir sleai uislacemenr, anu oi Lenuing momenr, one can imose
a unir ielarive iorarion. In all cases, rlis uislacemenr sloulu Le alieu in rle
same sense as rle oice alieu ro rle aujoining sriucruie Ly a osirive
elemenral oice oi momenr. A uirlei examle is slovn in Iig. 1.4, vlicl
slovs rle inluence line oi axial oice in one o rle caLles o a caLle-srayeu
giiuei, one o a numLei iisr uLlisleu in OConnoi (191a:4SS1). 1le
vaiious cuives coiiesonu ro vaiious ielarive sriness o rle caLle
anu
giiuei
, is rle cenrial san. Any one o rle cuives slovn in Iig. 1.4 can
Le ounu Ly imosing a unir sloirening o rle caLle. 1le value o rle merlou is
Fig. 1.4 Influence lines for cable force in a cable-stayed girder for various cable
stiffnesses
INTRODUCTION 11
nor so mucl in rle numeiical calcularion o inluence line oiuinares, Lur in rle
ieuicrion o irs slae, oi rlis slae enaLles one ro uereimine rle voisr
locarion o a ser o moving loaus. In Iig. 1.4, oi examle, rle maximum rensile
oice in rlis caLle unuei rle acrion o a unir oinr loau moving along rle ueck
occuis vlen rlis loau lies in rle cenrial san ar rle aioiiare maximum
oiuinare. On rle orlei lanu, a loau laceu in a siue san vill renu ro cause rlis
caLle ro go slack.
1leie aie a coule o cases rlar aie imoiranr. In Iig. 1.5, rle ueck is
loaueu virl a unioimly uisriiLureu loau, o inrensiry lengrl . Consiuei rle
eecr on a uncrion, vlose inluence line las oiuinares . 1len rle elemenral
loau, causes

rlar is,

Ly rle aiea o rle inluence line unuei rle loau
1le roral loau, equals . I
q
is rle mean inluence line oiuinare Lenearl rle
loau, rlen

q

Consiuei, seconu, rle maximum Lenuing momenr in a simly suoireu Leam
causeu Ly rle sysrem o moving oinr loaus slovn in Iig. 1.6. 1le slae o rle
inluence line oi Lenuing momenr ar a seciic oinr vas slovn in Iig. 1.2(a).
1le maximum Lenuing momenr vill occui vlen one o rle oinr loaus is ar rle
Fig. 1.5 Effect of a uniformly distributed load
INTRODUCTION 12
maximum oiuinare o rle inluence line. Ir is nor knovn, lovevei, vlicl oinr on
rle Leam vill suei rle .
1le Lenuing momenr unuei loau
oi examle, is given Ly

vleie
is rle iesulranr oice,
ueines rle locarion o
(anu lence rle loau sysrem), anu

q is rle uisrance iom
ro
As is clangeu,
is a maximum
vlen

oi vlen

2q =0
/2q /2

1lis siruarion is slovn in Iig. 1.6. 1le iesulr may Le exiesseu in voius: rle
maximum Lenuing in a simly suoireu Leam Lenearl one o a moving sysrem
Fig. 1.6 Absolute maximum bending moment in a simply-supported beam
INTRODUCTION 13
o oinr loaus occuis vlen rle cenrie o rle Leam Lisecrs rle uisrance Lerveen
rlis loau anu rle iesulranr o rle loaus. 1lis is calleu ûllei-Bieslaus Piincile
(oiiis anu WilLui 1960:493).
1le rleoiem sloulu consiuei only rlose loaus rlar aie acrually on rle Leam.
By alying rle rleoiem successively ro a numLei o loaus, using oi examle
rlen
rlen
as rle closen loau, rle aLsolure maximum Lenuing momenr may

Le uereimineu. In some cases ir may laen rlar rle maximum Lenuing momenr
unuei one loau equals rle maximum rlar may occui Lenearl anorlei, Lur rlis
uoes nor alrei rle iincile. Ioi a simly suoireu san virl a single oinr loau,
rle uisrance q is zeio, anu rle aLsolure maximum Lenuing momenr occuis ar
miu-san. 1le rleoiem uoes nor aly ro orlei Leams, sucl as a rvo-san,
conrinuous Leam (Iig. 1.2(L)). Inueeu, in rlar case, rle maximum Lenuing
momenr unuei a moving, single oinr loau is nor ar miu-san.
Iinally, rle case o rle inluence line oi a uelecrion,
sloulu Le
menrioneu. 1le oiuinare ro rlis inluence line ar oinr, B, ieiesenrs rle value o
causeu Ly a unir loau ar . Bur, Ly âxvells Reciiocal 1leoiem, rle

uelecrion ar uue ro a unir loau ar equals rle uelecrion ar uue ro a unir loau
ar . All values o rle inluence line oiuinares,
can Le ounu, rleieoie, Ly

lacing rle unir loau ar anu oLseiving rle uelecrions ar a vaiiery o oinrs .
1le inluence line oi
is, rleieoie, iuenrical virl rle uelecreu slae o rle

sriucruie unuei rle acrion o a ixeu unir loau ar oinr .

Chapter 2

Failure

In rle Lioauesr sense, ailuie o a Liiuge occuis vlenevei ir is unaLle ioeily ro
ulil irs uncrion, i.e. ro caiiy rle iimaiy loaus acioss an oening. Some
examles may Le given.
Ir may Le ounu rlar a Liiuge is unaLle ro caiiy irs ull uesign loaus anu, oi
rlis ieason, a loau iesriicrion is laceu on rle Liiuge. 1lis is, in a sense, a ailuie.
Again, rle oim o rle Liiuge may Le sucl rlar, in eiious o ligl vinu, riaic is
unaLle ro cioss. An examle may Le ounu in rle laige susension Liiuge Luilr in
1966 ro cioss rle Sevein esruaiy in Lnglanu (OConnoi 191a: 3S0). Heie, rle
uesign incoioiares a numLei o earuies rlar veie auvanceu ar rle rime,
inrenueu ro iorecr rle sriucruie againsr aeiouynamic insraLiliry. One o rlese
vas rle auorion o a srieamlineu cioss-secrion, virl liglr (Lur sriong) ioauvay
iailings maue u o rensioneu, loiizonral viie ioes. Unoirunarely, rlis
srieamlineu oim causes riaic on rle Liiuge ro Le exoseu ro sriong vinus anu,
oi rlis ieason, rle Liiuge may Le closeu ro riaic (see Secrion 12.2). Ir is nor
suicienr ro iorecr only rle Liiuge iom vinu, iarlei, ir is iequiieu rlar rle
riaic sloulu also ieceive suiraLle iorecrion.
A Liiuge may also ail i ir inreieies unuuly virl rle oening ir is uesigneu ro
cioss. 1lis oening may Le a srieam, OConnoi (1993:165) lisrs rle iarios o rle
sum o rle cleai sans ro rle roral lengrl Lerveen aLurmenrs o oui long Roman
Liiuges in Sain. 1le uisrance Lerveen aLurmenrs ianges iom 19 m ro 21 m,
virl iarios vaiying iom 0.S0 ro 0.62. 1liee o rle Liiuges aie srill in seivice, ar
Salamanca (19 m, 0.S0), êiiua (21 m, 0.64) anu CoiuoLa (24 m, 0.62), rle
seconu vill Le useu leie as an examle. Wlen oiiginally Luilr, aLour 25BC, rle
Puenre Romano o êiiua lau 36 sans anu an oveiall lengrl o aLour 260 m. Irs
iesence iesriicreu rle lov anu iaiseu iivei levels, vlicl rlen cur rliougl rle
noirlein aioacl. 1le Liiuge vas exrenueu Ly auuing ren sans ro rle noirl,
virl a lengrl o 129 m. 1lis vas srill insuicienr, oi a larei loou cur rliougl rle
2.1 The nature of failure
THE NATURE OF FAILURE 15
sourlein aioacl anu ir vas necessaiy ro auu anorlei 24 sans, rliee o vlicl
aie nov Luiieu, virl a lengrl o 216 m. 1le Liiuge vas larei mouiieu ro give a
roral o 62 sans. Lven so, ir is srill liaLle ro loou, virl rle iivei ieacling rle ueck
level as iecenrly as 1942. In some Liiuges, sucl a iaising o rle srieam level is
ranramounr ro ailuie, oi rle uesign o rle Liiuge las Liouglr consequences rlar
sloulu nor lave Leen eimirreu.
Hovevei, rle voiu in Liiuge uesign is usually raken in a moie
iesriicreu sense, vlicl may Le ueineu as rle onser o unacceraLle uelecrions.
1lese uiviue inro (a) rle occuiience o excessive oi uncomoiraLle uelecrions
unuei seivice loaus, anu (L) rle collase o rle sriucruie, vleie rle Liiuge ueck
alls ro rle giounu. 1le seconu rye o ailuie means rlar rle Liiuge, vlen
vieveu arei rle evenr, is no longei inracr, Lur ir Legins virl rle uevelomenr o
excessive uelecrions rlar acceleiare virl rime. In mouein reiminology rle iisr is
gioueu virl orlei rle seconu is iegaiueu as a
.
Iailuie is geneially a consequence, nor only o rle geomeriy o rle
sriucruie, Lur also o rle naruie o rle mareiial o vlicl ir is comoseu.
âreiials incluue srone, rimLei, sreel anu conciere, Lur only rle rliiu anu ouirl
vill Le consiueieu leie.
Sreel may Le useu oi sriucruial memLeis, caLles, ieinoicing ious anu
iesriessing srianus oi Lais. Relevanr moues o ailuie incluue rle olloving:

(a) rension ailuie, vlicl may rake rle oim eirlei o rle onser o laige
ueoimarions, oi seaiarion, vleie rle mareiial Lieaks inro rvo airs,
(L) comiession ailuie, eirlei in consriaineu comiession, oi Ly Luckling, as
eviuenceu Ly column Luckling, Leam anu lare Luckling,
(c) sleai ailuie, unuei rle acrion o sleai sriesses,
(u) arigue ailuie, sraireu Ly rle uevelomenr o ciacks unuei rle acrion o
ieeririve loaus rlar lave a rension comonenr, anu
(e) Liirrle iacruie vleie, in some sreels, unuei rle acrion o rensile sriess, a ciack
vill iniriare suuuenly ar some oinr anu ioceeu iaiuly acioss rle sriucruie
(see Secrion 2.4, Case sruuies).

Conciere may ail

(a) in rension, oi
(L) in comiession.

1le rensile sriengrl o conciere is lov anu nor usually a majoi acroi in rle
assessmenr o sriucruial sriengrl. Hovevei, rension ailuie o conciere leaus ro
ciacking anu rlis may aecr rle uuiaLiliry o rle sriucruie. Iuirleimoie, rle
naruie o rle conciere may clange virl rime, limiring irs aLiliry ro iorecr
emLeuueu sreel ieinoicemenr iom coiiosion. 1lese anu ielareu marreis aecr
rle uuiaLiliry o conciere sriucruies, an imoiranr suLjecr vlicl vill Le ieeiieu
ro again Liiely in Secrion 2.4.
FAILURE 16
eal (19:113) las given a Liie accounr o rle uevelomenr o rle lasric
merlous o sriucruial analysis nov viuely useu in rle uesign o sreel Luiluing
iames. Kazinczy iisr oLseiveu in 1914 rlar, oi a ixeu-enueu Leam ro ail,
yieluing lau ro occui ar rliee secrions vlicl acreu eecrively as 'lasric linges.
In 1940, van uen Bioek viore on rle '1leoiy o Limir Design in a aei virl a
suLsranrial uiscussion, le olloveu rlis virl a Look laving rle same rirle (194S).
1le classical Biirisl voik is rlar Ly ].I.Bakei, anu lis associares ].W. Roueiick,
^.R.Hoine anu ].Heyman, commencing in rle 1930s (see Bakei anu Roueiick
193S) anu culminaring in (1956) anu
(19691), Lorl o rvo volumes. L.S.Beeule (195S) iom Leligl
Univeisiry vas anorlei o rle eailiei viireis.
Consiuei a iecrangulai sreel Leam, Lenr aLour irs majoi axis, XX, as slovn
in Iig. 2.1. A ryical sriess-sriain cuive is as in (L). Ioi sriesses less rlan
Lelavioui is elasric, as exiesseu Ly rle ielarionsli

vleie
is rle elasric consranr, oi mouulus o elasriciry, anu
is rle sriain
2.2 The collapse of a building frame
Fig. 2.1 Inelastic bending behaviour
THE COLLAPSE OF A BUILDING FRAME 17
Ir is assumeu rlar in Lenuing, lane cioss-secrions iemain lane anu
eienuiculai ro rle longiruuinal axis. 1lar is,

Ler Le rle cuivaruie, vleie

is a eienuiculai uislacemenr o rle memLei axis, anu is rle uisrance
along rle memLei.
Iiguie 2.2 slovs rle ielarionsli Lerveen iLie sriain anu cuivaruie, rlar is,

Assuming rlar sriesses in rle lane o rle cioss-secrion aie small, rle sriess in a
iLie is given Ly

Ioi small cuivaruies, rle Lelavioui is elasric, unril rle exrieme iLie sriess equals
. I rle coiiesonuing cuivaruie is

rlen
Fig. 2.2 Relationship between fibre strain and curvature
FAILURE 18

Beyonu
rle memLei vill yielu. 1le assumeu sriess-sriain cuive suggesrs rlar ar
rle mareiial vill yielu ar consranr sriess. Iiguie 2.1 (e) lors rle sriess
uisriiLurion acioss rle memLei, rlar is, ir lors againsr . Bur equals . Ir
ollovs rlar eacl lal o rle sriess uisriiLurion is similai ro rle sriess-sriain cuive,
in rlis case, virl a consranr sriess
exrenuing in iom eacl exrieme iLie.

As incieases, so rle exrieme iLie sriains inciease. 1le sriess-sriain cuive
(L) suggesrs rlar, arei a suicienr sriain, rle sriess vill Legin ro iise, as rle
mareiial enreis rle sriain-laiuening iange. Hovevei, rle limiring sriain (ar ) is
usually laige. Ir ollovs rlar, virl incieasing rle sriess uisriiLurion
aioacles rlar slovn in (), vleie rle elasric osirion neai rle neurial axis is
o negligiLle exrenr. Assuming a iecrangulai sriess Llock, rle limiring momenr,
is given Ly

/2/2

/4

Ir vill Le iememLeieu rlar, ar iisr yielu,

/6

vleie rle reim
/6 is calleu rle elasric secrion mouulus, .
is calleu rle lasric linge momenr, anu rle reim
/4 is a airiculai
examle o rle lasric secrion mouulus
. Ir is eviuenr rlar, in rlis case,

=1.5
=1.5

Wirlin rle cenrial, elasric oirion o rle sriess uisriiLurion,

Also, leie

Ir ollovs rlar rle sloe o rlis oirion o rle sriess-sriain cuive is iooirional ro
rle cuivaruie . Ir is ossiLle ro lor againsr rle Lenuing momenr . 1lis vill
nor Le uone leie quanrirarively, Lur ir is eviuenr rlar ir las rle oim slovn in Iig.
2.3. As aioacles
aioacles ininiry. 1lis siruarion is, in rlis conrexr,

calleu collase.
As aioacles
rle cuivaruie iaiuly incieases, ro rle exrenr rlar a

ieasonaLle aioximarion is rlar srays consranr ar rle value
as rle
cuivaruie aioacles ininiry. 1lis Lelavioui is analogous ro rle Lelavioui o a
in virl a iicrion momenr,
. 1lis in is calleu a lasric linge. 1le analogy is

nor sriicrly coiiecr, oi rle cuivaruie is in excess o rle elasric limir on eirlei
siue o 'rle in. eveirleless, rle collase srare oi a simly-suoireu Leam
virl a cenrial oinr loau can Le slovn virl ieasonaLle accuiacy as in Iig. 2.4
(a). 1len,

/4

oi rle limiring value o is

=4

1le inseirion o rle lasric linge ar oinr is suicienr ro ruin rle Leam inro a
meclanism rlar can collase as slovn. I rle Leam is inuereiminare, moie lasric
linges musr Le oimeu Leoie collase is ossiLle. Iiguie 2.4 (L) slovs a ixeu-
enueu memLei unuei a cenrial oinr loau. 1le cenrial momenr equals

/4

Ioi collase, rlis also musr equal
. 1lar is, ar collase,

/ 4
/ 4=2
=S

Fig. 2.3 Moment-curvature relationship for steel beam
Fig. 2.4 Collapse mechanisms
A rliiu examle is slovn in Iig. 2.4 (c) rle case o a Leam conrinuous ovei
rvo equal sans. Assuming lasric linges as slovn, rle Lenuing momenr ar is
given Ly
(1)

Ioi rlis ro equal

Cleaily is a uncrion o . Ioi examle, i equals 0.5, rlen equals 6
.
Hovevei, rle value o rlar is imoiranr is rle smallesr value rlar vill cause
collase, anu ir may Le slovn Ly uieienriarion rlar rlis leasr value o occuis
vlen

=0.41421

1len,

=5.S2S4

1lis analysis vas Laseu on rle sriess-sriain cuive slovn in Iig. 2.1 (L), anu
ieeareu in Iig. 2.5 (a). Suose rlar rle mareiial is sriaineu ro oinr ar a sriess
anu rlen unloaueu. 1le sriess-sriain cuive on unloauing is as slovn, anu rlis
may Le aioximareu Ly rlar in (L), vlicl slovs elasric iecoveiy ar an eecrive
mouulus, rle same as in rle loauing cuive. Lven i rle mareiial is loaueu ro
oinr in rle sriain-laiuening iange, rlen iecoveiy renus ro Le elasric ar an
aioximare sloe, .
Ir ollovs, rleieoie, rlar i a memLei in Lenuing is loaueu ro a srage close
ro rle lasric linge momenr,
rlen rle sriesses causeu Ly unloauing aie

Fig. 2.5 Unloading from the plastic hinge moment
FAILURE 22
elasric. Aly, rleieoie, an equal anu oosire momenr. 1lis vill cause exrieme
iLie sriesses in a iecrangulai secrion o magniruue

)
2
/6
=(

2
/4)(6/
2
)
=1.5

1le inal exrieme iLie sriess

=0.5

1le comlere arrein o sriesses iemaining in rle secrion arei unloauing is as
slovn in Iig. 2.5 (u). 1lese aie calleu iesiuual sriesses anu aie sel-equiliLiaring,
rlar is, rley aie equivalenr ro zeio iesulranr momenr anu axial oice.
Suose nov rlar rle secrion is ieloaueu virl a Lenuing momenr rlar is o
rle oosire sign ro rlar vlicl vas oiiginally alieu. 1len rle exrieme iLie
sriess vill Le

0.5

1le simlesr assumrion is rlar yielu vill occui vlen rle aLsolure value o rlis
comLineu sriess equals
. 1lar is,

l 0.5

l=

0.5

=0.5

1le aLsolure value o rle Lenuing momenr is

Wleieas on iisr loauing, rle momenr oi iisr yielu vas nov on unloauing anu
ieveise-loauing, rle iisr yielu momenr is
Ler rlis ieveise momenr Le incieaseu uirlei in magniruue. Yielu vill again
occui, anu a ryical uisriiLurion o rle roral sriesses in rle cioss-secrion vill Le as
slovn in Iig. 2.6 (c). As yielu exrenus inro rle secrion, rle eecrs o rle sriesses
neai rle neurial axis aie small anu rle roral sriess uisriiLurion again aioacles
rlar slovn in (u). 1lar is,

2
/4

as on iisr loauing.
Iiguie 2. slovs rle eecr o rlis on rle momenr-cuivaruie
ielarionsli. Collase momenrs aie unalreieu, Lur uelecrions iioi ro collase
vill Le incieaseu. Poinr ieiesenrs rle siruarion arei rle inirial loauing anu
unloauing ro a zeio Lenuing momenr: ir is eviuenr rlar iesiuual cuivaruies aie
ler in rle memLei. In rle case o a simly-suoireu memLei, rlese aie
accommouareu simly Ly a clange in rle memLei slae. In rle case o an
inuereiminare memLei, rlese cuivaruies may Le incomariLle virl rle
conuirions ar rle suoirs anu vill cause a lockeu-in sysrem o ieacrions anu
Lenuing momenrs. Iiguie 2.4 (c) sloveu a rvo-san conrinuous Leam. Heie,
rlis lockeu-in sysrem musr consisr o a veirical ieacrion ar virl oosing
ieacrions ar anu anu a riiangulai, Lenuing momenr uiagiam. I is a
moving loau, rlen rle iisr assage o rlis loau may leave rle giiuei virl sucl
cuivaruies anu Lenuing momenrs, Lorl vill mouiy rle iesonse o rle memLei
ro a seconu assage o rle loau.
1le assumrions maue in rlis analysis may neeu ro Le mouiieu i exacr
uelecrions aie iequiieu oi a case o unloauing anu ieloauing, airiculaily i rle
ieloauing is in rle ieveise uiiecrion. 1le sloe o rle sriess-sriain cuive oi
Fig. 2.6 Reversed loading
Fig. 2.7 Moment-curvature relationship for reversed bending
FAILURE 24
unloauing may uiei iom anu rle sriess necessaiy ro cause ieveiseu yielu may
clange uue ro causes sucl as rle Bausclingei eecr (Belan anu OConnoi 19S2,
âssonner er al. 199:, auai 1950:20 erc, eal 19:5, Smirl anu SiueLorrom
1965:12, erc).
1lis uiscussion is Laseu on rle Lelavioui o a iecrangulai sreel Leam, virl
rle sriess-sriain cuive slovn in Iig. 2.1 (L) anu rle momenr-cuivaruie
ielarionsli o Iig. 2.. Ioi rle ryical milu sreel useu in sriucruial memLeis, rle
uucriliry is laige, virl sriains ro sriain-laiuening o rle oiuei o 1020 rimes rle
elasric sriain ar iisr yielu. 1le inal elongarions ar ailuie aie ryically mucl
laigei again, o rle oiuei o 2530', virl an ulrimare sriess liglei rlan
. 1le
Luioean Sranuaiu LV 10020:19SS seciies rle olloving minimum values oi
'Lase sreels:
yielu sriess 360 ^Pa
ulrimare sriess 600 ^Pa
elongarion ro ailuie 26'.

1leie can Le consiueiaLle vaiiarions iom rlis iuealiseu Lelavioui. 1le mareiial
may Le elasric ro an uei yielu sriess rlar exceeus
Lur virl rle sriess uioing

ro
immeuiarely yielu las occuiieu. On rle orlei lanu, iisr yielu in iacrical
memLeis may occui ar a lovei sriess, uue eirlei ro a clange in rle mareiial
ioeiries, rle iesence o iesiuual sriesses, oi some orlei acroi. 1le geomeriy
may, o couise, also vaiy iom rle simle iecrangle. eal (19: 14), oi examle,
suggesrs rlar oi ryical iolleu I-Leams, rle slae is sucl rlar
is aLour 1.14
oi Lenuing aLour rle sriong axis, oi 1.6
oi Lenuing aLour rle veak axis.

Sreel is also only one o a numLei o mareiials useu in Liiuge uesign. Daivall
anu Allen (19S) uiscuss rle momenr-cuivaruie ielarionsli oi ieinoiceu anu
iesriesseu conciere memLeis. Iiguies 2.S (a) anu (L) aie Laseu on rleii Iiguies
4.2 anu 4.3, anu slov ryical cuives oi unuei- anu ovei-ieinoiceu conciere
Leams, anu oi a iesriesseu conciere secrion. 1lese in ruin aie Laseu on rle
ourur o a comurei iogiam vlicl incluues accuiare simularions o mareiial
ioeiries. A airiculai iesulr is iesenreu in Iig. 2.S (c) (Laseu on rleii .9S),
virl cuivaruies calculareu only u ro rle oinr vleie rle maximum momenr is
ieacleu.
Reeiiing ro Iig. 2.S (L), rle momenr
is ueineu Ly Daivall anu Allen as

rle momenr vlen rle inirial cuivaruie iouuceu Ly rle iesriess is ieuuceu ro
zeio. Ir ollovs rlar lis cuivaruies lave as rleii oiigin rle sriaiglr memLei.
Alreinarively, rle cuivaruies iouuceu Ly rle alieu loaus (excluuing rle
iesriess) lave as rleii oiigin. In all cases, rleie is a Lenuing momenr,
vlen rle conciere iisr ciacks, vleie rlis momenr sloulu Le liglei oi a
iesriesseu memLei. 1lis is olloveu Ly rle momenr,
coiiesonuing ro yielu
in rle convenrional ieinoicemenr, olloveu Ly
eirlei vlen rle conciere ails

in comiession, oi rle ieinoicemenr ieacles irs ulrimare sriess. 1vo oLseivarions
may Le maue:

1. rle uevelomenr o cuivaruie Leyonu rle ulrimare momenr is limireu Ly rle
uucriliry o rle mareiials, anu
Fig. 2.8 (a) Moment-curvature relationships for reinforced concrete beams; (b)
and (c) Moment-curvature relationships for prestressed concrete beams
(Redrawn from Darvall and Allen 1987)
FAILURE 26
2. oi momenrs less rlan rle ulrimare momenr, rle slaes o rlese momenr-
cuivaruie ielarionslis aie Lioauly similai.

1le seconu o rlese oLseivarions suggesrs rlar rleie is value in ioceeuing uirlei
virl rle case o rle iecrangulai sreel Leam ro illusriare inelasric Lelavioui Lur, in
uoing so, rle iisr also sloulu Le ker in minu. Orlei comurei simularions o rle
Fig. 2.8 (continued)
FAILURE UNDER MOVING LOADS 27
momenr-cuivaruie ielarionsli oi airially iesriesseu conciere secrions may Le
ounu in Coln anu Bairlerr (19S2).
Ir is nor suicienrly iealiseu rlar Liiuge ailuie is a uynamic evenr. 1lis is oi rvo
ieasons.

1. Piimaiy Liiuge loaus aie ryically moving loausrley aie nor srarionaiy
loaus rlar inciease in magniruue. Inueeu, excer oi rle veiglr o rle
sriucruie irsel, riue srarionaiy loaus aie iaie, oi even in Luiluing uesign, rle
use o rle sriucruie means rlar loaus vill move. eveirleless, in some cases,
sucl as rle looi o a liLiaiy srack-aiea, sueiimoseu loaus may Le mouelleu
as srarionaiy veiglrs rlar inciease virl rime. 1lis is nor rle case virl
Liiuges.
2. Collase irsel is uynamic, oi ir imlies rlar rle sriucruie vill acceleiare anu
move.

Consiuei a Liiuge suLjecr ro a majoi velicle loau. 1yically rle velicle is moving
ar ligl seeu. 1leie is an inreiacrion Lerveen rle susension sysrem o rle
velicle anu rle veirical slae o rle ioauvay suiace. 1le inirial loaus sulieu ro
rle Liiuge as rle velicle moves onro rle Liiuge may Le vell virlin rle sriengrl o
rle Liiuge. As rle velicle auvances, so irs inluence incieases anu airs o rle
Liiuge may Legin ro ail. Hovevei, as rlis laens, rle velicle may move o rle
Liiuge anu unloauing vill occui. Lxcessive loaus may rleieoie leave rle Liiuge
inracr, Lur virl a eimanenrly uelecreu slae.
1le uynamic inreiacrion Lerveen a Liiuge anu a velicle vill Le uiscusseu
ully in Clarei . 1lis secrion vill consiuei rle inelasric Lelavioui o a Liiuge
giiuei unuei a moving loau. Ir is inrenueu only ro Le inriouucroiy, anu rvo simle
cases vill Le consiueieu:

(a) a simly-suoireu inelasric Leam unuei rle acrion o a moving oinr loau,
anu
(L) rle inelasric Lelavioui o a rvo-san conrinuous Leam unuei rle acrion o a
similai loau.

In Lorl cases rle memLei vill Le raken ro Le o sreel, virl a iecrangulai secrion.
Ioi rlis case, rle slae o may Le calculareu. Iiguie 2.9 (L) slovs rle sriess
uisriiLurion in a airly yielueu secrion in Lenuing, virl as rle uisrance iom rle
neurial axis ro rle Lounuaiy o rle yielueu zone. 1le momenr is given Ly

2
/3

Bur

2
/4
2.3 Failure under moving loads
FAILURE 28
rleieoie,

oi

ov

Ar iisr yielu,

=2

Fig. 2.9 Behaviour of inelastic beam


FAILURE 30
momenr ar a seciic oinr is a maximum vlen rle loau is ar rlar oinr. Ar oinr
oi examle, ir is a maximum vlen rle loau is ar anu rlen ieuuces as rle
loau moves ro rle iiglr.
Ir is imoiranr ro iealise rlar rle inelasric comonenr o rle cuivaruie ar a
oinr is uereimineu nor Ly rle cuiienr Lenuing momenr, Lur Ly rle ievious
maximum Lenuing momenr, as slovn in Iig. 2.11. Ioi rle loau ar rle miuoinr,
oi examle, rle cuive o ievious maximum Lenuing momenrs is non-lineai
ro rle ler o anu lineai ro rle iiglr. Ir ollovs rlar, oi rlis case, rle lor o rle
inelasric comonenr o cuivaruie is asymmeriical.
Fig. 2.10 Inelastic component of the moment-curvature relationship for a
rectangular steel beam
Iiguie 2.12 lors rle roral uelecrion unuei rle loau, oi rliee uieienr
values o exiesseu as a mulrile o
3
/
Ioi less rlan oi equal ro

rle Lelavioui is elasric, virl a maximum
uelecrion o
3
/4S (=0.020S3
3
/).
Ioi =0.9
inelasric uelecrions occui Leyonu =0.2454, anu iise ro a

maximum o aLour 0.024
3
/. 1le cuive is nor symmeriical.
Ioi
inelasric uelecrions commence vlen =0.2113 anu iise ro an

ininire value as aioacles 0.5. Hovevei, uelecrions laigei rlan rle elasric
maximum occui only oi in excess o aLour 0.35, anu exceeu 0.024
3
/
only oi giearei rlan aLour 0.4.
Fig. 2.11 Successive bending moment diagrams as the collapse load, W
P
, moves
across a simply-supported beam
Fig. 2.12 Deflections under a moving point load
FAILURE 32
Suose rle velicle velociry is 25 m/sec anu rle san, 25 m. Ioi rle loau ro
riavel iom =0.4 ro =0.6 vill iequiie 0.2 sec. I rle sriucruie veie ro acceleiare
uovnvaius ar 9.S m/sec
2
, rle veirical uislacemenr voulu Le
In acr, rle eecrive acceleiarion is likely ro Le ai less. Ir ollovs rlar:

(a) a loau equal ro 0.9 rimes rle collase value causes only small inelasric
uelecrions,
(L) even i rle loau veie ro equal rle rleoierical collase value, rle uynamic
acceleiarions rlar occui ovei rle limireu eiiou vlen rle loau is neai miu-
san may nor cause excessive uelecrions.

Wirl rlis analysis, one comlere assage o rle loau, ovei a simly-
suoireu Leam is suicienr ro cause all secrions ro ieacl rleii maximum
Lenuing momenr anu suLsequenr assages sloulu nor cause yielu. 1lis
conclusion, lovevei, neeus ro Le qualiieu. Loau causes uelecrions o rle
Leam. I ir veie inirially sriaiglr, rlese uelecrions mean rlar asses ovei a
sagging Leam. 1lis sag causes ro exeiience veirical acceleiarions rlar
sliglrly inciease rle loau ir alies ro rle Leam. Ioi an elasric memLei, rlese
auuirional loaus aie small. Consiuei, lovevei, rle inelasric memLei. 1le iisr
assage o a consranr loau, vill leave rle memLei virl eimanenr
uelecrions anu, uuiing a seconu assage o rle loau, rlese vill inciease rle
veirical acceleiarions, causing sliglrly laigei loaus, Lenuing momenrs, anu
inelasric uelecrions. Ioi one oi rvo assages o rle loau, rlis eecr may Le
execreu ro Le negligiLle. Hovevei, rle ioLlem is rlar rle iocess is
iogiessive anu rle analysis iaises rle ossiLiliry o (see
Clarei 6).
1le ioLlem is moie comlex rlan rlar vlicl las Leen uesciiLeu leie. A
riue analysis voulu neeu ro rake inro accounr orlei uynamic eecrs, sucl as
rlose uesciiLeu in Clarei , Lur rle lenomenon neeus ro Le iecogniseu as a
ossiLle moue o ailuie.
Consiuei seconu rle case o rle rvo-san conrinuous Leam. Collase occuis
virl rle loau
=5.S2S4
ar locarion virl =0.41421, as slovn in Iig.

2.13 (a) anu (L). 1lis iguie also slovs rle iesulrs o some elasric analyses.
Case (c) is rle elasric inluence line oi rle Lenuing momenr ar rlis oinr
virl rle convenrion rlar a osirive Lenuing momenr vill renu ro cause rension
in rle lovei iLies. Similaily, (u) is rle inluence line oi Lenuing momenr ar rle
cenrial suoir. 1ley slov rlar rle Lenuing momenr ar iises ro rle value,
+0.201 oi rle loau ar rlen ieuuces virl incieasing unril
is zeio
virl rle loau ar rle cenrial suoir, anu conrinues virl negarive Lenuing
momenrs,
as rle loau enreis rle iiglr-lanu san, ieacling rle exrieme

value, 0.0399 as slovn. êanvlile, as incieases iom zeio, rle momenr,
ar rle cenrial suoir is negarive rliouglour, Leing 0.0S5S oi rle

loau ar anu virl an exrieme value, 0.09623 oi =0.54. 1lis
inluence line is symmeriical aLour . 1le nexr uiagiam, (e), slovs rle Lenuing
Fig. 2.13 Plastic collapse, elastic and inelastic behaviour of continuous beam
FAILURE 34
momenr unuei rle loau. Cleaily ir ieacles +0.201 oi rle loau ar D (as in (c))
Lur iises sliglrly ro rle exrieme value o +0.204 oi rle loau ar =0.435. Ioi
iisr yielu,

=0.204

Bur
rleieoie,

=3.2144
anu
=1.S13

Ioi a simly-suoireu Leam, rlis iario is 1.5. 1le ieseive o sriengrl iom iisr
yielu ro lasric collase is giearei in rle case o rlis conrinuous Leam, vlicl is o
consranr cioss-secrion. I rle cioss-secrion is aujusreu ar vaiious oinrs along rle
Leam ro suir rle voisr eecrs ar eacl secrion, rlen rlis iario vill Le ieuuceu, anu
in rle exrieme case may srill aioacl 1.5.
1o ieruin ro (c), i
=5.S2S4
rlen, oi rle loau ar rle elasric

Lenuing momenr voulu Le:

=1.20

Cleaily rlis vill cause yielu ar . Ar rle same rime, rle elasric Lenuing momenr ar
rle cenrial suoir is

=0.0S5S

Ioi
rlis Lecomes

=0.5

Lven virl rle loau
ar rle maximum,

=0.096235.S2S4
=0.561

1le riue inelasric Lelavioui is rlar rle loau,
ar causes yielu ar virl

inelasric cuivaruies rlar cause
ro iise also ro rle collase momenr,
. Ir may
Le slovn uirlei rlar, oi a iecrangulai sreel Leam, as rle loau,
moves onro
rle Leam, rle Lenuing momenr unuei rle loau ieacles rle iisr yielu momenr,
, vlen =0.13S1.
Ioi a loau sliglrly less rlan
a riue inelasric analysis voulu slov rlar rle

assage o rle loau acioss rle uouLle san voulu leave rle memLei virl inelasric
uelecrions rlar give iise ro a lockeu-in ser o ieacrions anu Lenuing momenrs o
rle kinu slovn in Iig. 2.13 (). 1le same voulu occui even vlen rle loau las
ieacleu only rle cenrial suoir, B. Consiuei rlis siruarion:

(a) Secrions aiounu anu lave exeiienceu momenrs vell aLove
in rle
momenr cuivaruie uiagiam slovn in Iig. 2., virl rension in rle lovei iLies
ar anu in rle uei iLies ar .
(L) Unloauing las occuiieu as aioacles anu oi ar rlese lockeu-in
ieacrions anu Lenuing momenrs vill cause some negarive Lenuing momenrs
rliouglour rle memLei.
(c) As rle loau auvances inro rle seconu san, ir vill renu ro cause negarive
Lenuing momenrs ar Lorl anu see Iig. 2.13 (c) anu (u). 1lar is, rle
momenrs,
vlicl veie oiiginally osirive, vill Lecome incieasingly

negarive, vleieas rle suoir momenrs,
vlicl lave alvays Leen negarive,

vill simly Lecome incieasingly negarive again.

1le elasric analysis sloveu rlar a loau, in rle iiglr-lanu san coulu cause an
exrieme value,

=0.0399

Ioi
=5.S2S4
rlis Lecomes

=0.233

Reeiiing again ro Iig. 2., rle quesrion rlar aiises is vlerlei rlis momenr,
rogerlei virl rle lockeu-in Lenuing momenr, is suicienr ro cause ieveise yielu,
rlar is, ro exceeu rle value 1le ansvei ro rlis quesrion is uncleai anu vill nor Le
iesolveu leie, Lur rlis uiscussion is suicienr ro iuenriy rvo siruarions vlicl, in
iincile, may occui.

1. Arei one oi moie assages o rle loau, incieases in rle yielu momenr uue ro
iioi yielu, lus rle eecr o lockeu-in momenrs, may Le suicienr ro cause rle
sriucruie ro Lelave elasrically.
2. Alreinarively, ieveiseu yieluing o some airs o rle sriucruie may occui unuei
ieeareu loauing. In rlis case, rle sriess-sriain cuive slovn in Iig. 2.1 (L),
vlicl las oimeu rle Lasis o rlis uiscussion, musr Le mouiieu, oi ieeareu
ieveiseu yieluing vill cause a ieuucrion in rle lengrl o rle yielu lareau,
slovn as rle loiizonral line ro . 1le uucriliry o rle mareiial may Le
exlausreu, sriesses vill iise inro rle iegion slovn as rle sriain-laiuening zone
in rle iguie, anu iacruie may occui.

Cleaily rlis seconu Lelavioui is unacceraLle. 1o rle iisr is given rle name,
. Ir is uiscusseu in many o rle Looks rlar ueal virl rle collase o
Luiluing iames (see Secrion 2.2), sucl as in eal (19:15S, 193, see also Gol
anu Giunuy 19S9).
FAILURE 36
1le iisr examle is rle collase o rle Qanras Hangai ar âscor Aiioir,
Syuney, on rle evening o 12 ]anuaiy 195 (Laveiy anu OConnoi 195).
Alrlougl nor a Liiuge, ir is incluueu leie oi ir leaus ro a geneial conclusion rlar
may oren Le imoiranr. 1le langai vas 42.91.5 m in lan, anu vas uesigneu
ro louse rvo Boeing 0 aiiciar, siue Ly siue. Iiguie 2.14 slovs rle collase.
1le Luiluing vas incomlere, rle iooing vas Leing laceu, voik ceaseu aLour 5
.m. anu rle langai collaseu aLour .m. 1le lorogial is raken looking inro
rle ionr o rle Luiluing, larei ro Le closeu Ly laige loiizonral-iolling uoois.
Paiallel ro rlese uoois is rle iiuge, anu Lenearl rle iiuge is rle iimaiy sriucruial
elemenr: a sreel riuss conrinuous ovei rvo equal sans, suoireu Ly siue columns
anu a single inreiioi column ar miu-lengrl. 1lis suoireu seconuaiy riusses rlar
canrileveieu oivaiu ro rle lane o rle uoois. As can Le seen, rle ailuie
involveu only rle ler-lanu san o rle main riuss.
1le cenrial uiagonal veL memLei o rle main riuss sloeu uovn ro join rle
cenrial column, Lur vas suoireu againsr Luckling in rle lane o rle riuss Ly a
suL-memLei rlar came uovn iom rle ro o rle column. Ir vas concluueu rlar
2.4 Case studies
2.4.1 Qantas Hangar
Fig. 2.14 Collapse of Qantas hangar during construction, on 12.1.1957
(photograph from the Sydney Morning Herald, 14.1.1957, used with permission,
Burke/the Fairfax Photo Library)
CASE STUDIES 37
rle collase vas causeu Ly rle ailuie o rlis cenrial uiagonal, Lur as rle riuss vas
inuereiminare ro rle iisr uegiee, ir vas necessaiy oi one orlei memLei ro ail.
1lis vas an uei cloiu, jusr ro rle ler o miu-san. Borl veie comiession
ailuies.
1le cenrial uiagonal consisreu o rvo iimaiy iolleu sreel secrions joineu Ly
Larren lares, ioviueu ro aclieve a suicienr memLei sriengrl againsr our-o-
lane Luckling. Ir vas concluueu rlar rlese Larren lares veie insuicienr oi
rleii uiose anu rvo acrois conriiLureu ro rlis. 1le numLei o rlese Larren
lares vas small. 1ley veie laceu only ar miu-lengrl anu ar rle quairei-oinrs,
Lur ar miu-lengrl one o rle Larren lares vas omirreu ro allov oi rle juncrion o
rle suL-memLei. Iuirlei, rle moue o suly vas rlar rle inuiviuual comonenrs
veie aLiicareu oveiseas, galvaniseu, anu rlen assemLleu ar rle sire. 1le Larren
lares veie joineu ro rle main mareiial virl Lolrs in cleaiance loles, anu rle
galvanising voulu lave minimiseu any riansei o sleai Ly iicrion. Unuei rlese
ciicumsrances, rle Larren lares voulu lave Leen ineecrive unril laige ielarive
sli iorarions lau occuiieu. or only so, Lur on inquiiy ir vas ounu rlar rlis
uiagonal memLei lau sueieu eailiei uamage, Leing uioeu iom a ciane anu
rlen colu-sriaiglreneu. 1lis sriaiglrening voulu lave ler a uamaging arrein o
iesiuual sriesses in rle main mareiial. Ir vas nor cleai vlo lau given eimission
oi rle colu-sriaiglreneu memLei ro Le ie-useu. 1le juugmenr ieacleu in rlis
ieoir vas rlar ciee Luckling o rle veL memLei occuiieu, casring oveiloau
onro rle uei cloiu, vlicl also aileu.
1le geneial conclusion rlar is an imoiranr consequence o rlis sruuy is rlar
ir rook a comLinarion o evenrs ro cause collase, leie (a) ueicienr use o Larren
lares Lolreu ro rle main mareiial, (L) rle iesence o galvaniseu inreiaces, anu
(c) rle iioi Lenuing anu colu-sriaiglrening o rle memLei. Ir is iaie rlar a single
ciicumsrance leaus ro collase.
1le seconu case sruuy is rle 1ay Biiuge uisasrei o DecemLei 1S9 (1lomas
192). 1lis long iailvay Liiuge ciosseu rle Rivei 1ay ro Dunuee, on rle
noirlein Lank. Ir lau aLour 91 sans roralling 2 miles, as ir vas saiu oi, moie
iecisely, eirlei 3015 oi 3122 m. 1le cenrial sans in rle inal uesign veie 69,
114. anu 69 m, lankeu ar eacl siue Ly a laige numLei o 36.6 m sans,
anu some orleis (Sleleiu anu Iiosr 1995:35 give somevlar uieienr
uimensions, see also Koeire 1992:30). 1lese cenrial sans veie rliougl
riusses, ar a cleai leiglr o rle oiuei o 25 m. 1le Liiuge vas comlereu Ly 26
SeremLei 1SS anu oicially oeneu on 31 ây 1S9. Seven monrls larei, on
2S DecemLei 1S9, ir collaseu. A assengei riain enreieu rle Liiuge iom rle
sourl ar .m. A vilu sroim lau lir rle aiea aLour 6 .m. anu ir vas uaik.
Winu oices on rle riain veie so laige rlar virnesses ieoireu seeing a
conrinuous srieam o saiks causeu Ly iicrion Lerveen rle langes o rle vleels
anu rle iails. 1le collase occuiieu as rle riain aioacleu rle noirlein enu o
rle ouirl ligl san, anu rle riain virl irs 5 occuanrs lungeu inro rle iivei,
rleie veie no suivivois.
2.4.2 Tay Bridge
FAILURE 38
2.4.3 Quebec Bridge
1leie vas an oicial inquiiy inro rle collase. Ir concluueu rlar '1le Liiuge
vas Lauly uesigneu, Lauly consriucreu anu Lauly mainraineu (1lomas
192:1). 1lis conclusion alieu airiculaily ro rle ligl ieis vlicl, aLove
varei level, consisreu o six casr-iion columns, 0.46 m in uiamerei, locareu ar rle
coineis o a lexagon elongareu in rle uiiecrion o rle srieam lov, anu Liaceu Ly
a sysrem o uiagonal viouglr-iion rie-Lais. 1le casr-iion columns veie nor ull-
leiglr, Lur eacl consisreu o seven segmenrs joineu Ly langeu joinrs. Lacl
uiagonal vas connecreu Ly Lolrs in sleai ro a veirical iller lare rlar vas
suoseu ro Le casr inregially virl rle column anu irs lange. In acr, in ar leasr
some cases, rlese iller lares oi lugs veie auueu larei Ly a iocess calleu 'Luining
on, virl moulus laceu on rle column anu molren meral ouieu in. 1leie vas
eviuence rlar some o rle rie-Lais lau voikeu loose. 1le uesignei, Sii 1lomas
Boucl, Lelieveu rlar rle vinu lau causeu ar leasr one o rle caiiiages ro Le
ueiaileu, sriiking a riuss memLei anu causing ir ro ail, Lur eviuence Liouglr ro
rle inquiiy uiu nor suoir lis suggesrion. He also srareu rlar le lau Leen
auviseu Ly rle Asrionomei Royal ro uesign rle Liiuge oi a loiizonral vinu loau
o 'ren ounus ei squaie oor (0.5 kPa), a iguie rlar is lov comaieu virl
mouein iacrice. 1vo conclusions may Le ieacleu leie.

(a) Hoiizonral vinu loaus anu ueecrive Liacing in rle ligl columns veie rle
iimaiy ieasons oi rle collase.
(L) Alrlougl rle iimaiy loaurle veiglr o rle riaicvas nor a iincial
cause o rle collase, yer ir vas iesenr. A majoi consequence vas rlar 5
eole veie killeu. 1le ailuie o a Liiuge las rle caaciry ro kill oi laim
many eole.
or ai sourl o Dunuee is rle giear Iiirl o Ioirl Railvay Biiuge, comlereu in
1S90 virl rvo main sans o 51S m. Ir is a canrilevei riuss Liiuge. 1le QueLec
Biiuge ( Oening Bookler 191S, ôujeski er al. 1919), oi
vlicl renueis veie calleu in 1S99, vas essenrially similai in oim, Lur virl a
single main san o 549 m, siue-sans o 153 m, anu a susenueu san o 206 m.
Ir vas ueciueu ro eiecr rlis susenueu san Ly canrileveiing our eacl lal iom rle
main riusses. On rle sourl siue, rlis srage vas almosr comlereu vlen, on 25
Augusr 190, ir collaseu (see Iig. 2.15). 1le sriucruie vas comlerely
ieuesigneu, virl sans o 15, 549 anu 15 m. 1lis rime rle susenueu san vas
assemLleu on alsevoik in rle iivei neai rle Lank, anu rlen loareu our Lenearl
irs inal osirion. As ir vas Leing lireu, on 11 SeremLei 1916, air o a
remoiaiy suoiring Leaiing iacruieu anu causeu rle sriucruie ro all inro rle
iivei. Ir vas ueciueu rlar rleie vas no aulr virl rle seconu uesign o rle Liiuge
irsel. A nev susenueu san vas aLiicareu anu successully lireu inro osirion
on 21 SeremLei 191. 1le iisr riain asseu acioss rle Liiuge 26 uays larei. 1lis
inoimarion is raken iom rle oicial Lookler ieaieu oi rle oening o rle
Liiuge, as aie rle lorogials slovn in rle iguie. 1ley aie incluueu as a
secraculai illusriarion o rle consequences o ailuie.
Fig. 2.15 First collapse of the Quebec Railway Bridge, 25.8.1907 (Opening booklet
1918; courtesy Canadian National Railway and the Canadian National Museum of
Science and Technology, Ottawa)
FAILURE 40
2.4.4 Tacoma Narrows Bridge
1le inirial cause o rle iisr collase vas rle ailuie o a sreel comiession
memLei. 1le Royal Commission aoinreu ro look inro rle uisasrei vas claiieu
Ly ]oln GalLiairl, anu caiiieu our ull-scale resrs o laige comiession memLeis
rlar lau a signiicanr eecr on larei uesign ioceuuies oi rlese memLeis.
1le ouirl case sruuy is rle ailuie o rle 1acoma aiiovs Biiuge Ly
aeiouynamic insraLiliry on ovemLei 1940 (Sleleiu anu Iiosr 1995:40).
1le Liiuge vas a susension Liiuge virl a main san o S54 m, uisringuisleu Ly
irs use o sriening giiueis (2.2 m uee, 11.3 m cenrie-ro-cenrie) in lace o rle
noimal sriening riusses (see Iig. 12.4), anu vas oeneu ro riaic on 1 ]uly 1940.
Ir misLelaveu Lorl Leoie anu arei oening anu, oi rlis ieason, I.B.
Iaiqulaison, Pioessoi o Civil Lngineeiing o rle Univeisiry o Waslingron, vas
engageu as eaily as IeLiuaiy 1939, rlis accounr is raken iom one o lis ieoirs
(Iaiqulaison 1949). His sruuies o rle Liiuge incluueu Lorl oLseivarions anu
measuiemenrs anu a morion-icruie iecoiu. 1o quore lim, '1lese iecoiusLy
means o a riansir anu Ly morion-icruie cameiacovei aiily auequarely rle
comlere lie o rle Liiuge, incluuing irs inal carasriolic rlioes, anu lis ilm
las Leen seen Ly many. He also says rlar 'Wirl rle exeiience ar rle Bionx-
Wliresrone anu orlei Liiuges virl comaiarively slallov sriening giiueis, rle
engineeis o rle 1acoma aiiovs Biiuge anriciareu, Leoie srairing eiecrion o
rle susenueu sriucruie, rle oscillarions vlicl larei occuiieu. 1le Liiuge
incluueu some iemeuial measuies insralleu in ]une 1940, anu rie-uovns ro rle
siue-sans veie auueu in OcroLei 1940.
On numeious occasions Leoie rle collase, veirical oscillarions o rle ueck
lau Leen oLseiveu, virl vaiious moues anu iequencies, ryically eirlei 0.13 oi
0.2 Heiz, coiiesonuing ro eiious o .5 oi 5.0 sec. A uouLle amliruue o 1.52
m lau Leen iecoiueu anu 'riavelleis ieoireu rlar cais olloving eacl orlei ovei
rle Liiuge oLseiveu rle cai aleau comlerely uisaeaiing iom viev, only ro
ieaeai seveial rimes vlile making one ciossing. On rle inal uay, rle Liiuge
oscillareu oi some louis in a ielarively unusual veirical moue, virl eilas eiglr
lal vaves in rle cenrial san, ar aLour 0.6 Heiz. 1le vinu velociry vas
measuieu as 6S kl. Suuuenly rle morion clangeu ro a roisional moue anu
Lecame violenr. Wirlin S oi 10 min rleie vas eviuence o uamage ro lam osrs
anu ro rle conciere siue-valks. Duiing a remoiaiy lull, an arremr vas maue ro
iemove a cai sralleu ar aLour rle quairei-oinr o rle Liiuge. 'As ai as rle eye
anu eai coulu uerecr, rle uouLle amliruue o aioximarely 2S eer (S.5 m) vas
causing no uisriess in rle giiuei. On rle orlei lanu, rleie vas some eviuence o
ailuie in rle lareial Liacing sysrem Lenearl rle ueck. Peilas 15 min larei, 'a
uisrincr lareial ailuie vas oLseiveu aLour rle quairei oinr o rle Liiuge, ar
one enu anu rlen rle orlei. 1le suLsequenr collase vas iaiu, virl iogiessive
ailuie eirlei o rle susenueis, oi o rleii connecrions ro rle ueck, anu inally a
laige oirion o rle ueck o rle main san ell inro rle srieam. One acroi in rle
collase vas longiruuinal movemenr Lerveen rle ueck anu main caLles ar miu-
san, o rle oiuei o '1 ro 2 yaius (0.91.S m), causing uamage ro rle main caLle
CASE STUDIES 41
2.4.5 Kings Bridge
Ly rle sliuing o a caLle clam, anu excessive oices in rle sloir susenueis neai
miu-san. Ir is ossiLle rlar rle collase vas riiggeieu Ly some clange in rle
uiiecrion o rle vinu, vlose angle-o-arrack on rle Liiuge vas inluenceu Ly
aujacenr clis.
An imoiranr elemenr in rle collase vas rle clange ro a roisional moue,
anu one o rle sriaregies useu in larei uesigns las Leen ro inciease rle roisional
sriness. Hovevei, Iaiqulaisons accounr o rle collase incluues some oinrs
rlar lave nor commonly Leen oLseiveu: noraLly, rle ailuie o rle lovei lareial
sysrem anu o rle cenrial susenueis. 1oision o rle ueck irsel voulu nor lave
causeu oices in rle lareial memLeis. ôie riuly, roision o rle sriucruie as a
vlole inro rvo lal-vaves causeu equal anu oosire longiruuinal oices ro Le
alieu ro rle ueck ar miu-san. Ioi equiliLiium, rlese voulu lave iequiieu
loiizonral ieacrive oices ar rle enus, aiallel ro rle srieam lov, anu ir is rlese
rlar causeu rle oices in rle lareials. 1le eecr o rle roisional moue on rle sloir
cenrial susenueis is also imoiranr.
1le ailuie cleaily las lau a majoi eecr on susension Liiuge uesign, see, oi
examle, OConnoi (191a:424). Hovevei, rle ioLlem o aeiouynamic
insraLiliry vas nor ieviously unknovn. Iaiqulaison (1949, Pair 1: Aenuices
1, 2), oi examle, incluues accounrs Ly Piovis (1S42) anu Russell (1S41) o
vinu-inuuceu viLiarions in rle ênai Sriairs Biiuge anu rle Biiglron Piei. 1le
suLjecr as a vlole vill Le uiscusseu uirlei in Clarei 12.
Kings Biiuge, êlLouine, is a velueu sreel giiuei Liiuge, oeneu ro riaic on 12
Aiil 1961. Ir consisrs nor only o sans acioss rle Yaiia Rivei, Lur a long
sourlein aioacl, vlicl also incluues a san acioss a majoi ioau. 1le vlole
is uiviueu inro seaiare noirl- anu sourl-Lounu caiiiagevays, anu rleie aie
auuirional lanes acioss aiallel seaiare sriucruies acioss rle Yaiia Rivei. Ir las
iecenrly Leen mouiieu. 1le sourl aioacl vas conraineu Lerveen conciere
cuirain valls. On 10 ]uly 1962, a loaueu semi-riailei enreieu rle Liiuge iom
rle sourl. Wlen ir ieacleu san W14 (on rle vesrein siue, rle san Leing
numLeieu 14 iom rle noirlein enu, o a roral o 16 sans), rlar san suuuenly
collaseu, uue ro Liirrle iacruie in all o irs oui giiueis. Hovevei, rle
uelecrion o rle san vas lelu ro aLour 0.3 m Ly rle ueck slaL Leaiing on rle
siue valls. A Royal Commission vas esraLlisleu, ir ieoireu in 1963, anu rlis
accounr is raken iom irs (see also Sleleiu anu Iiosr 1995:46). 1le
lorogials o Iig. 2.16 coiiesonu ro Iiguies 2 anu 3 o rle anu rle
uiaving is iom rleii Iiguie 11. 1le giiueis rlar iacruieu eacl lau sans o
30.5 m, simly-suoireu Lerveen canrileveieu enu giiueis. 1le veL lare vas
1.5 m11 mm, rleie vas a single uei lange lare, 35616 mm, anu rle lovei
lange consisreu o a lare 40619 mm, virl a single covei lare rlar vas
30519 mm on rle oursiue giiueis, anu 35613 mm on rle innei aii. Ir is
eviuenr rlar iacruie occuiieu ar rle enus o rle covei lares. 1le velicle lau a
roral veiglr o 4 ronnes, iouucing calculareu sriesses rlar veie virlin
eimissiLle limirs. 1le successul renuei vas saiu ro lave 'involveu rle use o
FAILURE 42
ligl-rensile sreel o Ausrialian oiigin oi rle iisr rime in a velueu Liiuge. 1le
oiuei oi rle sreel vas ueicienr in rlar ir uiu nor iequiie aioiiare resring o
rle ligl sriengrl sreelIzou resrs veie nor iequiieu (see Secrion 2.5). 1le sreel
acrually sulieu vas vaiiaLle in qualiry, anu ir vas ounu rlar, virl iesecr ro
rle veluing, 'rle sranuaiu o insecrion vas ligl Lur nor ligl enougl. Arei
rle ailuie, a sruuy vas maue o 16S covei-lare enus. Ir vas ounu rlar S6, oi
51', veie ciackeu. 1le san rlar aileu lau ciacks in ar leasr seven o rle eiglr
covei-lare enus. Veiy soon arei veluing, anu Leoie ainring, some o rlese
ciacks exrenueu rliougl rle lovei lange anu inro rle veL lare. Beoie rle
inal collase, rle ciack in Giiuei W142 (see Iig. 2.16) lau 'comlerely
seveieu rle Lorrom lange anu 'conrinueu 44 incles (1.12 m) u rle veL, rlar
is, rliee quaireis o rle veL uerl. 1lese ciacks lau nor Leen oLseiveu.
Alrlougl rle iniriarion o rle ciacks vas ar a airiculai uesign uerail (a
riansveise iller velu) ir las since Lecome aaienr rlar rle qualiry o rle
mareiial is rle majoi aiamerei in conriolling Liirrle iacruie. Ar rle rime o rle
collase, rvo velueu sreel Liiuges o comaiaLle size veie Leing aLiicareu
elsevleie in Ausrialia, one o milu sreel anu rle orlei classiieu as a norcl-
uucrile sreel, DIB, ro rle Biirisl Sranuaiu BS 262. Some resr iesulrs on rlese
sreels aie quoreu in Secrion 2.5 (OConnoi 1964, 1966, 196S, 1969). Kings
Biiuge vas nor rle iisr ro ail Ly Liirrle iacruie. Boyu (190:1) ieeis ro rle
ailuie o a seiies o Vieienueel giiuei Liiuges in Hollanu aLour 193S, incluuing
rle Hasselr Biiuge o 4.5 m san, anu also rle Dulessis Biiuge in rle iovince
o QueLec, aLour 1950.

Fig. 2.16 Failure of Kings Bridge, Melbourne, on 10.7.1962 (from Report of the
Royal Commission, 1963, Figures 2, 3 and 11, Crown Copyright Material,
reproduced by permission of the Government Printer, State of Victoria,
29.4.1999)
CASE STUDIES 45
In rle eiiou 1901, rleie occuiieu rle ailuie o sreel, Lox-giiuei Liiuges ar
îloiu Haven in rle Unireu Kinguom on 2 ]une 190, Wesrgare, êlLouine,
Ausrialia on 15 OcroLei 190, anu KoLlenz, Geimany, ovemLei 191.
Alrlougl rle sriucruies ar rle oinr o ailuie veie similai in oim, rleie veie
also suLsranrial uieiences.
1le îloiu Haven Biiuge lau a single sreel Lox, anu vas uesigneu ro Le
conrinuous ovei seven sans, iom 6.S ro 213.4 m. Ir vas o velueu sreel
consriucrion. 1le iisr san lau Leen eiecreu. 1le seconu vas Leing
canrileveieu oivaiu iom Piei 1, ir lau almosr ieacleu Piei 2 vlen rle lovei
lange Luckleu neai Piei 1, causing rle canrileveieu oirion ro Lenu anu all ro
rle giounu. 1leie vas no uouLr as ro rle cause o rle ailuie: rle sreel
uialiagm aLove Piei 1 lau aileu in comiession, causing rle lovei lange ro
Luckle (êiiison er al. 191, 193).
In irs inal oim, Wesrgare Biiuge vas ro Le caLle-srayeu, virl main sans
o 112, 144, 336, 144 anu 112 m. 1leie veie, in auuirion, exrensive
aioacles virl rle main sans exrenuing iom Pieis 10 ro 15, anu rle caLles
iom Pieis 11 ro 14. 1lese main sans veie o velueu sreel Lox-giiuei
consriucrion. Duiing eiecrion o rle iisr san, iom Pieis 10 ro 11, rlis san
collaseu, Liinging uovn Piei 11 virl ir. 1le inal cioss-secrion o rle Liiuge
vas a rliee-cell Lox. 1le inirial eiioi vas ro uiviue rle cioss-secrion uovn rle
cenrieline oi eiecrion. 1le san vas eiecreu in rvo lalves, eacl consisring o
an ourei Lox, virl rle ro anu Lorrom langes canrileveiing invaius ro a iee
euge along rle cenrieline. Ir vas ounu rlar once rle sel-veiglr vas rianseiieu
ro rlese lalves, rle oursranuing euges Luckleu. Also, rliougl aulry aLiicarion,
one lal lau a laigei camLei rlan rle orlei. 1o Liing rlem inro line, kenrleuge,
in rle oim o ren conciere Llocks eacl o aLour S ronnes, vas laceu on rle
sriucruie. 1le euges srill uiu nor align anu, ro aiu in rleii alignmenr, some o rle
Lolrs in a riansveise, Lolreu slice veie iemoveu, causing rle collase anu
killing 35 men (BaiLei er al. 191, Hirclings 199). Iiguie 2.1 slovs rle
cioss-secrion o rle Liiuge in lorogials raken Ly one o rle aurlois a ev
veeks Leoie rle collase. Ir also slovs rle collase, virl rle allen Piei 11.
1le oen longiruuinal joinr in rle ro lange can Le seen, rogerlei virl an oen
riansveise joinr.
1le ailuie ar KoLlenz vas sueiicially similai ro rlar ar îloiu Haven.
Duiing eiecrion, vlile Leing canrileveieu oivaius, rle sreel Lox Lenr Ly
Luckling o rle lovei lange anu ell inro rle iivei. 1le uieience vas rlar rle
ailuie occuiieu avay iom a iei.
1leie veie, again, lessons iom rlese ailuies. 1le Royal Commission inro
rle ailuie o îloiu Haven caiiieu rle rirle,
anu lookeu also ar Wesrgare anu
KoLlenz. Ir leu ro rle iouucrion o nev iules oi rle uesign o rlese sriucruies,
issueu as an Aenuix ro rle inal ieoir (see also Rockey anu Lvans 19S1).
1lese, in ruin, leu ro orlei sruuies, sucl as rlose conraineu in rle Pioceeuings o
an Inreinarional Coneience on sreel Lox-giiuei Liiuges, lelu Ly rle Insrirurion o
2.4.6 Steel box girders
Fig. 2.17 Westgate Bridge, Melbourne: photographs before collapse showing
units joined down the centreline (OConnor), and after the collapse (Melbourne
Age photograph, used with permission, The Age Photo Sales)
CASE STUDIES 47
2.4.7 Quinnipiac River Bridge
Lngineeis, Lonuon, in 193. 1leii ieoir also commenreu on rle iole o Lngineei
anu Conriacroi (inal ieoir, 193:25):
A cleai uivision o iesonsiLiliries Lerveen Lngineei anu Conriacroi is
virally imoiranrA ceiriieu inueenuenr cleck o rle eiecrion merlou
sloulu Le eioimeu Ly engineeis orlei rlan rle uesign Lngineei, vlo
sloulu neveirleless Le given ull uerails o rle eiecrion merlou anu lave rle
iiglr o vero ovei ir.
1lis commenr renus ro ielecr rle conuirions rlar veie common in Biirain ar rle
rimerlar rle Lngineei uesigneu rle Liiuge anu ir vas rle Conriacrois joL ro
eiecr ir. ôie riuly, rle rasks cannor Le ully seaiareu, anu ir voulu Le Lerrei ro
say rlar rle Lngineei sloulu incluue in rle uesign ar leasr one easiLle merlou o
eiecrion, Lur sloulu also Le ieaieu ro consiuei alreinarives iooseu Ly rle
Conriacroi.
Quinniiac Rivei Biiuge las Leen closen as an examle o arigue ciacking in a
sreel giiuei Liiuge. 1lis rliee-san sriucruie las a susenueu san o lengrl 50.3
m anu uerl 2.S1 m. 1le velueu giiueis aie non-comosire anu lave a veL 11
FAILURE 48
mm rlick, langes 55935 mm anu rvo longiruuinal srieneis, eacl consisring
o a lar lare 11410 mm, velueu ro one siue o rle veL, anu locareu aLour
550 mm iom a lange. 1le Liiuge vas oeneu ro riaic in 1964, in OcroLei
193, a laige ciack vas uiscoveieu in an oursiue giiuei, aLour 10 m iom one
enu. Ir iniriareu virlin a aulry Lurr velu in rle lovei srienei, vlen uiscoveieu
ir lau exrenueu ovei aLour one lal rle uerl o rle veL, anu lau ioceeueu
iom rle veL aLour lalvay acioss rle viurl o rle lovei lange. Iislei er al.
(19S0) lave ieconsriucreu srages in rle uevelomenr o rle ciack. 1le ueecrive
Lurr velu in rle srienei causeu a comlere ciack rliougl rle srienei ar an
eaily age. 1lis rlen ioagareu Ly arigue unril ir ully eneriareu rle aujacenr
veL. Ir rlen sieau suuuenly Ly Liirrle iacruie aLove anu Lelov rle srienei,
ioLaLly uuiing rle vinrei o 1923, virl lov remeiaruies conriiLuring ro
rle iacruie. 1lis iacruie vas aiiesreu vlen ir ieacleu a zone o comiessive
iesiuual sriesses ar rle lange-veL juncrion, Lur rlen iniriareu uirlei arigue
ciacking in rlis aiea. Duiing rle 9 yeais o seivice, rle giiuei ieceiveu aLour
14,500,000 cycles o ianuom riuck loauing.
1le nexr case sruuy is o anorlei Ausrialian Liiuge, rle 1asman Biiuge, vlicl
ciosses rle Deivenr Rivei ar HoLair. A long Liiuge, ir las 22 sans, mosr o
42. m, Lur virl a cenrial giou o 60, 94.5 anu 60 m. On Sunuay 5 ]anuaiy
195, a ieiglr sli sriuck rle Liiuge ar 9.30 .m., uesrioying rvo ieis anu
causing rle collase o 12 m o rle ueck. 1le sli sank anu is srill iesenr,
suLmeigeu Lenearl rle Liiuge in 24 m o varei. So suuuen vas rle collase rlar
oui cais ian inro rle ga, killing ive o rleii occuanrs, virl seven seamen losr
iom rle sli. Anorlei rvo cais veie ler, rilreu iecaiiously ovei rle euge.
Alrlougl rleie vas rlis loss o lie, ir voulu lave Leen mucl voise in eak-
loui riaic. 1le voik Ly Wlelan er al. (196) is unusual in rlar ir sruuies rle
social eecrs o rle collase. A remoiaiy Bailey Liiuge vas Luilr a ev
kilomeries usrieam anu oeneu in eaily ây. In rle inreiim, iesiuenrs vlo
liveu on rle easr Lank o rle iivei useu an emeigency eiiy sysrem. 1le sire o
rle Bailey Liiuge Lecame rle sire o rle larei Boven Biiuge, ur inro seivice
larei virl rle ieaiieu 1asman Biiuge, oi ir vas ueciueu rlar rle ciry sloulu
nor again Le uiviueu Ly sucl a uisasrei. Lven rouay, a sysrem o riaic liglrs
oeiares ro ensuie rlar no riaic uses rle 1asman Biiuge uuiing rle assage o
a sli. Iiguie 2.1S (a) slovs rle 1asman Liiuge arei irs ieaii, virl rle
uouLleu san ovei rle missing iei. 1le uisasrei leu ro rle uevelomenr o iules
oi rle uesign o ieis oi sli imacr, essenrially so rlar rle ieis voulu sranu
anu, i necessaiy, rle sli voulu sink arei rle imacr. Iiguie 2.1S (L) also
slovs rle Boven Biiuge, virl ieis uesigneu accoiuing ro rlis iule.
A somevlar similai uisasrei occuiieu ar Gianville, Syuney, on 1S ]anuaiy
19, vlen a ueiaileu locomorive lir rle suoirs o a leavy conciere oveiass,
causing ir ro collase onro caiiiages illeu virl assengeis, virl giear loss o lie.

2.4.8 Tasman Bridge
Fig. 2.18 (a) Tasman Bridge, Hobart, after reconstruction, showing longer span,
with missing pier, at left (upper photograph, OConnor); (b) Bowen Bridge, Hobart,
with piers designed to resist ship impact (lower photograph, OConnor)
FAILURE 50
1le Welsl Ynys-y-Gvas Biiuge vas a iesriesseu conciere giiuei Liiuge, virl a
single cleai san o 1S.3 m, consriucreu in 1953. On rle moining o 4 DecemLei
19S5, ir vas ounu ro lave collaseu Ly Lenuing ar miu-san, ir may ieiesenr rle
iisr collase o a iesriesseu conciere liglvay Liiuge in rle Unireu Kinguom. Ir
is Lelieveu rlar rleie vas no riaic on rle Liiuge ar rle rime. In cioss secrion, rle
Liiuge vas maue u o euge unirs Lenearl rle oorvays, anu rlen nine iecasr I-
secrion Leams, virl rle langes roucling, joineu Ly riansveise iesriessing. In rle
longiruuinal uiiecrion, rlese Leam unirs veie 2.44 m long, virl longiruuinal,
osr-sriesseu renuons asseu rliougl uucrs oimeu in rle segmenrs. 1yically
rlese uucrs veie unlineu, alrlougl ir lau Leen inrenueu rlar meral sleeves, aLour
100 mm long, sloulu lave Leen laceu acioss rle riansveise joinrs. 1lese joinrs
veie 25 mm rlick anu ackeu virl sanu anu ligl alumina cemenr. 1le uucrs
veie gioureu. Woouvaiu anu Williams (19SS) maue a rloiougl sruuy o rle
collase, anu concluueu rlar rle iimaiy cause vas coiiosion o rle osr-sriesseu
renuons vleie rley ciosseu rle joinrs. In mosr cases, caiuLoaiu ruLes lau Leen
useu insreau o rle inrenueu meral sleeves ar rlese locarions, Lur rleie vas no
eviuence rlar rle eioimance o rle meral sleeves vas Lerrei. 1le sruuy
suggesreu rlar rle use o ue-icing salr vas ioLaLly rle clie cause, alrlougl
rleie vas some eviuence rlar uune sanu virl a salr conrenr may lave Leen useu in
rle moirai in rle joinrs. 1le collase may lave Leen iniriareu Ly rle assage o a
leavy velicle ar some rime uuiing rle lie o rle Liiuge, causing rle riansei o irs
loau ro aujacenr renuons, leauing ro iogiessive ailuie.
1le inal case sruuy ro Le consiueieu leie conceins a Liiuge oeneu in ây 19S4
acioss rle galimLiu Rivei in rle Solomon Islanus (Boyce 19S, 19S9). Ir vas a
comosire giiuei Liiuge virl a conciere ueck on lange-lareu univeisal Leams
anu ive sans, eacl o 21 m. On 19 ây 19S6 a loou occuiieu in rle iivei,
iesulring iom rle rioical cyclone, amu. 1le iainall causeu lanu slis ovei
50' o rle uei carclmenr. 1lese Liouglr uovn riees rlar veie rlen caiiieu
uovn Ly rle srieam as 'a soliu vall o rimLei some 200300 m viue, sranuing 3
4 m aLove rle varei suiace (Boyce 19S9:C-15) anu aioacleu rle Liiuge ar
aLour 20 kl (5.5 m/s). 1le iesulr is slovn in Iig. 2.19. 1le loou Lyasseu rle
Liiuge on rle neai-siue, leaving rle ueLiis vall ackeu againsr rle usrieam siue
(ro rle iiglr in rle lorogial). Seveie uamage vas uone ro rle Liiuge, virl rvo
o rle sans caiiieu uovnsrieam. 1le case seives as a ieminuei o rle majoi
oices rlar may Le alieu ro a Liiuge Ly a srieam in loou. In some cases, rle
ieis o a Liiuge, i inclineu in lan ro rle lov, may acr as an aeiooil, geneiaring
loiizonral oices equivalenr ro Lorl lir anu uiag. In a iising loou, varei may Le
riaeu Lenearl a Liiuge, causing Luoyancy oices rlar lir rle Liiuge anu cause
irs uesriucrion. Higl lovs may also cause scoui aiounu rle ieis, causing rlem
ro all. 1lese marreis vill Le uiscusseu uirlei in Clarei 11.
2.4.10 Ngalimbiu River Bridge
2.4.9 The Welsh Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge
BRITTLE FRACTURE 51
1lis giou o case sruuies oims a selecreu ser rlar is nor srarisrically Laseu.
Laigei samles may Le ounu in OLCD (199:13) anu in rle aei Ly Smirl
(196), rle larrei incluues an exrensive ser o ieeiences, as uoes Sleleiu anu
Iiosr (1995). Ir is neveirleless valiu ro uiav rle olloving conclusions.

1. Oren, a numLei o acrois comLine ro cause a collase.
2. Ir is iaie oi a collase ro Le causeu simly Ly an excessive ser o iimaiy
loaus, sucl as Ly rle veiglr o a giou o liglvay velicles.
3. Rarlei, collase las oren Leen causeu Ly loaus rlar voulu lave Leen
oveilookeu Ly rle uesignei, oi iegaiueu as seconuaiy, oi Ly a aulry eiecrion
ioceuuie, oi Ly aulry mareiials.
4. Alrlougl mouein iesriesseu conciere sriucruies aeai geneially ro eioim
vell, ir is uesiiaLle ro Le avaie o rle ossiLiliry o uuiaLiliry ioLlems in
Lorl ieinoiceu anu iesriesseu memLeis, see, oi examle, âllerr (1994),
Sommei (1995) anu Siingensclmiu (1994).

Ir is aioiiare ro consiuei iisr rle lenomenon o uucriliry oi yielu, vlicl acrs
as an escae meclanism alloving rle mareiial ro ueoim lasrically, iarlei rlan
iacruie. Consiuei, iisr, rle ioLlem in rliee uimensions. 1le von îses-Hencky
Fig. 2.19 Ngalimbiu River Bridge, showing debris mat, May 1984 (photograph
courtesy W.Boyce)
2.5 Brittle fracture
FAILURE 52
yielu ciireiion suggesrs rlar, unuei rle acrion o rliee murually eienuiculai
iincial sriesses,
1
,
2
anu
3
, yielu vill occui i

(
1
2
)
2
+(
2
3
)
2
+(
3
1
)
2
=2
0
2

vleie
0
is a mareiial consranr (auai 1950, vol.1:209)
I rle ler-lanu siue is less rlan 2
0
2
, rlen rle mareiial vill nor yielu. Suose iisr
rlar
2
=
3
=0. 1len, ar yielu,

1
=
0

oi, exiesseu alreinarively,
0
equals rle yielu sriess in uni-axial rension,
.
Consiuei insreau rle case virl
1
=
2
=
3
. 1len rle ler-lanu siue equals zeio
anu rle mareiial vill nor yielu, even oi laige values o rlese sriesses. Hovevei, i
rlese rii-axial sriesses aie rensile, rlen rle mareiial may iacruie, virl seaiarion
occuiiing.
Ioi sriesses less rlan rle yielu conuirion, rle Lelavioui is elasric, virl sriains
o rle oim

1
=1/
1
(
2
+
3
)

vleie
is Poissons Rario, anu oi sreel vill ryically lave a value o 0.3
Ioi
2
=
3
=0,

1
=1/
1
2
=
3
=
1

2
anu
3
aie o sucl sign as ro minimise rle volume clange in rle Louy.
Ioi sriesses in excess o yielu, rle magniruue o rle inelasric oi lasric sriains,
vlicl auu ro rle elasric sriains, is unueineu, Lur rle noimal assumrion is rlar
rlese inelasric sriains cause zeio volume clange. In uni-axial rension, i
1
is rle
lasric comonenr sriain in rle uiiecrion o
1
, rlen, ossiLly

I a ciiculai iou is sriercleu in rension, rlese lasric sriains vill occui, Lur vill
give iise ro an insraLiliry o Lelavioui. As las Leen saiu, rle magniruue o rle
lasric comonenr o sriain is unueineu. I, oi some ieason, an incieaseu lasric
sriain occuis ar some oinr in rle uiiecrion o
1
, rlis vill cause a ieuucrion in
uiamerei anu an inciease in sriess ar rlar oinr. Iuirlei lasric sriains occui ar
rlis oinr leauing ro rle uevelomenr o a vaisr anu inal iacruie.
BRITTLE FRACTURE 53
1le yielu sriess in sriucruial sreel ueenus on rle sriain iare anu rle
remeiaruie. Iiguie 2.20 iesenrs some iesulrs iom simle rension resrs caiiieu
our on secimens virl a ner secrion 155 mm, raken iom a single lengrl o
Ausrialian giiuei lare, 30529 mm, ar rle rime o rle ailuie o Kings Biiuge
(OConnoi 196S). Ir cleaily slovs rle inciease in yielu sriess as rle remeiaruie
is ieuuceu, oi vlen rle sriain iare is incieaseu, iom 1.2 ro 29,600 ^Pa/sec in
rlis case.
Consiuei rle norcleu secimen slovn in Iig. 2.21 (a). 1le norcl is
semiciiculai, a unioim rensile sriess, alieu ro rle enus o rle memLei vill
cause an elasric sriess concenriarion, o rle oiuei o ar rle Lase o rle norcl,
rle Lelavioui Leing nor unlike rlar Lesiue a lole in a rension memLei, as
uesciiLeu Ly 1imoslenko anu Goouiei (190:90). Allen anu Sourlvell (1949,
see also Heniickson er al. 195S) ueveloeu an inelasric analysis oi rlis memLei.
Ar iisr yielu, =0.33

. As is incieaseu, yielu sieaus slovly iom rle norcl. Ar
rle same rime, rle sriess comLinarion ar a oinr on rle longiruuinal axis, some
uisrance avay iom rle ner secrion, also aioacles yielu. Suuuenly rle rvo
yielueu zones comLine anu, rleoierically, rle memLei ails, virl =0.

. 1le
maximum rensile sriess virlin rle memLei is 1.S

. Similaily, oi rle norcl
slovn in (L), rle maximum sriess, rleoierically, is 2.3

. Cleaily, rleieoie, a
norcl las rle caaciry ro inciease rle maximum rensile sriess vell aLove
. 1le
Fig. 2.20 Effect of strain rate on yield stress (OConnor 1968)
FAILURE 54
siruarion is even voise i rle norcl is in rle oim o a ciack, riansveise ro rle
alieu sriess. 1le classic analysis o rlis case is Giiirls ciack rleoiy, vlicl
suggesrs rlar, oi an inirial ciack o lengrl, rle aveiage alieu sriess ro cause
iacruie is iooirional ro ,

Lur rlis is Laseu on a uieienr ailuie ciireiion
rlan rlar assumeu aLove (auai 1950, vol.1:19).
1le so-calleu norcl uucriliry o a sreel las commonly Leen measuieu Ly
eirlei rle Claiy oi Izou resrs. In Lorl, rle secimen is 10 mm squaie, virl a
45 norcl, laving a 0.25 mm ioor iauius, cur acioss one ace, 2 mm uee,
leaving an S mm ner secrion. In rle Izou resr (BS 131.1:1961) rle secimen is
mounreu as a veirical canrilevei anu sriuck slaily ar a loiizonral line 22 mm
aLove rle norcl, Ly a rool mounreu on a enuulum. 1le voik uone in
iacruiing rle secimen is uereimineu iom rle uieience in maximum
enuulum leiglr, Leoie ir is ieleaseu ro sriike rle secimen, anu arei imacr.
In rle Claiy resr, rle secimen is mounreu as a loiizonral Leam, 55 mm
Lerveen suoirs, anu is sriuck ar irs veirical cenrie line (BS L 10045.1:1990).
1esrs may Le caiiieu our ar vaiious remeiaruies anu rle eneigy ro ailuie
lorreu againsr remeiaruie. Higl eneigy levels ieiesenr uucrile Lelavioui
anu, ryically, ar a airiculai remeiaruie rleie is a maikeu riansirion ro lovei
eneigy levels anu Liirrle iacruie. Ioi examle, one ser o rliee Claiy resrs,
ieoireu in OConnoi (1964:23) gave rle values:

5C r lL=9 joules
+4C 25 r lL=34 joules
+24.5C 30 r lL=41 joules

1le coiiesonuing riansirion remeiaruie lies iouglly Lerveen 5C. 1le eneigy
level ro ailuie also ueenus on rle qualiry o rle mareiial. 1le coue BS L
10045.1 (1990) classiies lov, meuium, ligl anu veiy ligl eneigy levels
iesecrively as <30, 30110, 110220 anu >220 ]oules.
1le Izou anu Claiy resrs aie only rvo o many rlar can Le useu ro resr rle
susceriLiliry o a mareiial ro Liirrle iacruie. 1iei (1962:56, 10) suggesreu
rle use o norcleu rensile resrs, using rle ull lare rlickness, virl an emlasis on
resrs ar vaiious remeiaruies anu rle oLseivarion o rle moue o iacruie (eicenr
ciysralliniry). Some o rlese resrs, using slov sriain iares, veie uesciiLeu in
OConnoi (1964). 1leie is value in oLseiving leie some elemenrs o Lelavioui, as
Fig. 2.21 Notch geometries
BRITTLE FRACTURE 55
slovn in Iig. 2.22. 1lese lorogials aie raken iom a resr ieoir (Ly
OConnoi) uareu 11 SeremLei 1962, on milu sreel similai ro rlar useu in one o
rvo Liiuges rlar veie Leing aLiicareu ar rle rime o rle Kings Biiuge collase
(10 ]uly 1962). Iiguie 2.22 (a) slovs rle iesulrs o rvo 1iei resrs, Lorl on 3S
mm rlick mareiial, resreu ar 20C. 1le one on rle iiglr is o rle mareiial as
sulieu, anu slovs rle cioss secrion arei iacruie, rle norcles can Le seen ar
Lorl siues o rle secimen, rle iacruie voulu Le uesciiLeu as 'ciysralline. 1le
one on rle ler is o rle mareiial arei lear-riearmenr. 1le secimen lau rvo
norcles, Lur only one can Le seenar rle iiglr. 1le clange in rlickness slovs
rlar rleie vas consiueiaLle uucriliry. 1le iiglr-lanu lal o rle iacruie is uucrile.
Fig. 2.22 (a) Tipper tests of 38 mm steel plate at 20C; (b) The effect of welded
patches on fracture in direct tension (OConnor test report, 11.9.1962)
FAILURE 56
Ar rle ler is a Liirrle iacruie, vlose oinr o iniriarion can cleaily Le seen Ly
lines iauiaring our iom aLour rle cenrie o rle secimen. Arei iniriaring ar rlis
oinr, rle iacruie ioceeueu ro rle ler, avay iom rle ler lanu norcl. 1le
lorogial in Iig. 2.22 (L) is o samles o rle aienr mareiial rlar veie
unnorcleu, Lur virl six arcles o 13 mm mareiial velueu on. Ar rle cenrie
veie rvo arcles on rle main aces, anu rovaius eacl enu rle arcles veie
arracleu ro rle euges, in all cases using 4.S mm iller velus. Iiacruie occuiieu
neai rle cenrie. Ar rle ler o rle lorogial aie rle rvo airs o a secimen
resreu ar +5C, rle iniriarion oinr is inuicareu Ly an aiiov anu is along one o
rle siue velus. 1le arcl lares aie srill iesenr on rle lovei iece, anu rlis
gives some iuea o rle velus rlar veie useu. 1le samle ar rle iiglr vas similai,
excer rlar ir vas resreu ar +20C. In rlis case rle uei arcl lare las Leen
iemoveu, rle uei iacruie is airly sraineu Ly oil. 1lis Lelavioui is cleaily
uisruiLing. Weluing las causeu some clange in rle Lasic merallogialic
sriucruie o rle main mareiial. Lirlei a ciack las also Leen oimeu ar rlar rime,
oi rle alicarion o loauing causeu a ciack, vlicl leu ro Liirrle iacruie. Ir vas
ueciueu ro osr-sriess rle rension lange o rle Liiuge.
1iei (1962:5) las an excellenr summaiy o ailuies uue ro Liirrle
iacruie. 1lis incluues srarisrical uara on sli iacruies uuiing rle 193945 vai,
virl lorogials o velueu slis rlar comlerely iacruieu, one in oir anu
anorlei ar sea, in Lorl cases rle sli Lioke inro rvo seaiare airs. 1leie veie
many moie sucl ailuies, rliougl vlicl rle naruie o rle ioLlem Lecame
viuely knovn.
1lis uiscussion las Leen inrenueu simly ro inriouuce rle ioLlem. 1leie
las Leen mucl larei voik, sucl as can Le ounu in Anueison (1995), Boyu
(190), Knorr (193) anu êguiu (19S9). Ir voulu aeai rlar rle iimaiy
iorecrion againsr Liirrle iacruie sloulu Le in rle selecrion o rle main
mareiial, Lur uerailing anu sueivision aie also imoiranr. Seivice Lelavioui is
inluenceu giearly Ly remeiaruie, Lur sriain iare is also signiicanr, as slovn in
Iig. 2.20. 1le sriesses iequiieu ro iouuce iacruie aie oren ligl, Lur rlis is
nor alvays rle case.
Iarigue uieis iom Liirrle iacruie in rlar ir is causeu Ly ieeareu alicarions o
sriess, oi a ieeareu iange o sriess. Ir iniriares ar eirlei a norcl oi inreinal ueecr,
anu rle Lelavioui involves clanges virlin rle ciysral sriucruie. eveirleless, ir
can Le seen as rle imosirion o ieeareu cycles rlar cause ieeririve anu ieveiseu
lasriciry ar some oinr in rle mareiial. 1lese evenrually cause rle iniriarion o a
ciack vlicl sieaus. 1le ner secrion o rle memLei is ieuuceu anu inally ailuie
occuis, eirlei Ly Liirrle iacruie oi in a uucrile vay. Iiguie 2.23 illusriares rle
uieience in aeaiance Lerveen rle ailuie suiaces causeu Ly arigue anu Liirrle
iacruie. 1le secimens, vlicl aie o milu sreel, oim air o rle resr iogiamme,
menrioneu eailiei, olloving rle collase o Kings Biiuge. Lacl secimen vas
norcleu, anu rlen loaueu in a arigue macline ro give a arigue ciack exrenuing
2.6 Fatigue
FATIGUE 57
air-vay acioss rle secrion. Ir vas rlen loaueu in uiiecr rension. Some o rle
secimens aileu in a uucrile aslion, Lur orleis rliougl Liirrle iacruie. 1le cases
incluueu in Iig. 2.23 slov, ar rle ler, comLineu arigue anu Liirrle iacruie in a
secimen cur iom 3S mm lare, anu ar rle iiglr, similai ailuies in 25 mm
mareiial. 1le rvo ailuie suiaces aie quire uieienr. A ryical arigue ailuie las
a smoorl suiace, geneially virl concenriic lines rlar aie eienuiculai ro rle
uiiecrion o ciack ioagarion. 1le Liirrle iacruies, on rle orlei lanu, iesenr a
iougl, ciysralline aeaiance, oren virl uisconrinuiries rlar iauiare our iom rle
oinr o iniriarion.
In rlis case, inirial arigue ciacks ueveloeu iom norcles rlar veie cur eirlei
aiallel oi eienuiculai ro rle iolleu suiace. 1ley exrenueu ovei 16' o rle
cioss-secrional aiea Lenearl rle oiiginal norcl. 1le secimens veie rlen resreu in
uiiecr rension ar eirlei 0C, oi ar remeiaruies in rle iange 235C. 1le sriess
ro cause ailuie, calculareu on rle unciackeu aiea, vas iemaikaLly consranr,
ianging iom 350 ro 430 ^Pa, oi Lorl remeiaruies. 1le aaienr alieu
sriess, oi sriess on rle gioss cioss-secrion, vas somevlar moie. Ioi comaiison,
rle ulrimare sriess in a sranuaiu rension resr vas 463 ^Pa.
Iarigue eioimance is commonly ieiesenreu on a gial o sriess iange
againsr rle numLei o cycles ro ailuie sucl as rlose slovn in Iig. 2.24. 1lese
cuives incluue rlose oi (a) a ryical iolleu Leam, (L) a velueu giiuei, anu (c) a
iolleu Leam virl covei lares, rle sriess Leing calculareu ar rle covei lare enu,
rley aie raken iom Iislei (19:19). A ev oinrs may Le maue:

(a) Wlen lorreu on rlese scales, Lorl airs o a ryical cuive oi sreel aie
lineai.
(L) 1lese gials slov an enuuiance limir, rlar is, oi eacl case, a sriess Lelov
vlicl a arigue ailuie vill nor occui.
(c) 1le numLei o cycles unril rle enuuiance limir is ieacleu vaiies leie iom 2
ro 910
6
.
(u) 1le sriess concenriarion ar rle covei lare enu las causeu a maikeu
ieuucrion, Lorl in rle enuuiance limir anu in rle numLei o cycles ro cause
ailuie.

Fig. 2.23 Fatigue and brittle fracture (OConnor test report, 22.11.1962)
FAILURE 58

Iislei also uiscusses Lelavioui unuei vaiiaLle sriess cycles anu rle ieuicrion o
arigue lie. Iarigue is consiueieu in mosr o rle ieeiences cireu ar rle enu o
Secrion 2.5. Some orlei iecenr voiks aie rlose Ly Klesnil anu Lukas (1992) anu
ônalan (1995). Iislei (19S1) las also viirren on rle insecrion o Liiuges in
seivice. 1le esrimarion o rle numLei o seivice loaus virlin rle lie o a Liiuge is
uiscusseu in Secrion 6.3, rogerlei virl some orlei geneial issues ielaring ro
arigue.

Fig. 2.24 Fatigue stress ranges for design: Category A, rolled beams; B, welded
plate girders; C, welded plate girders with (a) stiffeners or (b) 50 mm welded
attachments; D, with 100 mm welded attachments; and E, coverplated beams
(Redrawn from Fisher 1977; used with permission)
Chapter 3

Design philosophies
1le oluei Liiuge uesign coues veie Laseu on (a) rle selecrion o ieasonaLle,
uei Lounu esrimares o noimal voiking loaus, (L) rle use o elasric merlous o
sriucruial analysis, anu (c) rle iovision o some maigin in sriengrl Ly rle
selecrion o allovaLle voiking sriesses seaiareu Ly a iom some
ciirical sriess, sucl as rle yielu oi ulrimare sriess o rle mareiial. 1lis ioceuuie
is also calleu AllovaLle Sriess Design (ASD).
Ioi examle, rle 193 euirion o rle Ameiican
(rle Ameiican Associarion o Srare Higlvay Oicials, oi
AASHO Coue), in irs secrion on voiking sriess uesign, seciieu oi sriucruial
caiLon sreel a minimum yielu sriess o 240 ^Pa, a minimum rensile sriengrl o
400 ^Pa anu a Lasic allovaLle sriess o 13S ^Pa. 1le imlicir acroi o saery
on yielu vas 1.S. Lailiei, oi many yeais an allovaLle sriess o 124 ^Pa lau
Leen useu, coiiesonuing ro a acroi o saery o 2.0.
Hovevei, rlese acrois o saery veie nor rle same oi all mareiials. Ioi
examle, oi a ieinoiceu conciere Leam, rle allovaLle sriess in comiession in
rle exrieme iLie o rle conciere vas seciieu as 0.4
vleie
vas rle
ulrimare sriengrl o rle conciere as uereimineu Ly resrs on conciere cylinueis
resreu ar an age o 2S uays. 1le imlicir acroi o saery vas 2.5, ioviuing oi a
giearei vaiiaLiliry in rle sriengrl o rlis mareiial, as comaieu virl sreel. A
ryical conciere sriengrl ar rlar rime vas 20 ^Pa.
1le 1990 Ameii can Rail vay Lngi neeiing Associ ari on (ARLA)
(ARLA Cl. 15) gave rle same
Lasic allovaLle sriess oi sreel (13S ^Pa). Hovevei, ir is inreiesring ro oLseive
rlar oluei Liiuge uesign coues lau allovaLle sriesses rlar vaiieu virl rle naruie
o rle loauing. Skinnei (190S:5) gives exriacrs iom 25 uieienr coues rlen
in use Ly rle Liiuge comanies o rle Unireu Srares. A ryical 'voiking sriess
oi sreel (.64) vas
3.1 Design at working loads
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES 60
3.2 Design for collapse
55(1+) ^Pa
vleie
ieiesenreu rle minimum sriess causeu Ly rle alieu loaus,
anu
rle maximum
Oren, coiiesonueu ro rle eecrs o ueau loau alone, anu ro ueau loau
lus live loau. 1lis clause auus: 'Ioi comLineu live, ueau, vinu anu cenriiugal
sriesses, inciease rle ieceuing unir sriess 30' aLove live anu ueau loau unir
sriesses.
Ioi rle eecrs o ueau loau alone (i.e. ), rle allovaLle sriess
Lecame 110 ^Pa, oi oi live loau alone (=0), 55 ^Pa. A moie ryical iesulr
voulu Le virl =2 giving an allovaLle sriess o S3 ^Pa. 1lese values
aie lov comaieu virl larei sranuaius, airly Lecause o rle use o lovei
sriengrl sreels (Blockley 1992:5), Lur rle iincile is o inreiesr: eecrs sucl as
imacr, arigue anu rle giearei vaiiaLiliry o live loau, as comaieu virl ueau
loau, causeu rle coues ro inciease rle acroi o saery oi live loau. 1lis also
alloveu oi rle unlikeliloou o rle comLinarion o exrieme values o vinu anu
live loaus.
As menrioneu in Secrion 2.2, ir vas in rle 1940s rlar rle so-calleu lasric merlous
o sriucruial analysis came ro Le useu in rle uesign o Luiluing iames, virl rle
emlasis slireu iom Lelavioui ar voiking loaus ro collase. 1le ryical mouel
vas rlar o a iame loaueu virl srarionaiy loaus, vlose magniruue incieaseu
unril collase occuiieu. In 191, in comaiing merlous, one o rle iesenr
aurlois viore (OConnoi 191a:15): 'I rlis iigiu cloice (Lerveen ulrimare anu
voiking loau merlous) is rle only one availaLle, ir is ossiLle ro aigue oi rle
auorion o rle convenrional, elasric, voiking-loau merlou in Liiuge uesign, Lur
venr on:

Ir may Le unieasonaLle, lovevei, ro Le Lounu ro rle iigiu cloice
uiscusseu aLove. 1le iueal uesign ioceuuie sloulu incluue analyses ar
Lorl voiking anu ulrimare loaus anu sloulu use Lorl oi seaiare anu
cleaily ueineu uioses. A uirlei ossiLiliry is rlar srarisrical
merlous o uesign may Le auoreu in vlicl rle emlasis is on
ioLaLiliry o ailuie oi uisriess.

1lese larrei orions lave nov Leen auoreu in mosr Liiuge uesign coues, rley
vill Le uiscusseu uirlei in rle olloving secrion.
LIMIT STATES DESIGN 61

3.3 Limit states design

Fig. 3.1 Probability distributions
q
q

o

2. 1len
.
1lar is,
equals rle aiea Lenearl rle Sranuaiu oimal DisriiLurion cuive,

iom ro a negarive value o (see Iig. 3.1). I, oi examle,

=1,
rlen equals 0.0
as slovn in Iig. 3.2 (L). 1le coiiesonuing

uisrance ro rle inreisecrion oinr, is 0.5. 1le ioLaLiliry o ailuie,
is
ieiesenreu Ly rle aiea slovn, anu is somevlar less rlan rle iario o rle
Fig. 3.2 Probability density distributions for load and resistance
aiea Lenearl rle inreisecrion o rle rvo cuives, uiviueu Ly rleii comLineu
aiea (vlicl is 2). 1le aiea o inreisecrion is, ar Lesr, a iougl visual
inuicaroi o rle ioLaLiliry o ailuie. Ioi examle, oi
equal ro 1, 2,
3 anu 4 rimes
oi
rle riue values o
olloveu in Liackers Ly rlose

comureu iom rle aiea o inreisecrion, aie 0.240 (0.30S5), 0.0S
(0.15S), 0.010 (0.066S) anu 0.0023 (0.022S).

1lis ioLlem can Le exiesseu uieienrly. Consiuei rle uncrion rlen i
rle sranuaiu ueviarions,
anu
veie zeio, voulu equal
. I
anu vaiy inueenuenrly, eacl accoiuing ro a noimal uisriiLurion, rlen
vill also Le noimally uisriiLureu, virl a mean value
anu a sranuaiu
ueviarion
as slovn in Iig. 3.3. 1lis cuive is symmeriical. 1le air o irs

mean squaie ueviarion ro rle iiglr o rle cenrieline ieiesenrs cases virl
anu/oi
. 1le sum o rle squaies o rlese ueviarions in equals rle

sum o rle squaies o rle ueviarions oi
lus rlose oi
. Ir ollovs
rlar

Fig. 3.3 Normal distribution for (RL)
oi
Iailuie occuis vlen is negarive, rlar is, rle limiring siruarion occuis vlen,
on rlis cuive,

anu rle ioLaLiliry o ailuie,
equals rle slaueu aiea in Iig. 3.3 uiviueu Ly rle

roral aiea Lenearl rle cuive. Ler

1len

A

1le reim, A is calleu rle ieliaLiliry inuex anu is uiiecrly ielareu ro
Ly rle raLle
o cumularive aieas Lenearl rle Sranuaiu oimal DisriiLurion cuive (Devoie
1995:04, anu orleis). 1lis solurion is cleaily rle same as rlar given ieviously.
Some values o
veie quoreu eailiei, Lur rlese veie Laseu on rle iario o
ro eirlei
oi
virl rlese equal. 1o give anorlei ryical value, oi A=3.0
=0.00135=1/40
1le anriciareu numLei o ailuies, equals
. Ir ollovs rlar is a uncrion

o
anu
1le only one o rlese aiamereis rlar is uiiecrly unuei

rle conriol o rle uesignei is
. Inveiring,

rlar is,

1lis iesulr ueenus on rle assumrion rlar rle iesisrance, anu rle loau eecr,
eacl vaiy in accoiuance virl rle noimal uisriiLurion, anu rlis may oi may nor
Le coiiecr. Devoie (1995:14), oi examle, uiscusses orlei conrinuous
uisriiLurions, one o vlicl is rle Lognoimal DisriiLurion. Suose a osirive
uncrion is sucl rlar ln is noimally uisriiLureu, rlen rle ioLaLiliry uensiry
uncrion o is

vleie
k is rle mean o ln(x), anu
is irs sranuaiu ueviarion
1vo cuives o aie lorreu in Iig. 3.4, oi k =1, anu k=2, =1. 1ley aie
asymmeriical, virl a long uei rail, anu aie saiu ro lave a osirive skev. 1le
mean value o is
vleie k
2
/2. 1le meuian value occuis vlen rle
cumularive ioLaLiliry is 0.5, ar
k
Lorl oinrs aie slovn. 1le maximum
ioLaLiliry is nor ar rle oinr k. 1le vaiiance is:

1lis uisriiLurion is srill a uncrion o rvo vaiiaLles. Orlei uisriiLurions, sucl as
rle WeiLull DisriiLurion (Devoie 1995:14) may involve moie rlan rvo, anu aie
classiieu as Seconu Oiuei ReliaLiliry êrlous (SOR^, GalamLos, 1.V. Design
Coues, 41, anu Lllingvoou B.R. S913, in
Blockley 1992:65, 905). 1le oimal DisriiLurion is rle Lasis o Iiisr Oiuei
ReliaLiliry êrlous (IOR^), oi Iiisr Oiuei, Seconu-ômenr ReliaLiliry
êrlous (IOS^), vleie rle reim, seconu-momenr, ielecrs rle uesciirion o rle
uara only Ly rle mean anu rle sranuaiu ueviarion, rle larrei Leing a seconu oiuei
reim, using rle squaies o rle ueviarions. Alreinarively, analyses Laseu on IOR^
Fig. 3.4 Typical lognormal probability density distributions
aie calleu Level 1, anu on SOR^, Level 2. GalamLos srares rlar cuiienr
sriucruial uesign coues aie Level 1, alrlougl some o rle acrois useu in rlese
coues lave Leen ueiiveu using Level 2 merlous.
1leie aie orlei comlexiries rlar aiise vlen rle iinciles o rle iesenr
examle come ro Le useu in iacrice. One o rlese is rle quesrion o comLineu oi
joinr ioLaLiliry. 1lis may Le seen mosr ieauily in rle case o rle loau eecr, oi
rlis may iesulr iom rle comLinarion o a numLei o loaus o uieiing kinus, sucl
as rle comLinarion o ueau loau virl rle iimaiy live loau anu vinu oi srieam
loau. or only rlis, Lur even in rle simlesr case ir las Leen necessaiy ro knov
rle sranuaiu ueviarions oi Lorl iesisrance anu loau. Iieuuenrlal, one o rle
eailiesr exonenrs o rle use o ioLaLilisric merlous in rle assessmenr o
sriucruial saery (Iieuuenrlal 1960, 1961, 196Sa, 192, Iieuuenrlal er al. 1966,
erc) viore in 196S (Iieuuenrlal 196SL:16) o rle olloving ioLlems:

rle exisrence o non-ianuom lenomena aecring sriucruial saery
vlicl cannor Le incluueu in a ioLaLilisric aioacl,
rle imossiLiliry o oLseiving rle ielevanr ianuom lenomena virlin
rle ianges rlar aie signiicanr oi saery analysis, anu rle iesulring
necessiry o exriaol arion ai Leyonu rle iange o acrual
oLseivarion,
rle assessmenr anu jusriicarion o a numeiical value oi rle
'acceraLle iisk o ailuie, anu
rle couiicarion o rle iesulrs o rle iarlei comlex ioLaLilisric
saery analyses in a simle enougl oim ro Le usaLle in acrual uesign.

1le noimal ansvei ro lis inal ioLlem las Leen ro seciy a iange o 'airial
acrois, i.e. loau acrois rlar aie useu ro inciease rle loau eecrs, anu coiiesonuing
caaciry ieuucrion acrois, useu ro ieuuce rle nominal iesisrances.
1lese acrois may Le ueuuceu iom a sruuy o rle vaiiaLiliry o rle loaus anu
iesisrances, alrlougl Iieuuenrlals seconu ioLlem sloulu alvays Le ker in
minu. 1le sruuy o rlis ielarionsli is conrinuing, Lur ir is imoiranr ro oLseive
Blockleys (1992:451) lonesr assessmenr o rle siruarion as ir vas in Biirain:

In acr in rle imlemenrarion o rle iisr geneiarion o limir srare coues
in rle Unireu Kinguom, rle iecommenueu values oi rle nominal, oi
claiacreiisric, values
(uemanu),
(caaciry) anu oi airial acroi

values veie nor closen Ly rle use o srarisrical merlousrley veie
closen suLjecrively Ly a commirree.

He goes on ro say, '1le uesign o rle seconu geneiarion o coues las riieuro
make rle vlole iocess moie iarional.
1le limir srares consiueieu Ly mouein Liiuge uesign coues aie uiviueu inro
ulrimare anu seiviceaLiliry limir srares, vleie rle iisr ieeis Lioauly ro inciienr
collase, anu rle seconu ro unuesiiaLle Lelavioui rlar uoes nor involve collase
o rle iimaiy sriucruie. Hovevei, rle iisr o rlese musr immeuiarely Le
qualiieu. Ir vas seen in Secrion 2.2 rlar rle collase o a ieuunuanr oi
inuereiminare Luiluing iame iequiieu rle uevelomenr o unconriolleu lasric
ueoimarion ar rvo oi moie secrions. 1leie is a ieseive o sriengrl Leyonu inirial
ailuie, anu rlis involves a ieuisriiLurion o acrions Lerveen rle vaiious airs oi
memLeis o rle sriucruie. âny cuiienr Liiuge coues uo nor allov oi rlis rye o
ieuisriiLurion, anu ailuie is ueemeu ro occui vlen rle iisr secrion ieacles rle
ulrimare caaciry.
Wirl rlis in viev, ossiLle ulrimare limir srares coiiesonu ro rle conuirions
vlen:

(a) one oi moie airs o rle sriucruie ieacl rleii ulrimare caaciry, i.e. rley aie
incaaLle o caiiying auuirional loau,
(L) airs o rle sriucruie move Ly sliuing, ulir, oi oveiruining, oi
(c) airs o rle sriucruie aie on rle oinr o ailuie Lecause o uereiioiarion
causeu Ly coiiosion, ciacking oi arigue.

1le seiviceaLiliry limir srares ryically incluue:

(a) uynamic movemenrs rlar cause uiscomoir oi uLlic concein,
(L) uynamic movemenrs rlar cause uamage ro ancillaiy airs o rle sriucruie,
sucl as lam sranuaius oi lanu iailings,
(c) eimanenr ueoimarions, eirlei o rle sriucruie irsel oi irs ounuarions, rlar
cause uLlic concein oi make rle sriucruie unir oi use,
(u) uamage Ly scoui,
(e) rle loouing oi scoui o aujacenr ioeiries, anu
() uamage uue ro coiiosion oi arigue rlar is suicienr ro cause a signiicanr
ieuucrion in rle sriengrl o rle sriucruie oi in irs seivice lie.

ovak, in rle iecenr volume, ('Alicarion o Liiuge ieliaLiliry
analysis ro uesign anu assessmenr coues 429, in Das 199), las lisreu loau
acrois auoreu oi rle 1994 AASH1O Coue (Ameiican Associarion o Srare
Higlvay anu 1iansoirarion Oicials). Ir caiiies rle rirle, 'LRID Liiuge uesign
seciicarions, vleie LRID sranus oi 'Loau anu Resisrance Iacroi Design. 1le
acrois quoreu leie aie oi use virl rle ulrimare limir srare anu aie illusriarions o
mouein iacrice:

ueau loau o rle Liiuge irsel 1.25
ueau loau o an auueu veaiing suiace
1.50
live loau, incluuing imacr 1.5

1le iguies oi ueau loau aie oi loau eecrs vleie rle ueau anu live loau aie
auuirive. In some cases vleie rle live loau uominares, anu rle eecrs o rle ueau
loau aie o oosire sign, ir may Le necessaiy ro use a lovei Lounu oi rle ueau
loau, virl a loau acroi o rle oiuei o 0.S5 ro 0.9. Also, rle iguie o 1.25 may
Le inrenueu oi use virl conciere sriucruies iarlei rlan sreel, vleie a lovei
acroi may Le alicaLle, sucl as 1.1.
ovak also quores values o rle caaciry ieuucrion acrois auoreu oi rlis
coue:

momenr oi sleai in sreel giiueis 1.00
momenr oi sleai in ieinoiceu conciere 1-Leams 0.90
momenr in iesriesseu conciere AASH1O Leams 1.00
sleai in iesriesseu conciere AASH1O Leams 0.90

1o give a ryical examle, rlese iules voulu iequiie
1.25+15
+1.5 ro Le 0.9

vleie may Le rle calculareu nominal ulrimare Lenuing sriengrl o a ieinoiceu
conciere memLei.
1le cloice o rlese acrois vas Laseu on rle uesiie ro aclieve a raiger value
o rle ieliaLiliry inuex, A
=3.5. Ir is aioiiare ro comaie rle oim o rle aLove

exiession virl rlar oLraineu ieviously iom rle analysis o rle ioLaLiliry o
ailuie oi rle simle case, virl Lorl rle iesisrance, anu rle loau eecr
nominally uisriiLureu. Assume only a single loauing, virl a loau acroi, anu
a iesisrance, virl a caaciry ieuucrion acroi, . 1le coue exiession voulu
iequiie

oi

1le eailiei exiession, ieaiiangeu, gives

vleie rle uesign values, anu lave Leen useu in lace o rle mean values,
.
Suose, oi examle,

=1.5/0.9=1.94

1len, oi equivalence
Reaiianging, anu serring A equal ro 3.5

vleie
is rle coeicienr o vaiiarion o equal ro

1le vaiiaLiliry o rle iesisrance is likely ro Le mucl less rlan rlar o rle loau.
Suose
=0.5
rlen rle aLove exiession suggesrs rlar, oi A equal ro 3.5,

=0.24
=0.12

In acr, anu may nor Le noimally uisriiLureu, anu rlis calcularion is only an
inuicarion o Lelavioui vlicl vill Le uiscusseu uirlei in Clarei 5. Ir suggesrs,
lovevei, rlar rle oim o rle coue iule is ieasonaLle.
1le clie auvanrages o rle ioLaLilisric-Laseu, Limir Srares Design êrlou
aie:

(a) rle iecognirion o rle uieienr vaiiaLiliries o rle vaiious loaus, sucl as rle
ueau loau veisus rle live loau, oi rle olu voiking sriess merlou
encomasseu Lorl in rle same acroi o saery,
(L) rle iecognirion o a iange o limir srares, anu
(c) rle iomise o unioimiry Ly rle use o srarisrical merlous ro ielare all ro rle
ioLaLiliry o ailuie.

1leii clie uisauvanrage, as oiecasr Ly Iieuuenrlal (196Sa anu L), lies in rle
necessiry ro cloose an acceraLle iisk o ailuie, ir is veiy uiiculr, oi examle, ro
quanriy rle acceraLiliry o some iisk rlar involves only sriucruial collase, virl
a iisk rlar leaus ro loss o lie. Iuirleimoie, rle ioLaLiliry o ailuie musr Le
alieu ro rle numLei o evenrs rlar may occui uuiing rle lie o rle sriucruie,
vleie, in rle case o a Liiuge, rlis lie is commonly ser ar aLour 100120 yeais.
1leie is an essenrial uiiculry in ieuicring an evenr rlar may nor occui unril
close on 100 yeais iom rle oinr o uesign.

Chapter 4

Codes of practice
1lis clarei las rvo oLjecrives: ro ieviev cuiienr coues o iacrice, anu ro
ourline rle lisroiy o rleii uevelomenr. 1le riearmenr vill Le Ly counriy, virl
ieeience ro uesign lilosoly anu iimaiy uesign loaus oi Lorl ioau anu iail
Liiuges. Coue iovisions oi euesriian Liiuges anu orlei loaus vill Le uiscusseu
in larei clareis.
1le oiuei closen is somevlar aiLiriaiy, virl Biirain olloveu Ly rle Unireu
Srares anu rlen Canaua, oi rle 199
(OHBDC) vas o majoi imoirance, Lorl in rle uevelomenr o rle limir srares
oimar anu in irs merlouology oi rle cloice o a uesign velicle anu irs
associarion virl legal limirs. 1le riearmenr goes on ro incluue orlei Luioean
counriies anu rle Luiocoue, Ausrialia anu Sourl Aiica. 1le selecrion is
incomlere, Lur is ioLaLly a aii samle oi rle iesenr uiose, anu one rlar
illusriares a iange o uesign velicles oi equivalenr loaus. 1le ielarive magniruues
anu oims o rlese loauings vill Le uiscusseu larei in rle clarei.
Henueison (1954) las given a Liie accounr o eaily liglvay Liiuge uesign loaus
in Biirain. 1lis uses rle olu Imeiial unirs o rons, ounus-oice anu eer, anu in
rlese unirs incluues simle iguies, sucl as 5 rons (49.S k) oi 10 eer (3.05 m).
Heie rley lave Leen conveireu ro SI unirs.
ALour 1S5, ]enkins suggesreu a unioimly uisriiLureu loau o 5.4 kPa,
rogerlei virl an axle loau o 199 k. Laily in rle rvenrierl cenruiy, Unvin
iooseu 5.5 kPa, virl a oui-vleeleu velicle loauing o 100 ro 249 k, Lur
4.1 Introduction
4.2 British codes for highway bridges
BRITISH CODES FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES 73
larei ieviseu rlis ro a uisriiLureu loau o 3.S3 ro 5.5 kPa anu, in manuacruiing
uisriicrs, a oui-vleeleu velicle loauing o 299 k.
1le iisr 'mouein loauing vas rle înisriy o 1iansoir Sranuaiu Loauing
1iain, inriouuceu in 1922 anu slovn in Iig. 4.1 (a). Ir consisreu o a riacroi anu
oui riaileis, virl a majoi axle loau o 219 k, olloveu Ly a succession o 100
k axles, anu incluueu an imacr value o 50' (i.e. 1.5). Ir occuieu a lane
viurl o 3.05 m, Lur i rle roral ioau viurl exceeueu a mulrile o rlis iguie, rle
roral loau vas incieaseu iooirionarely. One Sranuaiu Loauing 1iain occuieu a
lengrl o 22.9 m (5 eer), Lur oi longei sans, auuirional riains voulu noimally
Le auueu.
In 1931, rle înisriy o 1iansoir (Ô1) Sranuaiu Loauing Cuive vas
inriouuceu, consisring o a seciieu 'knie-euge loau (seen as a oinr loau in
siue viev) rogerlei virl a unioimly uisriiLureu loau vlose inrensiry vaiieu
virl rle loaueu lengrl, as slovn in Iig. 4.2. Clerroe (see Clerroe anu Auams
1933:SS) las uesciiLeu rle uevelomenr o rle Loauing Cuive, vlicl is Laseu
on rle 1922 Sranuaiu Loauing 1iain. ûcl o irs 22.9 m lengrl vas raken u
Ly 100 k axle loaus saceu alreinarely ar 2.44 anu 3.05 m. 1aking rle larrei
iguie, Clerroe sieau a 100 k axle ovei an aiea o 3.053.05 m, ro give a
loau ei unir aiea o 10. kPa. In Imeiial unirs, rlis vas iounueu uovn ro 10.5
kPa vlicl Lecame rle sranuaiu uisriiLureu loau oi loaueu lengrls iom 3.05 ro
22.9 m. 1le majoi axle, o 219 k, vas 119 k leaviei rlan rlis 100 k
riailei axle. 1lis excess vas sieau ovei rle 3.05 m viurl ro give a knie-euge
loau o 39.2 k/m, iounueu u sliglrly ro 39.4 k/m. 1le Sranuaiu Loauing
1iain incluueu a 50' imacr value (1.5). Ioi sans less rlan 22.9 m, rlis vas
ieraineu, Lur oi longei sans ir vas ieuuceu ro 15' ar 122 m, anu zeio ar 62
m, anu incluueu in rle loauing cuive. Also, rle loau inrensiry vas ieuuceu oi
rle longei sans, uovn ro 3.4 kPa oi lengrls equal ro oi giearei rlan 62 m.
Fig. 4.1 (a) Ministry of Transport Standard Loading Train (1922); (b) BS 153 Unit
Loading Train (1923)
CODES OF PRACTICE 74
1le loauing also ioviueu oi a single vleel loau o 199 k, anu rlis incieaseu
rle equivalenr uisriiLureu loau oi rle sloirei sans. 1le înisriy o 1iansoir
Sranuaiu Loauing Cuive vas viuely useu unril 195S oi rle uesign o liglvay
Liiuges in Giear Biirain.
Also cuiienr ar rlis rime vas rle Biirisl Sranuaiu BS 153, iisr uLlisleu in
1923, vlicl seciieu rle Unir Loauing 1iain slovn in Iig. 4.1 (L), ro Le
acroieu u Ly a srareu numLei. Lleven o rlese unirs give a loau rlar is close ro
rle înisriy o 1iansoir Sranuaiu Loauing 1iain, Lur ir sloulu Le Loine in
minu rlar rle Ô1 loauing incluueu imacr, vleieas rle BS 153 loauing uiu
nor. Imacr values veie seciieu, Lur rlese ieuuceu virl incieases in san.
Henueison (1954:326) srares rlar ireen o rlese BS 153 unirs veie seciieu
'oi conuirions similai ro rlose alying in Giear Biirain.
ALour 195S, a nev euirion o BS 153 vas inriouuceu, incluuing a ieviseu
ser o loaus, uiviueu u inro 'noimal riaic anu an 'aLnoimal unir loauing
riain. 1le uevelomenr o rlese loaus vas uesciiLeu Ly Henueison (1954).
1le noimal loauing vas Laseu on riains o oui-axle riucks, virl axle sacings
o 1.22, 3.05 anu 1.22 m, in lanes o viurl 3.053.66 m. 1le sacing o
successive velicles, Lerveen axles, vas 2.13 m, i.e. eacl velicle occuieu .62
m. Vaiious comLinarions o rlese velicles veie seciieu oi vaiious loaueu
lengrls: oi examle, rliee riucks, eacl alying a roral loau o 219 k, in
22.9 m, anu in longei sans, u ro ive sucl riucks, virl auuirional velicles o
100 k oi 50 k. 1lese velicles veie useu ro oLrain equivalenr loaus, in rle
mannei o rle înisriy o 1iansoir loaus, Lur exiesseu as lane loaus, oi
loaus ei unir lengrl o lane, iarlei rlan loaus ei unir o aiea. 1le equivalenr
uisriiLureu loaus aie slovn virl rle Ô1 loaus in Iig. 4.2, rley incluue
imacr. Ioi a loaueu lengrl o 22.9 m, rle seciieu uisriiLureu loau is 32.1
Fig. 4.2 MOT and BS 153 loading curves for highway bridges
k/m. Ioi a lane viurl o 3.05 m, rlis gives a loau ei unir aiea o 10.5 kPa,
as in rle înisriy o 1iansoir loau, Lur oi longei lengrls rle seciieu
uisriiLureu loau is mucl smallei. Ioi examle, oi a loaueu lengrl o 152 m, rle
uisriiLureu loau is 14.6 k/m, equivalenr ro 4.S kPa oi a lane viurl o 3.05 m.
1le Ô1 uisriiLureu loau vas 6. kPa oi rlis lengrl. 1le nev knie-euge loau
vas 120 k, rle same as rle Ô1 loauing oi a 3.05 m lane. Iiguie 4.3 slovs
rle ALnoimal Unir Loauing 1iain seciieu Ly BS 153:195S, alieu only ro
airiculai Liiuges. Ioi main ioaus, 30 unirs o rlis loauing coulu Le seciieu,
Lur virl a sriess oveiiun oi ueau loau lus rlis live loau o 25'.
1lese eailiei Biirisl coues veie all Laseu on allovaLle voiking sriess
uesign. 1le seciieu loaus veie quire leavy, as comaieu virl ar leasr some
orlei counriies. In rle uiscussion o Henueisons aei (1954:3559), ir vas
oinreu our rlar rle sranuaiu Ameiican AASHO loauing, uesciiLeu Lelov, lau
eecrs rlar veie equivalenr ro aLour rvo-rliius o rle Biirisl loauing ovei rle
vlole iange o sans. Lailiei, in 1933, Clerroe (.S4) lau saiu, '1le aveiage
inrensiry o riaic in Giear Biirain is leaviei rlan in any orlei counriy in rle
voilu, vleie lis ieeience vas ro loauing inrensiry.
1le iisr Biirisl limir srares uesign coue vas BS 5400, issueu in 19S. As in
rle oluei BS 153, rleie is a noimal riaic anu an aLnoimal velicle loau,
iuenriieu as rle HA anu HB loauing. 1le HA loauing consisrs o a 120 k
knie-euge loau, as in rle eailiei coues, rogerlei virl a unioimly uisriiLureu
loau, . Ioi loaueu lengrls u ro 30 m, is ueineu as 30 k/m, oi
giearei rlan 30 m,

=151
0.45
k/m

Lur nor less rlan 9.0 k/m (=3S0 m).
1le HA loauing uoes nor uiei giearly iom rle oluei BS 153, oi examle,
ar =30.5 m ir gives =29S k/m, comaieu virl rle eailiei 29.2 k/m, anu ar
=152.4 m, ir gives 13.9 comaieu virl 14.6 k/m. Ir uieis in rlar is nor
alloveu ro go Lelov 9.0 k/m, even oi rle longesr sans, anu rleie is rle cur-o
oi less rlan 30 m. Hovevei, rlis cur-o is aaienr iarlei rlan ieal, oi ir vas
Fig. 4.3 BS 153:1958 Abnormal Unit Loading Train
iequiieu rlar all Liiuges caiiying uLlic liglvays sloulu Le uesigneu also ro
caiiy ar leasr 25 unirs o rle HB, oi aLnoimal velicle, loauing. 1le aLnoimal
velicle is essenrially similai ro rlar slovn in Iig. 4.3, Lur virl rle cenrial axle
sacing (ieviously 6.1 m) seciieu as 6, 11, 16, 21 oi 26 m, vliclevei
iouuces rle mosr seveie eecr, anu virl 10 k ei axle. 1le riansveise
vleel sacing is also 1.0 insreau o 0.91 m (3 eer). In auuirion ro rlese loaus,
ir is iequiieu rlar rle Liiuge Le aLle ro caiiy a single vleel loau o 100 k,
uisriiLureu ovei an aiea o 910
4
mm
2
(eirlei ciiculai oi squaie). Ioi
caiiiagevay viurls in excess o 4.6 m, rle numLei o riaic lanes may Le
ounu Ly uiviuing Ly 3.S m, anu iounuing u. 1lis imlies rlar a 4.6 m viurl
sloulu Le uiviueu inro rvo 2.3 m lanes. Anorlei iule alies oi viurls less
rlan 4.6 m. Ioi mulri-lane Liiuges, rle ull seciieu HA loauing is alieu ro
rvo riaic lanes, virl one-rliiu o rle sranuaiu loauing alieu concuiienrly
ro orlei lanes.
1le HA loauing vas closen ro ieiesenr rle eecrs o closely saceu 24 r
(235 k) velicles in eacl o rvo riaic lanes, oi lengrls u ro 30 m, virl
auuirional 10 r (9S k) anu 5 r (49 k) velicles in rle longei lengrls. An imacr
allovance o 25' 'on one axle oi aii o aujacenr vleels vas incluueu in rle
loauing. 1yical loau acrois aie:

(a) ulrimare limir srares:
1.05 +1.5 +1.5 oi
1.05 +1.5 +1.25 +1.1
(L) seiviceaLiliry limir srares:
1.0 +1.20 +1.20 oi
1.0 +1.20 +1.0 +1.0

vleie inuicares rle ueau loau, rle sueiimoseu ueau loau, rle live
loau anu rle vinu loau.
BS 5400 is issueu in a numLei o airs. As eacl Pair is ieviseu anu ieissueu ir
is given a nev uare, rlus rlese uares may vaiy Lerveen Pairs. Ioi examle, rle
veision cuiienr in 199S lau Pairs virl uares ianging iom 19S (oi 'Pair 2.
Seciicarion oi loaus) ro 1990. 1le 19SS Geneial Sraremenr ieeis ro 'a uesign
lie o 120 yeais, ir las a secrion leaueu '. Analysis vlicl seaks o 'Plasric
merlous alloving oi rle ossiLiliry o lasric linges (oi yielu lines in slaLs). Ir
eimirs 'lasric merlousoiieuisriiLurion o momenrs anu sleais suLjecr ro
ceirain qualiicarions, Lur auus rlar even virl rle use o rlese merlous rle
suoirs sloulu srill Le 'caaLle o virlsranuing ieacrions calculareu Ly elasric
merlous, anu 'clanges in geomeriy uue ro uelecrions (sloulu) nor signiicanrly
inluence rle loau eecrs oi aie ully raken inro accounr. Hovevei, ieviev o rle
uesign loaus conrinueu, in 19S6 rleie lau Leen a uecision ro auor unioim iules
oi legal veiglrs anu uimensions rliouglour rle Luioean Lconomic
Communiry. 1lis meanr an inciease in Biirain in rle maximum legal velicle mass,
iom 3S ro 40 ronnes, a ieviev o rle uesign loaus anu a iooseu nev HA
loauing (Clarreijee 1991:65).
In 19SS rle Biirisl Deairmenr o 1iansoir iequiieu rle use o rlis loauing
oi rle uesign o all o rleii liglvay Liiuges anu issueu rle Deairmenral
Sranuaiu BD3/SS, 'Loaus oi Higlvay Biiuges, vlicl incluueu as an aenuix
a nev 'Comosire Veision o BS 5400: Pair 2:19S. 1le ieviseu loauing
conrinues rle oim o rle ievious loauing virl, ei lane, a knie-euge loau o
120 k (as Leoie) anu a uisriiLureu loau given Ly

=336
0.6
k/m, oi =50 m,
anu
=36
0.1
, oi lengrls giearei rlan 50 m anu u ro 1600 m.
1le lengrl is geneially 'rle ull Lase lengrl o rle auveise aiea, anu in cases
vleie a numLei o seaiare oirions aie loaueu simulraneously, is rle sum o
rleii lengrls. 1le seciicarion gives some guiuance oi rle selecrion o in cases
virl 'liglly cuseu inluence lines, sucl as may aiise in rle case o a cioss-
memLei in rle ueck. Ir iequiies also rlar Liiuges on moroivays anu riunk ioaus
Le aLle ro caiiy 45 unirs o rle 19S HB loauing, on iincial ioaus, 3.5, anu on
all orlei uLlic ioaus, 30.
1le commenraiy ieeis ro 3.65 m as rle sranuaiu lane viurl, Lur eimirs rle
use o naiiovei lanes, oi examle, caiiiagevays iom 5 ro .5 m viue aie
uesigneu ro caiiy rvo norional lanes, as in rle ievious coue. Hovevei, rle coue
ioviues oi ieuuceu loaus on naiiov lanes oi Liiuges virl less rlan 40 m, oi
examle, oi <20 m, a acroi o 0.24rle lane viurl is alieu ro Lorl rle iisr
anu seconu lane loauing. Ioi longei sans, rle acrois aie ryically 1.0 oi lanes 1
anu 2, anu 0.6 oi auuirional lanes. Dynamic eecrs aie incluueu virlin rle
loauings as Leoie, Lur a commenr is o inreiesr: 'Recenr ieseaicl las slovn rlar
rle imacr eecr o an axle on liglvay Liiuges can Le as ligl as S0' o rle
sraric axle veiglr anu an allovance o rlis magniruue vas maue in ueiiving rle
HA loauing. Loau acrois o 1.5 anu 1.2 aie alieu ro rle HA loauing vlen
consiueieu in conjuncrion virl ueau loau oi ulrimare anu seiviceaLiliry limir
srares, anu 1.33 anu 1.1 oi rle HB loauing.
Borl BS 5400: Pair 2:19S anu rle 'Comosire Veision o 19SS raLulare
values o rle uisriiLureu loau incluueu in rle HA loauing. Ioi values o Lerveen
25 anu 60 m, rle nev loauing ieiesenrs an inciease o rle oiuei o 10', Lur oi
giearei lengrls rle inciease may Le suLsranrial, oi examle, 56' ar =150 m.
Ioi sloirei lengrls, values o in rle nev coue aie mucl liglei, Lur in rlese
cases rle aLnoimal oi HB loauing vill renu ro govein.
Deairmenral Sranuaiu BD3/SS srares rlar 'rle rye HA loauing is rle
noimal uesign loauing oi Giear Biirain vleie ir auequarely coveis rle eecrs o
all eimirreu noimal veliclesas ueineu in 1le Roau VeliclesRegularions
19S6 (S.I.19S6/10S) anu suLsequenr amenumenrs. Ir vas issueu Ly rle
Deairmenr o 1iansoir iarlei rlan Ly BSI (rle Biirisl Sranuaius Insrirurion) 'as
an inreiim measuie, enuing a long reim ieviev o BS 5400 as a vlole anu
Leaiing in minu rle cuiienr voik on Luiocoues. 1le uiar Luiocoue I vill Le
uiscusseu in Secrion 4.6. In rle eiiou Leoie irs inalisarion, BD3/SS conrinueu
in use as rle ueining uocumenr oi Biirisl liglvay Liiuge loaus.
1le Ameiican Associarion o Srare Higlvay Oicials (AASHO)
veie iisr uLlisleu in 1931, olloving a
eiiou o uevelomenr rlar commenceu in 1921, anu lave Leen viuely useu oi
rle uesign o liglvay Liiuges in rle Unireu Srares o Ameiica anu elsevleie. In
193, rle reim AASHO vas clangeu ro AASH1O, ielecring rle clange ro
Srare Higlvay anu 1iansoirarion Oicials in rle rirle o rle issuing Louy.
1ley lave, oi many yeais, incluueu in rleii loauing rle HS20 riuck anu semi-
riailei comLinarion, ieviously calleu rle H20-S16, slovn in Iig. 4.4, raken
iom rle 193 (elevenrl) euirion. 1le uesignarion given rleie is, moie iecisely,
rle HS2044 loauing, inuicaring rlar ir vas inriouuceu in 1944.
1le iisr rvo axles o rlis loauing (ar rle ler) oim rle H20 riuck, so-calleu
Lecause irs roral veiglr is 20 US rons (one US ron is 2000 lLm, coiiesonuing ro
a loau o S.90 k). 1le leauing axle is 4 US rons (35.6 k), olloveu Ly one o
16 US rons (142 k), virl an axle sacing o 4.3 m. 1o rlis is auueu rle ieai,
semi-riailei axle, also o 16 US rons (142 k), virl an axle sacing rlar can Le
vaiieu Ly rle uesignei iom 4.3 ro 9.1 m. 1lis uesciirion o rle rvo majoi 142
k loaus is qualiieu oi ueck uesign Ly a oornore in rle coue: i inueeu rleie is
only one axle, rlen rle maximum axle loau is 10 k, alreinarively, rle loau o
142 k may Le alieu, Lur uiviueu equally Lerveen rvo axles, saceu 1.22 m
aair. 1le 196 AASH1O Inreiim Seciicarions mouiieu rlis Ly iequiiing
rlar Liiuges on Inreisrare Higlvays sloulu also Le aLle ro caiiy an 'Alreinare
Fig. 4.4 American AASHO HS2044 loading
4.3 Standard specifications for American highway bridges
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR AMERICAN HIGHWAY BRIDGES 79
îliraiy Loauing consisring o rvo axles, 1.22 m aair, virl eacl axle alying
a loau o 106.S k. Ar a larei uare, rlis vas clangeu ro rvo 110 k axle loaus ar
a sacing o 1.20 m.
1le HS20 riuck semi-riailei comLinarion vas nor, lovevei, rle only 1944
loauing. Iiguie 4.4 slovs also rle HS20 equivalenr Lane Loauing, consisring o a
concenriareu (oi knie-euge) loauing rlar is S0 k oi Lenuing momenrs, anu 116
k oi sleai, rogerlei virl a unioimly uisriiLureu loau o 9.34 k/m, vleie
rlese lave rle same magniruues oi all san lengrls. Hovevei, rle Inriouucrion ro
rle coue inuicares rlar ir sloulu Le useu only oi sans less rlan 152 m. 1le
uisriiLureu loau may Le inreiiureu, virl no loauing alieu ro air o rle ueck i
rlis causes a laigei eecr, anu in a Liiuge rlar is sriucruially conrinuous ovei rvo
oi moie sans, in esrimaring rle conrinuiry momenr rvo concenriareu loaus may
Le alieu, one in eacl san.
Lacl loauing coiiesonus ro a lane viurl o 3.05 m, rle roral ioauvay viurl
is useu ro uereimine a numLei, o uesign riaic lanes, Laseu Lioauly on rlis
uimension, Lur virl some iovision oi auuirional viurl in mulri-lane Liiuges.
Ioi examle, a 12.S m ioauvay is assumeu ro caiiy only rliee lanes, viurls ovei
12.S m anu u ro 16.5 m caiiy oui lanes (a raLle is given). Iiacrional lane viurls
aie nor useu, Lur rle uesign loauing, o viurl 3.05 m, may Le moveu riansveisely
anyvleie virlin irs uesign lane ro aclieve maximum eecr. 1vo lanes aie
assumeu ro caiiy rleii ull uesign loaus concuiienrly, virl rliee lanes, all aie
loaueu, Lur virl a ieuucrion acroi o 0.9 alieu ro all, anu virl oui lanes, rlis
ieuucrion acroi ieuuces ro 0.5. Only one riuck may Le alieu virlin any one
lane, ovei rle vlole lengrl o rle Liiuge. Ir is Lelieveu rlar ir may Le aceu in
eirlei uiiecrion. 1o allov oi uynamic eecrs, all loaus aie mulrilieu Ly (1+),
vleie rle imacr acroi, is given Ly
vleie
is rle loaueu lengrl in eer.
1le exiession virl in meries is
is nor ro exceeu 0.3.
1le coue also seciieu rle iooirionarely smallei HS15 riuck semi-riailei
anu HS20, H15 anu H10 riucks. Piovision oi aLnoimal velicles vas maue Ly
iequiiing rle alicarion o a single HS20 sranuaiu riuck anu semi-riailei,
incieaseu Ly 100', laceu anyvleie on rle Liiuge, Lur virl rle allovaLle
comLineu ueau anu live loau sriesses incieaseu Ly a acroi o 1.5.
1le 193 euirion o rle AASHO coue vas essenrially Laseu on allovaLle
sriess uesign, anu rle magniruue o rlese sriesses may Le gaugeu Ly oLseiving
rlar rle Lasic allovaLle sriess in sreel vas 13S ^Pa oi a yielu sriengrl o 24S
^Pa. 1le nominal acroi o saery in rlis case vas 1.S. Hovevei, ir uiu allov oi
rle ulrimare sriengrl uesign oi ieinoiceu conciere secrions, vlicl Ly rlis rime
lau Leen geneially auoreu oi Luiluing uesign, ir seciieu rle olloving loau
acrois oi use virl rle HS20 live loaus:

1.30|+5/3]

A ryical caaciry ieuucrion acroi vas 0.90 oi a ieinoiceu conciere secrion in
Lenuing.
An imoiranr ieviev o uesign loaus oi Ameiican Liiuges vas caiiieu our in
19S1 Ly a Commirree on Loaus o rle Ameiican Sociery o Civil Lngineeis
(ASCL), claiieu Ly Bucklanu (Bucklanu 19S1, 19S2, er al. 19S0, 19S1, see also
Secrion 6.1). Ir iecommenueu no clange in rle Lasic riaic loaus oi sloir-san
Liiuges (less rlan 152 m), Lur oi Liiuges o longei san iecommenueu a
unioimly uisriiLureu loau, ro Le useu virl a concenriareu loau, vleie Lorl
aie loaus ei lane, as slovn in Iig. 4.5. 1le oinr loau (equivalenr ro rle knie-
euge loau in Biirisl iacrice) incieases lineaily iom 0 ar 15.2 m ro 4 k oi a
loaueu lengrl o 1950 m. 1le unioimly uisriiLureu loau ueenus on rle
eicenrage o leavy velicles anu vaiies as slovn in rle iguie. 1le loaueu lengrl
may Le Lioken inro airs o rle ueck, so as ro iouuce maximum eecr, Lur is
uereimineu iom rle roral lengrl. Only one oinr loau vas ro Le alieu, anu rlis
virlin an aiea coveieu Ly rle uisriiLureu loau. Zeio imacr vas ro Le auueu. Ioi
mulrile riaic lanes, rle ull loau vas ro Le alieu in one lane, lus 0. o rlis in
a seconu lane, lus 0.4 in succeeuing lanes. 1lis loauing las larei Leen calleu rle
ASCL Loauing.
In 19S6, AASH1O commissioneu a uirlei majoi ieviev o US Liiuge
uesign iacrice, leauing ro rle 1994 iisr euirion o rleii
Laseu on loau anu iesisrance acroi uesign. Alrlougl rlis sruuy
ievealeu some 'uisceiniLle gas(anu)inconsisrencies in rle ievious coue,
anu leu ro a coue Laseu on a nev uesign lilosoly, ir ler Ameiican uesigneis
virl 'a cloice o rvo sranuaius ro guiue rleii uesigns, rle oluei, voiking sriess
uesign seciicarions anu rle nev 1994 LRID coue (quorarions aie iom rle
Ioievoiu ro rlis uocumenr), rlar is, ir vas seen as auuing ro iarlei rlan
necessaiily ielacing rle olu seciicarions. Ir involveu consiueiaLle voik, some
o vlicl las Leen uesciiLeu Ly ovak in Das (199:42) anu orlei aeis
(ovak 1995, ovak anu Hong 1991, 1aLsl anu ovak 1991, see also
Secrion 5.3, anu Kulicki anu êirz 1991). Ir vas also Laseu on a majoi ieviev
o 1iuck Weiglr Limirs, conuucreu Ly a giou leu Ly Colen (see Colen anu
Hoel 1990).
1le nev AASH1O loauing consisrs o a uesign riuck, oi a ranuem,
coinciuenr virl a uesign lane loau. 1le uesign riuck is eecrively rle olu HS20
riuck semi-riailei comLinarion aujusreu ro iounueu SI unirs. 1le olu axle loaus
o 35.6, 142 anu 142 k Lecome 35, 145 anu 145 k. 1le axle sacings, vlicl
veie ieviously 4.3 anu 4.39.1 m, aie nov 4.3 anu 4.39.0 m. 1le uesign
ranuem, vlicl coulu Le useu insreau o rle riuck semi-riailei, consisrs o rvo
110 k axle loaus, saceu 1.2 m aair. 1le ryie conracr aiea oi eirlei rle
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR AMERICAN HIGHWAY BRIDGES 81
uesign riuck oi rle ranuem is Laseu on one-lal o rle axle loau (i.e. 2.5 oi 55
k), acroieu u ro incluue Lorl rle uynamic loau allovance anu loau acroi,
alieu ro rvo ryies. 1le viurl (aiallel ro rle axle) is ser as 510 mm, anu rle
lengrl (aiallel ro rle uiiecrion o movemenr) is vleie

(mm)=2.2Srle acroieu loau.

Ioi examle, oi a loau o 2.5 k, virl a uynamic loau allovance o 1.33, anu a
loau acroi o 1.5, Lecomes 169 mm.
Fig. 4.5 ASCE Loading for long-span highway bridges (Redrawn from Buckland
1981)
1le uesign lane loau is 9.3 k/m. 1le oluei lane loau vas 9.34 k/m, Lur
alieu in conjuncrion virl a concenriareu (oi knie-euge) loau o S0 k oi
Lenuing momenrs, oi 116 k oi sleai. Ioi comaiison, rle roral nev uesign
riuck loau Lecame 325 k, anu rle roral ranuem loau is 220 k. 1le nev
loauing is seciieu ro occuy a lane viurl o 3.6 m, alrlougl rlis may Le ieuuceu
ro as lirrle as 3.0 m oi a rvo-lane ioauvay viurl o 6.0 m. 1le oluei viurl vas
Lasically 3.05 m.
1le 1994 euirion incluues iarios o Lenuing momenrs anu sleais iouuceu Ly
rle nev loauing ro rlose iom rle olu, lorreu againsr san lengrl. Ar a san o 5
m, rle incieases in Lenuing momenr aie o rle oiuei o 10', anu rlese giov ro
aLour 0' ar a san o 45 m. 1le incieases in uesign sleai aie a lirrle less, iom
aLour zeio ar 5 m ro 50' ar 30 m.
1le nev 1994 AASH1O uynamic loau allovance, 1+ is rle same oi all
sans, Leing 1.15 oi arigue anu iacruie, anu 1.33 oi all orlei limir srares.
Hovevei, a acroi o 1.5 is seciieu oi rle uesign o ueck joinrs. 1le
iequiiemenr oi eacl limir srare is

vleie
is a loau eecr, anu y is irs loau acroi,
is rle nominal iesisrance,

is a iesisrance acroi, oi caaciry ieuucrion acroi, anu
l is a acroi, Lerveen 0.95 anu 1.0, Laseu on uucriliry, ieuunuancy anu
oeiarional imoirance.
1yical values o rle loau acrois oi a sriengrl limir srare aie:
1.25 +1.5 +1.5
vleie
is rle ueau loau o rle sriucruie irsel,
is sueiimoseu ueau loau, incluuing veaiing suiace anu uriliries
(sucl as varei ies), anu
is live loau, virl rle loau acroi alieu also ro rle uynamic loau
allovance.
1yical values o oi memLeis in Lenuing, aie 1.0 oi sreel anu iesriesseu
conciere o lineai-elasric, anu 0.9 oi ieinoiceu conciere.
In geneial, rle coue avouis rle use o lineai-elasric merlous oi rle analysis
o rle sriucruie ro give elemenral oices anu momenrs, Lur rlen calculares rle
sriengrl o rlese elemenrs iom rleii inelasric Lelavioui. Ir iecognises 'an oLvious
inconsisrency in rlis, Lur srares rlar rlis exisreu also in ievious euirions o rle
AASH1O seciicarions, anu in rle coues o orlei narions. Hovevei, ir eimirs
ONTARIO AND CANADIAN HIGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN CODES 83
inelasric analysis, virl 'a ieeiieu uesign ailuie meclanism anu irs arrenuanr
linge locarions, rlis is suLjecr ro some vainings, noraLly, rlar ir musr Le knovn
rlar rle ielevanr comonenrs o rle sriucruie vill Lelave in a uucrile aslion,
virl a iesonse rlar 'las geneially Leen oLseiveu ro ioviue oi laige
ueoimarions as a means o vaining o sriucruial uisriess.
1le iisr euirion o rle (Onraiio înisriy
o 1iansoirarion 199) vas a ioneei in rle use o rle limir srares uesign
lilosoly oi Liiuges, anu inluenceu rle uevelomenr o many orlei uesign
coues, sucl as rle Ameiican AASH1O Seciicarions. 1le claiiman o rle Coue
Develomenr Commirree vas P.I.Csagoly. An eaily ieoir Ly Csagoly anu Doiron
(193) uesciiLeu voik rlar oimeu rle oiiginal Lasis o irs uesign loau, anu anorlei
Ly rle same aurlois in 19 uesciiLeu rle uevelomenr o rle coue irsel. Some o
rlis voik is summaiiseu in rle Commenraiy on rle 19S3 seconu euirion o rle
coue. Alrlougl issueu inirially on a riial Lasis, ir las Leen useu oi rle uesign o
many Liiuges in Onraiio since 199. One o irs earuies vas rle mannei in vlicl
rle uesign loaus veie linkeu ro legal limirs alieu ro riucks in Onraiio, Lur ir seems
eviuenr rlar rle oim o rlese legal limirs lau an eecr rlar sieau ai Leyonu rlar
srare, since one cannor uiive acioss Canaua virlour using rle ioaus o Onraiio.
1lar merlouology vas uiscusseu in OConnoi (19S0) anu (19S1).
1le Onraiio voikeis ueineu an equivalenr Lase lengrl,
as 'an imaginaiy
inire lengrl on vlicl rle roral veiglr o a given sequenrial ser o concenriareu
loaus is unioimly uisriiLureu sucl rlar rlis unioimly uisriiLureu loau voulu
cause oice eecrs in a suoiring sriucruie nor ueviaring unieasonaLly iom
rlose causeu Ly rle sequence irsel. 1le 'sequenrial ser o concenriareu loaus
coulu Le raken eirlei as a comlere velicle, oi as any suLser o aujacenr loaus. I a
velicle las axles, rlen rleie aie acroiial suLsers o loaus raken 1, 2, 3
ar a rime. Ioi a velicle virl 5 axles, oi examle, rle numLei o suLsers is 15,
maue u o 5 single axles, 4 aiis o axles, 3 gious o 3, 2 gious o 4 anu one o
5. Lacl suLser las a veiglr, anu an equivalenr Lase lengrl,
. 1lese may Le
lorreu in
sace. Geneially ir is only rle uei Lounu o rlese oinrs rlar

is imoiranr, anu rlis can Le ieeiieu ro as rle equivalenr Lase lengrl signaruie o
rle velicle. 1le merlou o calcularing
vill Le uiscusseu in Clarei 5.

Iiguie 4.6 (a) is raken iom Csagoly anu Doiron (19Sa, 19SL) anu slovs
rle iesulrs o a 196 census, virl rle
sace uiviueu inro segmenrs, anu

rle numLei in eacl segmenr inuicaring rle numLei o occuiiences o rlar
comLinarion. 1le cuive slovn in rle iguie las rle equarion

In SI unirs rlis Lecomes

4.4 Ontario and Canadian highway bridge design codes

1lis vas larei ieviseu ro

1lis cuive, vlicl lies some uisrance Lelov rle uei Lounu o rle suivey uara,
vas calleu rle Onraiio Biiuge Ioimula (OBI).
A suLsequenr 191 suivey vas useu ro esraLlisl a viirual uei Lounu ro
velicles in Onraiio, larei ieviseu ro

calleu rle âximum OLseiveu Loau (ÔL).
Fig. 4.6 Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code: (a) Histogram in (W, B
M
) space; (b)
OHBD Design Truck; (c) Signature of OHBD Truck; (d) OHBD Lane Load (Redrawn
from Csagoly and Dorton 1978a and b)
1le OBI vas useu ro ueine legal velicle veiglrs in Onraiio, vlile rle ÔL
cuive Lecame rle Lasis o rle Onraiio Higlvay Biiuge Design (OHBD) 1iuck, as
slovn in Iig. 4.6 (L). 1leie vas also an OHBD Lane Loau (Iig. 4.6 (u)) rlar
consisreu o 0' o rle OHBD 1iuck, rogerlei virl a uisriiLureu loau o 10 k/
m (oi Class A Higlvays). Borl occuieu a viurl o 3.0 m. Ioi comonenrs
loaueu Ly moie rlan one axle rle uynamic loau allovance vaiieu virl rle iisr
naruial iequency o viLiarion in Heiz, Leing 1.3 oi =1.0, 1.45 oi Lerveen
2.5 anu 4.5, 1.3 oi =60, virl lineai riansirions ovei rle ianges 1.02.5 Hz, anu
4.56.0 Hz.
1le seconu euirion o rle Onraiio Coue vas issueu in 19S3 virl no clange in
rle iimaiy uesign loaus (Doiron anu Baklr 19S4), Lur virl rle uynamic loau
allovances clangeu ro 1.2, 1.4 anu 1.25 oi rle iequency ianges quoreu aLove.
1le loaus veie ievieveu again (ovak 1994, ovak anu Giouni 1994) oi rle
1991 rliiu euirion anu sliglrly incieaseu. Iiguie 4. slovs rle 1991 OHBD
1iuck, rle only clange Leing rlar rle axle loaus 2 anu 3 aie eacl incieaseu ro 160
k iom rle eailiei 140 k. 1le Lane Loau again consisrs o 0' o rlis riuck,
rogerlei virl a uisriiLureu loau o 10 k/m. 1le oim o rle seciicarion oi
uynamic loau allovance vas also clangeu, ro ueenu on rle numLei o axles
consiueieu in rle uesign lane, ro 1.40 oi one axle, 1.30 oi rvo, anu 1.25 oi
rliee oi moie, virl a value o 1.1 oi rle unioimly uisriiLureu oirion o rle
Lane Loau. 1yical loau acrois oi collase in rle 19S3 coue veie:
(1.11.2) +1.5 +1.4 (incluuing imacr)
1lese values veie nor clangeu in rle 1991 coue. 1le merlous useu Ly ovak ro
jusriy rlese values vill Le iesenreu in Clarei 5 (see eailiei ieeiences).
1le coue CSA-S6, o rle Canauian Sranuaius
Associarion useu in irs eailiei oims, loauing mouels Laseu on rle AASH1O
HS20 riuck semi-riailei comLinarion. By 19S (Agaival anu Cleung 19S) rle
levels o rle nominal axle loau lau Leen incieaseu iom rle AASH1O 35.6, 142
anu 142 k ro 50, 200 anu 200 k in rle Canauian ^S250 loauing. 1le
essenrial uieience Lerveen rle CSA loauings anu rlose o Onraiio vas rlar rle
oimei veie ueiiveu iom legal limirs agieeu ro Ly all iovinces, vleieas rle
OHBD 1iuck came iom rle âximum OLseiveu Loau (ÔL) in Onraiio. In
19SS, a êmoianuum o Unueisranuing on Velicle Weiglrs anu Dimensions
(ÔU) vas signeu Ly all iovinces, anu rlis leu ro rle CS-W loauing, vleie W
ieiesenrs a roral velicle veiglr in k, a value o 600 k oi W vas
iecommenueu oi rle uesign o Liiuges on inrei-iovincial riucking ioures acioss
Canaua. Iiguie 4.S slovs rlis loauing. Ioi ulrimare limir srares a loau acroi o
1.60 vas alieu, somevlar laigei rlan rle acroi o 1.4 useu in OHBD.
1le 19SS ÔU vas amenueu in 1991 anu useu oi rle Lasis o a nev
Canauian Higlvay Biiuge Design Coue (CHBDC), uue oi issue in ovemLei,
2000, virl rle CL-600 incieaseu sliglrly ro CL-625 (see Cl.C3.S.3 o rle
Commenraiy o rlis coue oi ieeiences ro rle ÔU). 1le loau acroi alieu ro
rlis loau vas also incieaseu (ro 1.0) anu rle iesulring acroieu live loau is
sliglrly aLove rle 1991 OHBD Coue 1iuck (eisonal communicarion,
R.A.Doiron). Anorlei imoiranr earuie o rlis coue is rle iemoval o rle 150 m
Fig. 4.8 Canadian CS-W loading
uei Lounu oi san lengrl. 1le CL-625 Lane Loau consisrs o a CL-625 riuck,
virl eacl axle ieuuceu ro S0' o irs noimal value, rogerlei virl a unioimly
uisriiLureu loau o 9 k/m, on a lane rlar is 3.0 m viue. 1le Coue Commenraiy
uesciiLes lov rlis loauing vas ielareu ro eailiei voik Ly Bucklanu anu orleis
(Bucklanu er al. 19S0 anu Bucklanu 19S1), rlar leu ro rle loauing slovn in Iig.
4.5, iecommenueu Ly an Ameiican Sociery o Civil Lngineeis Commirree, anu
ieeiieu ro inoimally as rle ASCL loauing. 1lis ASCL loauing consisreu o a
oinr loau anu a unioimly uisriiLureu loau, anu vas Laseu on oLseivarions o
riucks using rle Seconu Vancouvei aiiovs Liiuge. O rlese, .4' veie classeu
as leavy velicles, i.e. Luses anu riucks ovei 5.4 r (12,000 lLm). 1liee orlei cases
veie consiueieu:

(1) 2.4' leavy velicles, anu masses u ro 1S.1 r (40,000 lLm),
(2) 29.6' leavy velicles, virl masses u ro 54.4 r, anu
(3) 100' leavy velicles, virl masses u ro 54.4 r.

All oui cases aie slovn in Iig. 4.5, rle acrual loauing, virl only 2.4' leavy
velicles iouuces rle lovesr equivalenr loaus. 1le nev Canauian lane loauing
coiiesonus in irs eecrs closely ro rle ASCL (30') loau, Leing aLour 4'
conseivarive ar a 2000 m loaueu lengrl. Hovevei, rle ASCL (30') loauing is irsel
Lelieveu ro Le conseivarive, 'Ly an unknovn amounr nor exceeuing 50'.
1lis 1999 CHBDC coue also incluues an inreiesring ieeience ro rle iisk o
ailuie:
Long san Liiuges aie, Ly ueinirion, likely ro lave seiious
consequences i rley collase. An imoirance acroi is rleieoie
uesiiaLle, oi, urring ir anorlei vay, rle iequiieu raiger value o A
sloulu Le incieaseu. One vay o accomlisling rlis is ro use rle
oimula in CSA-S40S |19S1, anorlei Canauian Coue], vlicl gives

vleie
is rle raiger ioLaLiliry o ailuie,

is rle ieruin eiiou in yeais,
is an acriviry acroi,
is a coeicienr,
is a vaining acroi, anu
is rle numLei o eole ar iisk
1le value o =10 vas auoreu, Lur ir vas oinreu our rlar, oi a long san Liiuge,
say 2000 m, miglr Le as laige as 1000. In rlis case, rle iequiieu value o
voulu
ieuuce Ly i.e. Ly 1/10. 1le coiiesonuing A acroi miglr clange iom 3.5
ro 4.0. '1lis may Le accomlisleu virlour clanging loau acrois i rle uesign
loauing is incieaseu ar long loaueu lengrls Ly aLour S'. 1le imlicir suggesrion is
rlar rle iooseu CL-625 Lane Loau ioviues a suicienr ieseive o sriengrl.
1le Oiganisarion oi Lconomic Co-oeiarion anu Develomenr (OLCD) vas ser
u in 1960, anu Ly 19S0 incluueu 24 memLei counriies maue u o 19 iom
Luioe, virl Ausrialia, Canaua, ev Zealanu, ]aan, anu rle Unireu Srares. In
19S0, an OLCD ioau ieseaicl giou uLlisleu an
vlicl incluueu a comaiison o rle uesign loaus oi liglvay
Liiuges in rvelve o rle memLei counriies. Some o irs uara vill Le useu leie.
1le Iiencl (193) seciieu rvo Lasic
loauing sysrems, mulrilieu Ly acrois ueenuenr on rle class o Liiuge anu rle
numLei o lanes loaueu. Class I Liiuges lave a caiiiagevay viurl o nor less rlan
m, anu vill Le consiueieu leie, in Class II rlis viurl is Lerveen 5.5 anu m, anu in
Class III less rlan oi equal ro 5.5 m. Loauing Sysrem A is a unioimly uisriiLureu
loau sieau ovei rle comlere viurl o a lane, Lur virl rle inrensiry vaiieu so rlar,
virlin Class I, rle loau ei merie is given Ly

(k/m)=S.05+1260/(+12)

vleie
is rle loaueu lengrl in meries.
Ioi a mulrile lane Liiuge, rle acrois alieu ro rlis loauing aie 1.0, 1.0, 0.9 anu
0.5, virl 0. alieu ro eacl auuirional lane.
Loauing sysrem B consisrs o

(a) rvo 300 k riucks ei lane, as slovn in Iig. 4.9 (a), oi
(L) an isolareu vleel loau o 100 k, virl a iecrangulai conracr aiea 0.3 m long
(aiallel ro rle ioauvay) anu 0.6 m viue, oi
(c) a aii o axles, eacl 160 k, 1.3 m aair, virl a vleel sacing o 2.0 m
(cenrie ro cenrie).

Lacl riuck occuies a viurl o only 2.5 m, virl rvo riucks Liouglr siue Ly siue
so as ro roucl, vlile rle viurl o rle uual axle sysrem is 3.0 m. 1le acrois oi
mulrile lanes aie 1.20, 1.1, 0.95 anu 0.S, virl 0. oi eacl auuirional lane. 1le
imacr acroi alieu ro all oims o Loauing Sysrem B is
=0.64/(1+0.2) oi conciere sriucruies, anu
=0.S0/(1+0.2) oi sreel anu comosire sriucruies.
1le uynamic amliicarion acroi is 1+. 1leie is also a seciieu Heavy
1iansoir, anu a seaiare Heavy îliraiy Loau, oi use on ceirain ioures.
1le Wesr Geiman Coue, DI 102196, iecogniseu rliee Liiuge classes:

Class 60 oi moroivays, eueial anu srare ioaus,
Class 30 oi ciry anu counriy ioaus, anu
Class 12 oi iuial ioaus virl liglr riaic.
4.5 Some European codes for highway bridges
SOME EUROPEAN CODES FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES 91
1le caiiiagevay is uiviueu inro a 3 m viue iincial riaic lane, anu orlei lanes.
Ioi Class 60 Liiuges, as slovn in Iig. 4.9 (L), rle iincial lane is loaueu virl a
giou o rliee 200 k axles, saceu 1.5 m aair, rogerlei virl a uisriiLureu loau
'in ionr anu Lelinu rlis velicle. Ir is nor cleai i rlis loauing conrinues unuei rle
Fig. 4.9 Typical European highway bridge loads
velicle, as slovn, oi i ir reiminares some uisrance Leoie anu arei rle velicle. Ir
is seciieu as 5 k/m
2
, equivalenr ro 15 k/m on a 3 m lane. 1le orlei lanes aie
loaueu virl a unioimly uisriiLureu loau o 3 k/m
2
, vleie iesumaLly rlis may
Le inreiiureu anu laceu oi maximum eecr. An imacr acroi, is alieu ro
rle loauing on rle iincial lane only, virl

=0.4000S (m)

Lur nor less rlan zeio. Again rle uynamic amliicarion acroi is 1+.
Ioi Class 30 Liiuges, rle axle loaus on rle iincial lane aie one-lal o rlose
given aLove, Lur rle uisriiLureu loaus iemain rle same. Ir is Lelieveu rlese
iimaiy loaus iemaineu unalreieu in rle 19S3 DI Coue, Lur rlar a larei uiar
coue (Clarreijee 1991) iooseu rlar, in auuirion ro rle aLove loaus, a seconu
velicle, o 300 k (rliee axles ar 1.5 m), Le auueu ro a seconu lane, anu also rlar
rle Class 12 loauing Le aLanuoneu.
1le Sanisl 192 coue seciieu loaus similai ro rle 196 DI coue, Lur
virl a uisriiLureu loau o 4 k/m
2
alieu ro all lanes, insreau o rle 5 anu 3 k/
m
2
o rle DI coue.
In 199, rleie vas a uiar Belgian coue in ieaiarion vlicl, oi noimal
riaic, seciieu a unioimly uisriiLureu loau o 3.5 k/m
2
ovei rle vlole
ioauvay anu, in eacl lane, a aii o axles saceu 1.5 m aair, eacl alying 150
k. Imacr vas as seciieu in rle Iiencl coue.
Iraly vas anorlei counriy vlicl uisringuisleu Lerveen ioures rlar caiiieu
Lorl civil anu miliraiy riaic (Class I), anu rlose virl civil velicles only (Class
II). Iiguie 4.9 (c) slovs rle Scleme 1 anu Scleme 2 civil loauings: rle iisr lau an
uniesriicreu riain o 120 k velicles, rle seconu vas a single macline o 1S0 k.
1le rliee seciieu miliraiy loauings veie mucl leaviei. 1vo aie slovn in Iig.
4.9 (c): rle iisr an uniesriicreu riain o six-axle velicles, eacl roralling 320 k,
sieau ovei an eecrive lengrl o .S m, anu rle seconu, a single riacroi-riailei
comLinarion o 45 k, virl a lengrl Lerveen exrieme axles o 13.4 m. 1le
seciieu lane viurl vas 3 ro 3.5 m, virl an imacr acroi given Ly

Lur zeio oi sans in excess o 100 m. 1yical values o aie 0.34, oi =10 m, 0.2S
ar 20 m, anu 0.0S ar 60 m. 1lese loaus aie iom Coue 3S4, uareu 1962.
1le lasr o rlese Luioean examles is iom Iinlanu (Coue 19S). Iiguie 4.9
(u) slovs irs Loau Scleme 1: a rliee-axle velicle, consisring o rliee 210 k
axles, alieu in auuirion ro a uisriiLureu loau o 9 k/m, rle vlole occuying a
lane viurl o 3.0 m. In auuirion, ir vas iequiieu rlar rle Liiuge Le cleckeu oi a
single 260 k axle loau, virl a loaueu aiea oi eacl 130 k vleel 0.6 m viue
(aiallel ro rle axle) anu 0.2 m long. 1leie veie also rvo seciieu leavy loau
velicles, eacl alieu singly.
1le Luioean Liiuge uesign coues ievieveu in rlis OLCD (19S0) ieoir all
useu allovaLle sriess uesign. 1o comaie rlese uesign loaus, rle ieoir calculareu
equivalenr values o a uisriiLureu loau, (k/m
2
), anu a single oinr loau, rlar
SOME EUROPEAN CODES FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES 93
iouuceu rle same maximum Lenuing momenrs in simly-suoireu sans o
closen lengrl (OLCD 19S0:43, 4, 11S, 122). 1o uo rlis, rley oLraineu
values o
rle momenrs iouuceu Ly rle loaus rlemselves. 1ley rlen

mulrilieu rlese Ly rle uynamic amliicarion acroi (1+), anu anorlei acroi
ueineu, oi sreel, as

1lar is, is rle inveise o a acroi o saery. 1leii ieason oi uoing rlis is, simly,
rlar one can aujusr rle uesign iocess eirlei Ly clanging rle uesign loaus, oi Ly
clanging . 1le acr rlar rley veie aLle ro uo rlis coniims rlar rlese veie
allovaLle sriess uesign coues.
1leii gials o anu veie iouuceu oi rvo- rliee- anu oui-lane Liiuges,
anu allov a convenienr comaiison o rle uesign loaus. A similai comaiison,
Lur Laseu on rleii
vill Le iesenreu ar rle enu o rlis clarei. 1leii

comaiison sloveu rlar rle ielarive seveiiry o rlese loauings clangeu virl san.
Ioi examle, rle Iralian uniesriicreu riain o 120 k riucks, virl eacl occuying
only 6 m, vas a seveie loauing oi rle longei sans (40100 m), vleieas rleii
loauing, vieveu as a vlole, vas liglr oi rle smallei sans (1020 m). 1ley also
lorreu rle Ameiican HS201944 loauing anu sloveu ir ro Le rle liglresr ovei
mosr o rle iangeiom aLour 15 oi 20 m (ueenuing on rle numLei o lanes) ro
100 m.
A moie iecenr Luioean coue is rle Sviss SIA16019S9. Ir uses limir srares
oimar anu is Laseu on rle olloving loaus. Loau mouel 1 is a single rvo-axle
giou: virl an axle sacing o 1.3 m, anu a riansveise vleel sacing o 1.S m, on
oui vleel gious eacl raken as eirlei 0.4 m squaie, oi as ciiculai, virl a
uiamerei o 0.45 m. Ir occuies a viurl o 2.2 m anu may Le laceu anyvleie
virlin a 3 m lane. 1le roral loau is 5 k, Lur ro rlis is alieu a uynamic
coeicienr o 1.S, ro give a roral o 135 k. 1le lane occuieu Ly rlis axle giou
is loaueu also virl a unioimly uisriiLureu loau (Loau mouel 2) o 5.0 k/m
2
, rlis
ieiesenrs a line o loiiies riavelling slovly, anu alieauy incluues imacr. Orlei
lanes aie loaueu virl Loau mouel 3, a unioimly uisriiLureu loau ieiesenring a
mixruie o srarionaiy cai anu loiiy riaic. 1lis is 3.5 k/m
2
oi a caiiiagevay
viurl less rlan oi equal ro 9 m, 3.0 k/m
2
oi 9 ro 13 m, anu 2.5 k/m
2
oi
viurls in excess o 13 m. 1leie is also a sranuaiu aLnoimal velicle rlar may
riavel on uesignareu ioures. 1yical loau acrois aie

1.3 +1.3 +1.5

vleie, as Leoie,

is rle sel-veiglr o rle sriucruie,
is rle sel-veiglr o non-sriucruial elemenrs, anu
is rle live loau.

1le OLCD (19S0) sruuy useu in rle ievious secrion uiev arrenrion ro rle
mouein sieau o Luioean ioau riansoir acioss narional Lounuaiies, anu
ieacleu rle olloving conclusions.
1leie is an uigenr neeu oi moie acrive anu closei co-oeiarion
Lerveen êmLei counriies on rle ioLlem o evaluaring loau
caiiying caaciry o exisring Liiuges. Co-oeiarion is neeueu in rle
ielu o riansoir olicies anu iegularionsexisring coues in mosr
êmLei counriies neeu uirlei imiovemenr.

One ourcome o rlis las Leen rle iouucrion o Luiocoue I Ly rle Luioean
Commirree oi Sranuaiuisarion (CL). 1lis uocumenr, ro vlicl las Leen given
rle numLei LV 1991, las many Pairs, rle rvo rlar aie ielevanr leie aie LV
19911 (1994) anu LV 19913 (1995)
(vleie rle uares aie given in Liackersir is coinciuenral
rlar rle numLei 1991 looks like a iecenr uare). Ir is imoiranr ro nore rlar rlese
Luiocoue Pairs aie in rle oim o Luioean Piesranuaius issueu oi iovisional
alicarion, virl rle inrenrion rlar rley Le ievieveu arei a eiiou o 3 yeais.
1lese ievievs aie, ar rle rime o viiring, srill unueivay, anu in any case ir
seems likely rlar eacl counriy vill qualiy rle clauses o rle Luiocoue Ly
issuing irs ovn ieamLle, oi saery levels virlin a counriy iemain a narional
oLligarion. Ir sloulu Le noreu also rlar LV 1991 incluues sriucruies orlei
rlan Liiuges.
1le loauing coue LV 19913 (1995) seciies rvo Loau ôuels oi
noimal liglvay Liiuge riaic, as slovn in Iig. 4.10. Loau ôuel 1 consisrs o
a uouLle axle (calleu a ranuem sysrem oi 1S), rogerlei virl a unioimly
uisriiLureu loau, anu is inrenueu ro covei 'mosr o rle eecrs o rle riaic o
loiiies anu cais. Ir is necessaiy, iisr, ro iuenriy norional lanes. 1le noimal
Lasic lane viurl is 3 m, virl rle excerion rlar caiiiagevays o viurls 5.4 ro 6
m aie assumeu ro caiiy rvo lanes. Geneially, a caiiiagevay is uiviueu inro an
inregial numLei o 3 m lanes, vlicl may Le locareu riansveisely so as ro
aclieve rle voisr eecr. O rlese lanes, rle one causing rle mosr unavouiaLle
eecr is calleu Lane 1, rlar virl rle seconu mosr unavouiaLle eecr is Lane 2,
anu so on. 1lese lanes neeu nor coiiesonu ro rle inrenueu lane maikings on
rle Liiuge, inueeu, a uemounraLle cenrial saery Laiiiei is ignoieu in locaring
rlese lanes. Sace nor occuieu Ly rle lanes is calleu iemaining aiea. 1len Lane
1 is loaueu virl rle 300 k ranuem sysrem slovn in Iig. 4.10, rogerlei virl a
uisriiLureu loau o 9 k/m
2
(oi 2 k oi a 3 m lane). Lane 2 is loaueu virl a
200 k ranuem sysrem anu 2.5 k/m
2
, anu Lane 3 virl a 100 k ranuem
sysrem anu 2.5 k/m
2
. 1le iemaining aiea is loaueu virl 2.5 k/m
2
. Only one
ranuem sysrem is useu ei lane, anu rle uisriiLureu loaus aie alieu only in rle
unavouiaLle aieas. Ioi geneial eecrs rle ranuem sysrems aie assumeu ro
riavel along rle axes o rle norional lanes, Lur oi local eecrs rlis may Le
vaiieu.
4.6 Eurocode for highway bridges
EUROCODE FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES 95
Loau ôuel 2 (see Iig. 4.10) consisrs o a single-axle loau inrenueu ro covei
rle uynamic eecrs o noimal riaic on veiy sloir sriucruial elemenrs. 1le roral
loau on rle axle is 400 k, oi 200 k ei vleel, vleie rle assumeu conracr aiea
is as slovn.
1lese rvo loau mouels aie inrenueu ro ieiesenr rle mosr seveie riaic, nov
oi execreu, on rle main ioures o Luioean counriies. Ioi many Liiuges ir vill
Le necessaiy ro aly an aujusrmenr acroi ro ieuuce rle seciieu loaus, Lur ir is
suggesreu rlar oi Liiuges virlour signs iesriicring velicle veiglrs, rlis acroi
sloulu Le nor less rlan 0.S. Dynamic amliicarion is incluueu in rle seciieu
loaus (oi ioau Liiuges). 1le coue also seciies a Loau ôuel 3, vlicl is an
assemLly o axle loaus useu ro ieiesenr aLnoimal velicles, eimirreu ro riavel
only on seciieu ioures.
1yical airial loau acrois oi ulrimare limir srares aie: oi rle sel-veiglr o
sriucruial anu non-sriucruial elemenrs anu eimanenr acrions causeu Ly rle
giounu, giounu-varei anu iee varei, 1.35 i unavouiaLle, 1.0 i avouiaLle, anu
oi riaic acrions, 1.35 i unavouiaLle, zeio i avouiaLle.
1le uocumenr LV 19911 suggesrs a uesign voiking lie o 100 yeais oi
Liiuges, comaieu virl 50 yeais oi Luiluing sriucruies. In Annex A
(inoimarive) ir suggesrs a raiger ieliaLiliry inuex, A o 3.S oi ulrimare limir
srares virlin rle lie o rle sriucruie, Lur goes on ro emlasise rlar rlis value is
'inrenueu iimaiily as a rool oi ueveloing consisrenr uesign iules, iarlei rlan
giving a uesciirion o rle sriucruial ailuie iequency. As slovn in Secrion 3.3,
i Lorl rle loau eecr, anu iesisrance, aie noimally uisriiLureu, rlen rle
uncrion s also noimally uisriiLureu. Iailuie occuis i is negarive. 1le
uncrion, A exiesses a uisrance Lelov rle mean o rle uisriiLurion cuive, as
Fig. 4.10 Eurocode ENV 19913 (1995) highway bridge loading
a mulrile o rle sranuaiu ueviarion o rlis cuive. Ioi A equal ro 3.S, evenrs virl
negarive lave a ioLaLiliry o occuiience o 0.210
4
, oi 1 in 13S00.
Hovevei, rle Luiocoue geneially uses rle noimal uisriiLurion only oi loau
eecrs, anu rle lognoimal oi WeiLull uisriiLurions oi iesisrances anu mouel
unceirainries.
LV 19911 also commenrs on rle merlou o sriucruial analysis sraring
rlar, vleieas oi seiviceaLiliry limir srares lineai mouelling may Le useu, in
geneial 'mouelling oi sraric acrions sloulu noimally Le Laseu on an aioiiare
cloice o rle oice-ueoimarion ielarionslis, anu rlar rle eecr o
uislacemenrs may neeu ro Le consiueieu.
Ausrialia las rliee levels o goveinmenr: (1) rle local aurloiiries oi sliies, (2) rle
srares, anu (3) rle Commonvealrl o Ausrialia, inauguiareu as a eueiarion o
srares in 1901. Unuei rle consrirurion, iimaiy iesonsiLiliry oi ioaus (anu
iailvays) iesrs virl rle srares, Lur rlese lave vesreu aurloiiry oi a arional
Higlvay sysrem in rle Commonvealrl (Lay 19S4 anu 19S5), anu maue local
ioaus a iesonsiLiliry o rle sliies. In 1934 a Coneience o Srare Roau
Aurloiiries vas oimeu Ly rle srares, vlicl Lecame rle arional Associarion o
Ausrialian Srare Roau Aurloiiries (AASRA) in 1959, anu issueu in 1953 rle
iisr euirion o an Ausrialian Higlvay Biiuge Design Seciicarion.
Beoie 1953, rleie vas consiueiaLle uiveisiry in uesign loaus. In 1923, oi
examle, rle Queenslanu âin Roaus Boaiu issueu a 'Diagiam o Live Loaus
rlar seciieu use o a sranuaiu riacroi olloveu Ly an inueinire sysrem o
riaileis. All veie uual-axle velicles, rle riacroi virl axle loaus o 24.9 anu 49.S
k saceu 3.05 m aair, rlen 3.05 m ro rle iisr riailei, virl axle loaus o 24.9
k saceu 2.9 m, rlen 3.2 m ro rle iisr axle o rle nexr riailei, anu so on. 1o rlis
vas auueu imacr, anu an inuicarion o rle inrenueu acroi o saery is slovn Ly
an allovaLle rensile sriess in sreel o 110 ^Pa. 1le allovaLle comiessive sriess
in conciere vas 3.44.1 ^Pa.
Laily euirions o rle AASRA Higlvay Biiuge Design Seciicarions veie
Laseu on rle Ameiican AASHO anu AASH1O coues (see Secrion 4.3), anu useu
rle HS201944 riuck anu lane loaus, rogerlei virl rle liglrei Ameiican riuck
anu riuck semi-riailei comLinarions. Orlei coue iovisions veie also similai,
oi examle, rle Lasic allovaLle sriess in sreel in rle 190 AASRA coue vas
13S ^Pa. Ar aLour rlar rime, rle maximum legal loau on a uual-axle giou
vaiieu Lerveen srares, Lur vas ryically 130 k (AASRA 196S). In 193, a
êriic Auuenuum vas auueu vlicl ielaceu rle oiiginal 4- anu 16-US ron axle
loaus Ly 36 anu 144 k, iarlei rlan rle exacr equivalenrs o 35.6 anu 142.3
k. In 196, rlis riuck semi-riailei comLinarion (roral mass 33.04 ronnes) vas
ielaceu Ly rle 144 riuck slovn in Iig. 4.11, virl a mass o 44 ronnes,
coiiesonuing ro a uirlei majoi inciease o 33'. Hovevei, ir can Le seen rlar
rle oim o rle velicle is srill rle same. Associareu virl rle 144 1iuck Loauing
vas rle L44 Lane Loauing, consisring o a 150 k knie-euge loau, rogerlei
4.7 Australian codes for highway bridges
AUSTRALIAN CODES FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES 97
virl a unioimly uisriiLureu loau o 12.5 k/m alieu ro a 3 m viue lane,
valiu u ro a san o 150 m.
In 19S9, AASRA vas ielaceu Ly Ausrioaus, vlicl in 1992 issueu rle iisr
Ausrialian limir srares uesign coue. 1le uevelomenr o uesign loaus oi rle coue
lau Leen uesciiLeu eailiei Ly Ienvick (19S5). Ir vas ueciueu rlar a uesign
ulrimare loau sloulu Le one vlicl las a 5' clance o Leing exceeueu uuiing rle
100-yeai uesign lie, vleie rlis eecrively ieiesenrs a suiraLle uesign loau
mulrilieu Ly irs loau acroi. Iiguie 4.12 slovs some iesulrs iom loau
measuiemenrs on Six île Cieek Biiuge, a small Liiuge on a liglvay jusr oursiue
BiisLane, closen oi rle sruuy airly Lecause rleie vas a neaiLy comulsoiy
veigl-Liiuge oi leavy velicles (Piirclaiu anu OConnoi 19S4). 1le ioau
Liiuge consisreu o rvo seaiare sriucruies oi in-Lounu anu our-Lounu riaic,
virl ive simly-suoireu sans, o 11.4, 313. anu 13.6 m, anu a comosire
conciere ueck on sreel joisrs. 1le 11.4 m enu san, caiiying rvo inLounu lanes,
vas selecreu oi rle sruuy. Irs enu sliuing Leaiings veie lireu, cleaneu anu
luLiicareu, anu ir vas rlen insriumenreu virl sriain gauges ro measuie rle roral
cenrial Lenuing momenr. CaliLiarion o rle Liiuge vas caiiieu our unuei a
numLei o resr velicles anu uemonsriareu an acceraLle, lineai iesonse. A
seconu caliLiarion, yeais larei, gave similai iesulrs. In rle iguie, rle measuieu
Lenuing momenrs lave Leen scaleu againsr rlose iouuceu Ly a single 144
riuck, virl an imacr acroi, o 0.30, as seciieu Ly rle coue, anu lorreu
againsr esrimareu ieruin eiious, calculareu as rle roral lengrl o rle iecoiu
uiviueu Ly rle numLei o rimes a loau level vas exceeueu. Ovei a eiiou o 261
uays, rle maximum eecr vas aLour rle same as rle calculareu eecr o rvo
Fig. 4.11 Australian T44 truck
144 riucks (virl imacr), rlar is, aLour rle same as rle 196 uesign loauing oi a
rvo-lane Liiuge. Iiguie 4.12 uses log scales oi Lorl oiuinares anu rle iesulring
gials aie lineai, oi an inirial eiiou o 11 uays, anu also oi rle exrenueu 261-
uay eiiou. I rlese gials aie exrenueu ro a ieruin eiiou o 2000 yeais
(coiiesonuing ro a 5' ioLaLiliry ovei 100 yeais), rle ieuicreu veirical
oiuinare voulu Le 4.0 oi rle 11-uay uara anu 4.22 iom 261 uays. 1lis is oi
a 2-lane Liiuge, anu rle iecommenueu loau acroi oi rle nev coue vas 2, giving
a uesign iguie o 4 rimes a single 144 riuck virl imacr.
Ir vas ueciueu ro conrinue virl rle 144 loauing in rle nev 1992 Biiuge
Design Coue. 1le L44 lane loauing vas also seciieu, rogerlei virl a W vleel
loau, consisring o a 0 k uual-ryie loau, alieu ro an aiea 500 mm (aiallel ro
rle axle)200 mm. 1le uynamic loau allovance vas rle same as in rle 199
OHBD Coue (see Secrion 4.4). 1le numLei o riaic lanes vas calculareu Ly
uiviuing rle caiiiagevay viurl Ly 3.1, anu iounuing uovn ro rle nexr inregei.
1le Sranuaiu Design Lanes veie rlen ro Le osirioneu lareially so as ro iouuce
rle mosr auveise eecr. 1le loau mouiicarion acrois rlen alieu veie 1.0 oi
rle iisr lane, 0.9 oi rle seconu, 0.S oi rle rliiu, anu so on, ro 0.55 oi 6 oi moie
lanes. 1yical loau acrois oi an ulrimare limir srare veie:

sel-veiglr, sreel 1.1 i unavouiaLle, oi 0.9
sueiimoseu ueau loau 2.0 oi 0.
riaic loauing 2.00 lus rle uynamic loau allovance.

1lis 1992 Ausrioaus coue is nov unuei ieviev, anu some o rle voik leauing ro
rlis is uesciiLeu in Clarei 5. A iooseu nev ^1600 ôving 1iaic Loau
(Heyvoou anu Lllis 199S) consisrs o a unioimly uisriiLureu loau o 6 k/m
Fig. 4.12 Summary of equivalent truck weights, Six Mile Creek Bridge (Redrawn
from Pritchard and OConnor 1984)
AUSTRALIAN CODES FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES 99
rogerlei virl rle velicle loau slovn in Iig. 4.13 (a). 1lis las oui axle gious,
virl a vaiiaLle cenrial axle sacing, vlose uei Lounu is unueineu. 1le
minimum lengrl Lerveen exrieme axles is 25 m, mucl giearei rlan rle lengrl o
rle 144 riuck. 1le roral loau is also mucl giearei, Leing 1440 k comaieu virl
rle olu 3SS k. Ir is also iooseu rlar rleie Le rvo auuirional loauings. 1le
A160 Axle Loauing (see Iig. 4.13 (L)) is 160 k slaieu Lerveen rvo equivalenr
vleels, o aiea 400 mm (riansveise)250 mm, saceu 2 m cenrie ro cenrie. 1le
S1600 Srarionaiy 1iaic Loau is inrenueu ro mouel rle eecr o a srarionaiy
queue o riaic. Alrlougl irs oim (see Iig. 4.13 (c)) is similai ro rle ^1600 loau,
rle loau inrensiries aie uieienr, virl a uisriiLureu loau o 24 k/m (as comaieu
virl S k/m) anu an axle giou loau o 240 k (comaieu virl 360 k). 1le
uynamic loau allovance is 0.3 oi rle A160 loau, zeio oi rle S1600 loau, anu
iom 0.2 ro 0.4 oi rle ^1600 loau, ueenuenr on rle iisr naruial iequency o
rle sueisriucruie, as in rle 199 OHBD coue anu rle eailiei 1992 Ausrioaus
coue. 1le numLei o uesign lanes is raken as rle inregial air o rle viurl3.1,
anu rle sranuaiu lane viurl is 3.0. 1le allovances oi mulrile lanes aie 0.S oi a
seconu lane anu 0.4 oi rliee oi moie lanes, alieu ro all rliee loauings. Ioi
Fig. 4.13 Proposed Australian M1600 and S1600 loadings for highway bridges
ulrimare limir srares, rle loau acroi ro Le alieu ro rlese loauings is 1.S, less
rlan rle value o 2.0 in rle ievious coue.
1le sranuaiu unir loauing riain seciieu Ly rle olu BS 153:1923 is slovn in
Iig. 4.14 (a). Ir consisreu o rvo similai unir locomorives (ar rle ler), eacl 16.S
m long, virl oui main uiiving axles, eacl 1.0, olloveu Ly oui suLsiuiaiy
axles o 0.5. 1le suLsequenr unir riain o caiiiages oi loaueu iailvay riucks
vas equivalenr ro a uisriiLureu loau o 0.1 ei lineai oor. A unir aii o axles,
eacl o 1.25, saceu 1.S3 m, coulu Le alieu insreau o rlis unir riain. 1le
iecommenueu numLei o unirs vas 20, in Biirisl rons. Ir ollovs rlar rle
locomorive axle loaus veie 199 anu 149 k, rle uisriiLureu loau vas 65.4 k/
m anu rle alreinare aii o axle loaus veie eacl 249 k. 1lis coulu Le ielaceu
Ly rle equivalenr uisriiLureu loau slovn in Iig. 4.14 (L), vleie ir is imoiranr
ro nore rlar rlis is rle roral loau oi a airiculai san, rle loau inrensiry, oi loau
ei unir lengrl, uecieases sliglrly virl san, Leing 9S k/m oi a san o 15.2
m, anu 4 k/m ar 6.2 m. 1lis loauing vas oi iailvay gauges nor less rlan
1.44 m.
Dynamic inreiacrion Lerveen a Liiuge anu irs riaic vill Le uiscusseu in
Clarei . Ir is, neveirleless, inreiesring ro oLseive rle riearmenr o imacr in
sucl an eaily Liiuge coue (1923), uue, no uouLr, ro a concein virl rle leavy our-
o-Lalance loaus rlar aiose virl rle eaily sream locomorives. One o rle eailiesr
sruuies o imacr vas rlar Ly C.L.Inglis in 1934, vlicl vas conceineu virl
iailvay Liiuges, irs rirle vas
. A uiscussion o rlese eaily iovisions oi imacr may Le ounu in Scorr
(1931:22). 1le inirial merlou (1923) vas ro aly an imacr acroi,

=120/|90+(+1)/2]

vleie
is rle loaueu lengrl in eer, anu
rle numLei o riacks suoireu Ly rle memLei
A ieviev maue in 192S ieeiieu ro 'lammei-Llov uue ro a sream locomorive anu
ioviueu oi rliee loauings (exiesseu leie in k):

(A) 20 unirs o rle iailvay loauing, virl a roral lammei-Llov o 1.99
2
, vleie
is ievolurions ei seconu (oi is),
(B) 16 unirs lus 4.9S
2
, anu
(C) 15 unirs lus 5.9S
2
.

1lis auuirional loauing vas a roral loau, uisriiLureu Lerveen rle axles o rle
locomorive. 1le lammei-Llov vas rlen incieaseu Ly a 'Dynamic âgniiei.
4.8 British Standards for railway bridges
Fig. 4.14 BS 153:1923 loading for railway bridges: (a) loading train; (b) equivalent
distributed load
Scorr goes on: 'In rle exrieme case o synclionism, rle allovance oi imacr is
100' inciease o loau, Lur unuei 100 eer (30.5 m) oi ovei 200 eer (61.0 m) san,
inciease is geneially amle. 1le ieeience ro 'synclionism slovs a knovleuge o
rle inciease in uynamic sriesses rlar can occui vlen rle iequency o rle loauing
coiiesonus ro rle naruial iequency o rle Liiuge. He ieeis ro a maximum value
o o 6 is. In auuirion ro rlese loauings, rleie vas iovision oi:
(a) luicling, vleie rle loau ro eirlei iail sloulu Le raken as 0.625rle axle loau,
(L) iooirioning rle lammei-Llov so rlar rle air alieu ro one iail vas 1.2
in Case A, anu 0.S3 in Cases B anu C, anu
(c) rle iail-joinr eecr, oi imacr uue ro a suuuen Lum ar rle juncrion Lerveen
rvo iails.
Scorr suggesrs rlar iail-joinrs sloulu Le avoiueu as ai as ossiLle on Liiuges Lur,
ro allov oi joinrs anu orlei iiiegulaiiries an auuirional unioimly uisriiLureu
loau o
2
/3 rons (10.9
2
k) Le alieu ro eacl riack. Ir aeais rlar rlis vas a
roral loau, ossiLly uisriiLureu along rle lengrl o rle riain.
A moie iecenr iailvay loauing is rlar given in BS 5400:19S (incluueu in BS
5400:19SS). An aenuix srares rlar rlis

las Leen ueiiveu Ly a Commirree o rle Inreinarional Union o
Railvays ro covei iesenr anu anriciareu uruie loauing on iailvays
in Giear Biirain anu on rle Conrinenr o Luioe. ôrive ovei nov
renus ro Le uiesel anu elecriic iarlei rlan sream, anu rlis iouuces
axle loaus anu aiiangemenrs oi locomorives rlar aie similai ro rlose
useu oi Logie ieiglr velicles, ieiglr velicles oren Leing leaviei
rlan locomorives.

1le coue seciies an loauing, ro Le useu oi Liiuges on main line iailvays
virl a gauge o 1.4 m anu aLove, anu an loauing, vlicl is a ieuuceu
loauing oi assengei iaiu riansir sysrems. 1le loauing ioviues oi a
iange o velicles, incluuing rle locomorives anu vagons slovn in Iig. 4.15 (a),
rogerlei virl a iange o excerional vagons. 1le locomorive axle loaus aie 22
oi 22.2 r (216 oi 21S k), anu rleie may Le rvo locomorives ar rle leau o
eacl riain. As can Le seen in rle iguie, one o rle vagons las axle loaus o 25 r
(245 k), excerional vagons may incluue as many as 2S axles, eacl o 22 r
(216 k), in rvo gious, virl rle sacing in eacl giou as 2.25 m, anu a
sacing o 10 m Lerveen successive gious. Ioi uesign uioses, rlese velicles
aie ielaceu Ly rle equivalenr loauing slovn in Iig. 4.15 (L), vlicl slovs
also rle loauing.
1o allov oi uynamic eecrs, rlese loaus aie mulrilieu Ly a acroi rlar is
equivalenr ro rle (+1) useu in orlei coues. Cuiiously, rle values o rlis acroi aie
Laseu on a lengrl, (in meries), uereimineu iom rle inluence line oi uelecrion
o rle elemenr unuei consiueiarion. As seen in Clarei 1, oi an elemenr o a
Leam, rlis is iuenrical virl rle uelecreu slae o rle Liiuge causeu Ly a unir
veirical loau ar rle elemenr. Ioi a simly-suoireu giiuei, rlis inluence line is
symmeriical. Ioi orlei sriucruies rlis may nor Le rle case. BS 5400: 19S ueines
BRITISH STANDARDS FOR RAILWAY BRIDGES 103
as 'rle lengrl o rle inluence line oi uelecrion o rle elemenr unuei
consiueiarion. 1lis is laiuly coiiecr, as rle lengrl o an inluence line is rle roral
uisrance ovei vlicl a loau may ass, oi rle lengrl o rle ueck. Ir goes on, 'oi
unsymmeriical inluence lines, is rvice rle uisrance Lerveen rle oinr ar vlicl
rle giearesr oiuinare occuis anu rle neaiesr enu oinr o rle inluence line. An
arracleu raLle seciies in moie uerail, anu says rlar, oi rle main giiueis, ir
sloulu Le nor less rlan rle lengrl o rle laigesr san. In rle case o looi
Fig. 4.15 BS 5400:1978 loadings for railway bridges: (a) locomotives and wagons;
(b) equivalent RU and RL loadings
memLeis, 3 m is auueu ro rle lengrl. 1len, oi Lenuing momenr anu sleai
rle values o (+1) aie:

(a) 3.6 m, +1=2.0 oi 1.6
(L) Lerveen 3.6 anu 6 m,

oi

(c) >6 m, +1=1.00 oi oi .

1leie is also iovision oi luicling0.56 o rle loau slall Le alieu ro one
iailanu oi a loiizonral nosing oice.
1le lack o sranuaiuisarion in eaily coues oi rle uesign o iailvay Liiuges vas
menrioneu eailiei, anu may Le coniimeu, oi examle, Ly looking ar Skinnei
(190S Pair III), vlicl quores iom 25 seaiare seciicarions useu in Ameiica Ly
vaiious iailioau comanies. Anorlei eaily ieeience o some inreiesr is Wauuells
(190S) vlicl incluues lis
arremr ar a 'Comiomise Sranuaiu Sysrem, anu gave axle veiglrs oi ren
uieienr aiis o locomorives, u ro a roral mass o 10 US rons (154 ronnes) oi
eacl engine anu renuei, olloveu Ly equivalenr uisriiLureu loaus oi rle riucks oi
caiiiages. Wauuell ielaceu rlese Ly clairs o equivalenr unioimly uisriiLureu
loaus ro aiu rle uesign.
1le Ameiican Railvay Lngineeiing anu âinrenance o Way Associarion
vas oimeu in 1903 anu issueu irs iisr
in 1906. 1le Ameiican Railvay Lngineeiing Associarion (ARLA) loauing
vas Laseu on rle voik o 1leouoie Cooei (Perioski 1995:66121), an
Ameiican Liiuge engineei vlose caieei sanneu rle eiiou 1S2 ro 190 anu
vlo in 1S94 iooseu a sranuaiu sysrem o iailvay loauings rlar srill Leais lis
name. 1le loauing seciieu oi Ameiican Liiuges Ly rle ARLA 1990
'Seciicarions oi Sreel Railvay Biiuges (ARLA Cl. 15) is rle Cooei
LS0 loau, slovn in Iig. 4.16 (a) in rle oiiginal unirs o ounus anu eer. 1leie
aie rvo locomorives, olloveu Ly a riain o caiiiages rlar lave Leen ielaceu Ly a
unioimly uisriiLureu loau. 1le majoi axle loaus oi eacl locomorive aie
4S0,000 lL, olloveu Ly anorlei oui axle loaus, eacl o 52,000 lL, vleie rlis
equals S0,0000.65. Ioi comaiison, rle olu Biirisl Sranuaiu Unir Loauing,
slovn in Iig. 4.15 (a), lau a iario o 0.5, anu Wauuell lau iarios o 0.20.52,
ieuucing as rle roral veiglr incieaseu. Vaiious levels o rle Cooei loau coulu Le
seciieu, sucl as Cooei L30, 40, 45 oi 50 anu rlese ieraineu rle same axle
4.9 American Railway Engineering Association

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION 105
sacings anu rle same iarios Lerveen loaus. Ioi comaiison, Iig. 4.16 (L) slovs
rle êriic Cooei ^250 loau seciieu Ly rle 194
o rle Ausrialian anu ev Zealanu Railvay Coneiences, equivalenr ro
aLour L56.
1le ARLA 1990 Seciicarions ioviueu oi an equal loau on a seconu riack,
rlen one lal anu one quairei oi succeeuing riacks. 1le iovisions oi uynamic
eecrs (calleu Imacr) alloveu (suiiisingly) oi '1. Rolling equimenr virlour
lammei Llov (uiesels, elecriic locomorives), anu '2. Sream locomorives virl
lammei Llov. In rle iisr case, virl in ei cenr:
oi <S0 eer (24.4 m) =100/+403
2
/1600
oi S0 eer =100/+16+600/(30)
vleie
is rle sacing o longiruuinal Leams (eer), anu
is rle san (eer)
rlis is equivalenr ro:
=30.5/+400.0202
2
(<24.4 m)

oi

30.5/+161S3/(9.1) ( 24.4)

vleie
anu aie in meries.
Fig. 4.16 (a)American Cooper E80 loading for railway bridges (Imperial units); (b)
Metric Cooper M250 loading (Australian and New Zealand Railway Conferences
1974)
4.10 Eurocode for railway bridges
1lese 1990 seciicarions veie srill Laseu on allovaLle sriess uesign virl, oi
examle, an allovaLle sriess in sreel o 13S ^Pa. 1le same commenr alies ro
rle Ausrialian anu ev Zealanu ânual o 194, Lur virl rlis allovaLle sriess
iounueu u ro 140 ^Pa.
Luiocoue I (LV 19913), issueu as a ie-sranuaiu in 1995, incluues rle iailvay
Liiuge loaus slovn in Iig. 4.1. Loau ôuel 1 ieiesenrs rle sraric eecr o
noimal iail riaic, anu consisrs o oui 250 k axle loaus, ieceueu anu olloveu
Ly a uisriiLureu loau o S0 k/m. 1lese loaus may Le mouiieu oi airiculai
lines Ly mulrilying Ly a acroi in rle iange 0.5 ro 1.33, Lur 1.0 ieiesenrs
'noimal iail riaic. 1leie aie, in auuirion, rle Loau ôuels SW/0 anu SW/2 rlar
ieiesenr rle sraric eecr o aLnoimal iail riaic, Lur rlese aly only ro
uesignareu lines. 1le ull noimal loau mouel 1 is alieu concuiienrly ro rvo
riacks, virl zeio riaic loau on auuirional riacks. A uynamic amliicarion acroi
(1+) is seciieu as
Fig. 4.17 Eurocode I (ENV 199133) railway bridge loads: (a) Load Model 71; (b)
SW/0 and SW/2 abnormal loads
AUSTRALIAN CODE FOR RAILWAY BRIDGES 107
Lur Lerveen 1.0 anu 1.6, oi caieully mainraineu riack,
Lur Lerveen 1.0 anu 2.0, oi riacks virl sranuaiu mainrenance.
1le lengrl is seciieu oi airiculai elemenrs. Ioi simly-suoireu
main giiueis, is rle san lengrl. Ioi conrinuous giiueis, rle aveiage san is
mulrilieu Ly a acroi 1.2 oi 2 sans, 1.3 oi 3, 1.4 oi 4, anu 1.5 oi 5 oi moie.
Lovei values o +1 may Le useu oi some ryes o Liiuges, sucl as aicl Liiuges
virl a laige covei ovei rle aicl. Higlei values may Le useu in some cases, sucl
as i rle riaic seeu exceeus 220 km/l. Ir sloulu Le noreu rlar rle squaie ioor
sign in rle uenominaroi coveis only . 1le coiiesonuing exiession in BS
5400:19S incluues rle 0.2 virlin rle squaie ioor sign. 1yical loau acrois
oi an ulrimare limir srare aie 1.35 oi 1.0 oi eimanenr loaus (as oi ioau
Liiuges), anu 1.45 oi zeio oi rle riaic loaus, as comaieu virl 1.35 anu zeio
oi ioau Liiuges, rle iguies quoreu Leing oi unavouiaLle anu avouiaLle
acrions.
1le Sviss Coue SIA16019S9 vas menrioneu in Secrion 4.5 oi irs iules oi
liglvay Liiuges. Ioi iail Liiuges, ir las seaiare clauses oi sranuaiu anu
naiiov gauge lines. Ioi sranuaiu gauge, ir gives rvo loauings: Loau ôuel 1 is
rle same as rle Luiocoue ôuel 1, Loau ôuel 2 is useu only oi uesignareu
lines caiiying leavy velicles, anu consisrs o a unioimly uisriiLureu loau o
150 k/m, 60 m long. 1lis seconu loauing las rle same inrensiry as rle
Luiocoue ôuel SW2, anu uieis only in rle lengrl o riack ro vlicl ir is
alieu, namely, an uninreiiureu lengrl o 60 m, comaieu virl rvo 25 m
lengrls, seaiareu Ly a ga o m, in rle Luiocoue.
1le Ausrialian anu ev Zealanu iailvay uesign manual o 194 useu rle êriic
Cooei ^250 loau, as menrioneu in Secrion 4.9, anu illusriareu in Iig. 4.16 (L).
In 1996, a Railvay Sulemenr vas iouuceu Ly rle Ausrialasian Railvay
Associarion in associarion virl Ausrioaus anu Sranuaius Ausrialia, anu auueu ro
rle 1992 Ausrialian Biiuge Design Coue.
1le seciieu 300-A-12 Railvay 1iaic Loauing consisrs o an ininire ser o
oui axle gious, ar a cenrial sacing o 12 m, as slovn in Iig. 4.1S. 1le loau ro
eacl o rle oui axles is 300 k, anu rley aie saceu 1., 1.1 anu 1. m aair.
Alreinarively, a single axle loau o 360 k may Le alieu. 1vo aujacenr riacks
may Le ully loaueu, virl mouiicarion acrois o 0.S5, 0.0 anu 0.60 alieu oi
uirlei auuirional riacks. 1le uynamic amliicarion acroi oi Lenuing momenrs
is rle same as in rle Luiocoue (see Secrion 4.10). Ioi ulrimare limir srares, rle
loau acroi alieu ro rle riaic loau, incluuing irs uynamic eecr, is 1.6. Ioi
Lallasr anu riack veiglrs, rle acroi is 1..

4.11 Australian code for railway bridges

1lis 1996 Railvay Sulemenr vas Laseu on ieoirs Ly SelLy Smirl anu
Bovmakei (Augusr anu OcroLei 1995, see also SelLy Smirl 1996), Aenuix C
o rlis ieoir vas conceineu virl rle selecrion o loau acrois anu uriliseu a
secial sruuy Ly G.H.Biamelu (]uly 1995). Ir is inreiesring ro nore some o rle
commenrs maue in rlese sruuies, Laseu airly on uara oLraineu iom some leavy
laul iail lines, airiculaily rlose useu in Queenslanu ro caiiy coal anu orlei
mineials iom majoi mines ro rle oirs. 1o quore (SelLy Smirl anu Bovmakei,
OcroLei 1995:C1),

Railvay loauing may conrinue ar irs maximum exrenr viirually
inueinirely, virl long riains o vagons. Iuirleimoie mouein
locomorives lave loauing claiacreiisrics vlicl aie veiy similai ro
rlose o rle vagons rley aie ulling, so rlar rle vlole riain may
consisr o loaus equal ro rle uesign loauing o a given Liiuge.

Biamelu sruuieu acrual loaus uuiing a eiiou o one monrl, in DecemLei 1994,
oi riains caiiying coal iom rliee Queenslanu mines. ôsr vagons lau a
nominal 90 ronne gioss mass, Lur a ev veie nominally o 100 ronnes. Lacl
vagon lau rvo Logies, eacl virl rvo axles. A riain consisreu o 109 vagons anu
2 locomorives. Duiing rle monrl, 330,000 Logie loaus veie iecoiueu,
coiiesonuing ro aLour 4S0 vagons ei uay. 1ley veie ounu ro Le noimally
uisriiLureu, virl a mean o 450 k anu a coeicienr o vaiiarion o only 2'. By
comaiison, rle mean mass o conraineis caiiieu ro rle Poir o êlLouine ovei a
eiiou o 12 monrls vas only 16 ronnes (15 k). Loaus on geneial riaic lines
veie vaiiaLle Lur also comaiarively small. Ir vas ueciueu ro use uara iom rle
unir coal riains in srarisrical saery analyses, anu rle inal ourcome vas rlar a loau
acroi on live loau o 1.4 voulu lave Leen suicienr. Ir vas ueciueu, neveirleless,
ro ierain a acroi o 1.6.
Fig. 4.18 Australian (Austroads 1996) 300-A-12 Railway Traffic Loading
REVIEW 109
4.13 Review
4.12 South African Bridge Code
1le voik Ly SelLy Smirl anu Bovmakei lisreu uimensions anu sranuaiu
loauings oi nine locomorives anu rvelve vagons iom oui Ausrialian iail
aurloiiries virl riack gauges o 1.44 anu 1.0 m, anu rlese coniim rlar rleie is
lirrle vaiiarion Lerveen locomorive anu vagon axle loaus, anu Lerveen gauges.
1le leavy Queenslanu coal riains uesciiLeu eailiei lave a gauge o 1.0 m. 1lese
loauings veie all comaieu virl rle nev 300-A-12 loauing using rle equivalenr
Lase lengrl concer ueveloeu Ly Csagoly anu Doiron (193) oi rle Onraiio
OHBD coue.
1le 19S3 o rle Sourl Aiican 1iansoir Seivices is incluueu as a inal
examle. Ir seciieu an iail loauing rlar is similai in oim ro rle BS 5400:19S
loauing slovn in Iig. 4.15 (a), Lur virl laigei loaus anu sliglrly clangeu
uimensions. Ir las oui 2S0 k axle loaus (in lace o rle BS 5400 250 k loaus)
saceu 1.S m (insreau o 1.6 m). Beoie anu arei rlis loauing is a unioimly
uisriiLureu loau o 100 k/m (S0 k/m), seaiareu iom rle exrieme axles Ly a
uisrance o 0.9 m (insreau o 0.S m). Dynamic amliicarion acrois aie rle same as
in rle Luiocoue. 1lis is a limir srares uesign coue. Ir ieeis also ro ioau Liiuges Lur
srares rlar 'ioau Liiuges musr Le uesigneu in accoiuance virl rle iequiiemenrs o
rle ioau aurloiiry o rle iovince in vlicl rle Liiuge is siruareu.
Ir is rle uiose leie ro ieviev some o rle liglvay Liiuge uesign loaus uesciiLeu
in Secrions 4.2, iailvay loauings vill Le uiscusseu uirlei in Clarei S. Iiguies
4.1921 lor aLsolure maximum Lenuing momenr againsr san oi simly
suoireu longiruuinal Leams caiiying a lane o riaic.
Iiguie 4.19, oi Biirain, slovs rle successive loauings: Ô1: 1931, BS 153:
195S, BS 5400:19S, anu BD 3/SS, rogerlei virl rle iooseu Luiocoue LV
19913 o 1995. 1le main gial lors Lenuing momenrs oi sans iom 10 ro 150
m, vlile rle inser gial slovs sans iom 0 ro 15 m, ar an incieaseu scale.
Consiueiing rle laigei sans iisr, vlen rlese gials aie comaieu virl rlose
oi orlei counriies (slovn larei) ir is eviuenr rlar rle Ô1: 1931 loauing vas a
ielarively leavy loau, anu many Liiuges veie uesigneu oi irs iesciirions. Ioi
mucl o rle iange o sans, BS 153:195S is mucl liglrei, virl rle BS 5400:19S
HA loauing aLour rle same, Lur rle larei BD3/SS las Liouglr loaus
aioximarely Lack ro rle Ô1: 1931 level. 1vo cuives aie slovn oi Luiocoue
1: rle uei cuive, vlicl lies aLove rle orlei cuives in rle majoi lor, is oi rle
iisr loaueu lane, vlile rle seconu, vlicl is mucl lovei, is oi a seconu loaueu lane.
ôsr Liiuges lave ar leasr rvo lanes anu, ueenuing on rle oim o rle sriucruie, ir
is rle mean o rle rvo cuives rlar may Le signiicanr.
1le inser gials (015 m) aie somevlar moie conuseu. In rle iange 615 m,
rle lovei cuives aie oi Ô1: 1931, oi BS 153:195S, vlicl is coinciuenr virl
Ô1: 1931, anu oi rle BS 5400:19S HA loauing. 1le Ô1: 1931 cuive exrenus
uovn ro 3 m, virl a conrinuarion o uieienr slae oi rle lovesr sans. In rle case
o BS 153:195S a uieienr anu liglei cuive Liancles o ar 6 m. BS 5400:19S also
seciieu 25 unirs o rle aLnoimal HB loauing oi uLlic liglvays. 1lis is nor
slovn, Lur las Lenuing momenr oiuinares rlar aie in rle iooirion 25:30 (oi
0.S3) o rlose slovn oi rle BD3/SS 30-unir loauing. 1le BD3/SS HA loauing
anu rle Luiocoue Loau ôuels 1 anu 2 aie also slovn.
Iiguie 4.20 comaies loaus useu in rle Unireu Srares anu Canaua. In rle
main gial, rle rvo lovei cuives aie oi rle 1944 anu 1994 AASHO anu
AASH1O HS20 loauings, virl rle riansirion iom riuck ro lane loauing ar aLour
3545 m, vlile rle uei rliee aie oi OHBD 199 anu 1991 riucks, anu rle
CSA-S6 Canauian coue. 1le majoi axles o rle AASH1O riuck may Le vieveu
eirlei as single oi uouLle loaus, anu ir is nor cleai vleie rle clange iom one ro
rle orlei sloulu rake lace: rle inser slovs Lorl, anu also rle ranuem loauing. In
rle inser, rle CSA-S6 loauing is also ielarively lov, rle uei cuives aie oi rle
OHBD loauing, virl rle 1994 AASH1O loauing in Lerveen.
Fig. 4.19 Comparison of British highway bridge loadings (maximum bending
moments in simply-supported spans)
REVIEW 111
Iiguie 4.21 is oi Ausrialia. 1le lovei cuives in Lorl rle majoi gial anu rle
inser aie oi rle AASHO HS2044 loauing, oi rlis vas useu in Ausrialia. ALove
ir lies rle similai Lur incieaseu 144 loauing, anu rlen rle iooseu nev ^1600
anu S1600 loauings. 1lese aie leavy loaus, even comaieu virl rle iisr lane o
Luiocoue 1 anu, inueeu, rle inciease in loauing, iom HS2044 ro S1600 is
giearei rlan in orlei counriies.
1lese gials sloulu Le useu virl caie, oi rle uynamic amliicarion acroi
anu rle acrois oi mulrile lanes vaiy anu may lave a signiicanr eecr. 1lis
Look is conceineu virl loaus, anu rlis las inluenceu rle uecision ro lor loaus
iarlei rlan roral eecrs.
1lese iguies lor only one sriucruial aiamereirle aLsolure maximum
Lenuing momenr in a simly-suoireu Leam. Orleis also aie imoiranr anu may
aecr any comaiisons rlar may Le maue Lerveen loaus. Lxamles aie sleai, anu
negarive Lenuing momenrs aLove rle suoirs o conrinuous Leams.
eveirleless, rlis sruuy suggesrs a numLei o conclusions.

1. 1le 1931 Ô1 loauing ieiesenrs a goou examle o rle use o a simliieu
equivalenr loauingleie a unioimly uisriiLureu loau lus a knie-euge loau.
1leie aie uangeis in rle use o sucl a loau: irs Lasis is nor immeuiarely
Fig. 4.20 Comparison of American and Canadian highway bridge loadings
aaienr, anu ir may nor Le auequare in mouelling all eecrs, airiculaily
ar a local level. Ir is, lovevei, convenienr ro use.
2. 1le AASHO riuck illusriares anorlei Lasic aioacl, oi ir is aaienr rlar
ir seeks ro mouel a airiculai velicle, anu rlis may Le useul vlen rle
sriucruial oim is unusual, oi vleie local eecrs neeu ro Le calculareu.
Hovevei, alrlougl ir is ielarively simle oi use in manual calcularions, rle
vaiiaLle Lack axle sacing may cause auuirional comurarions in comurei
useone may neeu, in eecr, ro riaveise a laige numLei o velicles acioss
rle Liiuge, eacl virl a airiculai sacing, vleie rlese sacings sieau
acioss rle seciieu iange.
3. 1leie is uiiculry in mouelling loaus on aujacenr lanes rlar lave a
ieasonaLle joinr ioLaLiliry o occuiience. âny coues ioviue oi equal
loaus on a seconu lane, Lur Luiocoue 1 is an examle o one rlar uoes nor.
Irs iovisions veie summaiiseu in Secrion 4.6 anu lorreu in Iig. 4.19.
4. A uirlei oinr aiises iom irem 3. 1o rake rle Luiocoue as an examle, irs
Loau ôuel 1 consisrs o a uisriiLureu loau anu a uual-axle giou, vleie
only one o rlese uual-axle gious may Le alieu in eacl lane. Ceirain
loau eecrs in conrinuous sriucruies may iequiie rle osirioning o loaus on
successive sans, oi examle, rle AASHO anu AASH1O Lane Loauings
Fig. 4.21 Comparison of Australian highway bridge loadings
REVIEW 113
alloveu rle use o rvo concenriareu loaus, one in eacl san, ro carei oi
rlis eecr. In using Luiocoue 1, one coulu seaiare rle axle gious in rle rvo
lanes, virl one giou on one san anu rle seconu giou on anorlei. 1lese
gious coiiesonu ro rle majoi axle gious o seaiare velicles anu ir is
uiiculr ro see rlar rle joinr ioLaLiliry o occuiience is clangeu Ly rle
lacemenr o rlese velicles in seaiare lanes. In some sriucruies rle issue may
nor Le imoiranr, oi rleie may Le an auequare riansveise uisriiLurion o rlese
loaus. In orlei cases, rle riansveise locarion o loaus in aujoining sans may
clange rle magniruue o iimaiy sriucruial acrions.
5. Ir is eviuenr rlar rleie las Leen a rienu rovaius rle inciease in uesign loaus
ovei rle yeais in mosr counriies, rle only noraLle excerion Leing in Biirain,
vleie rle 1931 Ô1 loauing vas a leavy loau oi irs rime.
6. 1le examles closen leie ieiesenr a giear vaiiery in rle oim o rle uesign
loaus. 1leie is nov, lovevei, a renuency oi rle use o a consranr, unioimly
uisriiLureu loau, ro mouel a sequence o minoi velicles, rogerlei virl one oi
rvo seciieu majoi axle gious. Ir is imoiranr ro iealise rlar rlese local axle
gious eioim rvo uncrions:
(a) rley aly a majoi local loau vlicl, in conjuncrion virl rle uisriiLureu
loau, ioviues a ieasonaLle esrimare o a vaiiery o iimaiy loau
eecrs, anu o rleii vaiiarion virl san, anu
(L) rley sloulu coiiecrly mouel local eecrs.
Ir is nor cleai rlar rle seconu o rlese oLjecrives is alvays ioeily ulilleu.
Iiguie 4.22 slovs a single-cell Lox, virl a uialiagm rlar is inregial virl all
valls o rle Lox. Ir is necessaiy ro ioviue suiraLle longiruuinal ieinoicemenr
on rle ro slaL acioss rle uialiagm, anu rle voisr case may Le a aii o axle
gious ar some sacing, . A single uual axle, as in rle Luiocoue Loau ôuel 1,
oi a single axle as in irs Loau ôuel 2, coulu nor ioviue a suiraLle loauing.

Fig. 4.22 Effects of a diaphragm on the bending moments in the deck slab of a
box girder bridge
Chapter 5

Selection of primary loads and
load factors

Consiuei a ueck o caius numLeieu consecurively iom ro 100. Ranuom
selecrion o a caiuoi rle use o a comurei-Laseu ianuom numLei geneiaroi in
rlis iangegives an equal ioLaLiliry rlar any numLei Le selecreu, vlerlei ir Le
100 oi 1 oi any orlei numLei, anu rlis ioLaLiliry is 1 in 100 oi 1'. Suose
insreau rlar rle iange, 1 ro 100, las unirs o ^Pa, anu ieiesenrs rle ossiLle 2S-
uay comiession sriengrls o conciere samles maue ro rle same seciicarion,
virl a iequiieu claiacreiisric comiessive sriengrl o 50 ^Pa. 1len rlese
sriengrls vill vaiy virl a mean rlar vill Le, ryically, somevlar laigei rlan 50
^Pa, ossiLly, say, 60 ^Pa, ir is nor uiiculr ro see vly rle mean is somevlar
liglei, oi rle manuacruiei vill aim ar a liglei sriengrl in an arremr ro ensuie
rlar a suicienr numLei o rle resr iesulrs (ossiLly all) lie aLove rle seciieu
value. 1le uisriiLurion is saiu ro Le Liaseu, vleie in rlis case rlis Lias may Le
measuieu Ly rle iario o mean ro claiacreiisric sriengrl. In limir srares uesign, ir
is necessaiy ro knov rle ioLaLilisric uisriiLurion o rlese sriengrls, anu o orlei
iesisrance anu loau aiamereis.
Secrion 3.3 inriouuceu rle iuea o ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurions anu
cumularive ioLaLiliry, anu ueineu rle oimal DisriiLurion, ounu ro uesciiLe
rle vaiiaLiliry o ceirain uncrions. Ir also gave rle marlemarical uesciirion o
rle Lognoimal DisriiLurion slovn in Iig. 3.4. 1lis vas asymmeriical, virl a
long uei rail giving ir a osirive Lias. Orlei conrinuous uisriiLurions incluue rle
Gamma, Bera anu WeiLull uisriiLurions (Devoie 1995:16, Iiasei 196: 60),
anu rleie aie many moie (Secrions 11.2, 12.1). Ir is oren lelul ro iuenriy rle
ioLaLiliry uisriiLurion rlar Lesr irs rle availaLle uara, oi rlis may rlen allov
exriaolarion iom rle uara ro rle ieuicrion o exrieme anu iaie values.
One vay o uoing rlis is ro use ioLaLiliry aei, on vlicl cumularive
uisriiLurions o rle uara aie lorreu ro a non-lineai veirical scale, closen so rlar
5.1 Probability models
PROBABILITY MODELS 115
a seciieu uisriiLurion lors as a sriaiglr line. 1le mosr common examle is
noimal ioLaLiliry aei, irs consriucrion may Le visualiseu as slovn in Iig.
5.1. 1le ler-lanu gial slovs rle noimal cumularive uisriiLurion uncrion (as
in Iig. 3.1). Irs oiuinares aie ounu Ly inregiaring rle sranuaiu noimal
uisriiLurion cuive. Values o rlese inregials (oi aieas) aie commonly calleu
vleie values o rle uncrion aie lisreu in many sranuaiu voiks (sucl as
Devoie 1995: insiue ionr covei, Peaison anu Hairley 1966, Vol.1). A
cumularive ioLaLiliry o 0.6, oi examle, coiiesonus ro a uncrion value rlar
is 0.25rle sranuaiu ueviarion aLove rle mean. Cloose any sriaiglr line
anu caiiy our rle iojecrion slovn ro give rle nev veirical locarion o rle
cumularive ioLaLiliry o 0.6 on rle veirical scale o Iig. 5.1 (L). Reear oi
ioLaLiliries 0., 0.S, 0.9 erc. 1len i a noimal uisriiLurion is lorreu
in Iig. 5.1 (L), using irs ieviseu veirical scale, ir vill lor as a sriaiglr line. 1le
consequence o rlis is rlar i rle iav uara is lorreu on Iig. 5.1 (L), anu lies on a
sriaiglr line, rlis slovs rlar ir is noimally uisriiLureu. A Lesr-ir sriaiglr line
may Le laceu rliougl rle lorreu oinrs anu exriaolareu ro give, oi examle,
rle value o rle uncrion rlar las a cumularive ioLaLiliry o 0.999. 1lis voulu
lave a ioLaLiliry o occuiience o 0.1' anu voulu, in acr, lie 3 sranuaiu
ueviarions aLove rle mean. 1le iocess is uiscusseu Ly Benjamin anu Coinell
(190: 453), vlo slov also lov rlis noimal ioLaLiliry lor can Le useu ro
uiagnose uisriiLurions rlar aie non-noimal.
Poinrs 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 erc on rle loiizonral scale o Iig. 5.1 (L) ieiesenr rle
numLei o coeicienrs o vaiiarion aLove rle mean. Piojecring rlese oinrs
Fig. 5.1 The basis of normal probability paper
SELECTION OF PRIMARY LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS 116

uvaiu ro line AI slovs rlar rle coiiesonuing cumularive ioLaLiliries aie
equally saceu on rle nev, non-lineai veirical scale. Ioi rlis ieason, rle veirical
oiuinares on noimal ioLaLiliry aei aie commonly maikeu: 0 ar oinr A, virl
oiuinares 1, 2, 3 erc aLove A, anu 1, 2, 3 erc Lelov A. Insreau o scaling rle
veirical oiuinare as cumularive ioLaLiliry, vlicl ir uoes inueeu ieiesenr, ir is
scaleu as rle numLei o coeicienrs o vaiiarion aLove rle mean rlar voulu yielu
a airiculai cumularive ioLaLiliry, i alieu ro rle sranuaiu noimal
uisriiLurion.
An examle may Le given, closen as rle lorring o a ser o ielu oLseivarions
o loau, .

1. Calculare rle mean, sranuaiu ueviarion anu coeicienr o vaiiarion o rle
oLseiveu values.
2. Selecr a convenienr loau level, . Counr rle numLei o ielu oLseivarions virl
a value equal ro oi less rlan anu uiviue Ly rle roral numLei o
oLseivarions ro give rle cumularive iequency, e.g. say 0.S5.
3. Use a raLle o cumularive ioLaLiliries ro oLrain rlis Leing rle numLei o
coeicienrs o vaiiarion aLove rle mean rlar voulu Le iequiieu oi a
Sranuaiu oimal DisriiLurion ro lave rlis cumularive ioLaLiliry, oi
examle, a cumularive ioLaLiliry o 0.S5 gives a value equal ro +1.036.
4. Plor .

Sre 3 iequiies rle inveise use o rlis raLle. As ueineu in Secrion 3.3, i is rle
ioLaLiliry o occuiience o rle value, rlen rle noimal cumularive ioLaLiliry,
is calleu . 1le inveise iocess may Le ueineu as

1
,
vleie

1lis iocess can Le iogiammeu oi comurei use. 1le equarion ro rle
ioLaLiliry uensiry uncrion o rle Sranuaiu oimal DisriiLurion, as srareu in
Secrion 3.3, is
1le inregial o rlis uncrion iom S ro is rle cumularive ioLaLiliry oi rle
occuiience o values less rlan oi equal ro . 1lis can Le evaluareu numeiically Ly
oLseiving rlar rle inregial o ro rle mean value o is 0.5. 1le cumularive
ioLaLiliry given Ly rle Sranuaiu oimal DisriiLurion is

vleie

can Le evaluareu Ly numeiical inregiarion
1le ioLaLiliry uensiry uncrion is symmeriical aLour rle mean, ar =0. Ioi
negarive values o evaluare oi rle aLsolure value o anu suLriacr rlis iom
0.5. 1len =
1
(
) may Le ounu Ly inreiolarion oi ireiarion.

1le sriaiglr line gial on noimal ioLaLiliry aei sloulu ass rliougl rle
oinrs (0, 0.5) anu (1.0, 0.S413), oi rle cumularive ioLaLiliry sloulu Le 0.5 ar
rle mean, anu 0.S413 ar one sranuaiu ueviarion aLove rle mean. Small
ueairuies iom rlese oinrs inuicare rlar rle values o rle mean anu sranuaiu
ueviarion sloulu Le ieviseu, virl rle nev values oLraineu iom rle values o ar
cumularive ioLaLiliries o 0.5 anu 0.S413. Sruuies caiiieu our oi Liiuge coues
(ovak 1993:19, anu elsevleie) suggesr rlar loaus may Le noimally uisriiLureu
anu rlar iesisrances may Le mouelleu as lognoimal.
Loaus aie oren ieeiieu ro Ly rleii . Ir is imoiranr rlar
rlis Le ioeily ueineu. Cuiienr iacrice virl Liiuge loaus is Laseu on eailiei
iacrice in lyuiology oi rle uesciirion o loou iequencies oi ioLaLiliries. 1le
olloving ueinirion is raken iom Wilson 19S3:211 (see also Linsley er al.
19SS:345).

1le reim (also calleu rle ),is rle
rime rlar, on aveiage, elases Lerveen rvo evenrs rlar equal oi exceeu
a airiculai level. Purring ir anorlei vay, rle -yeai evenr, rle evenr
rlar is execreu ro Le equalleu oi exceeueu, on aveiage, eveiy yeais,
las a iecuiience inreivalo yeais.

1le oinr ro nore in rlis ueinirion is 'equalleu oi exceeueu, vleie rle cumularive
ioLaLiliry Leing ieeiieu ro is 'o exceeuence, anu is 1 in -yeais. ovak
(1994:40), oi examle, seaks o a 5-yeai riuck, in a samle oularion rlar
coiiesonueu ro 1510
6
riucks in rlis eiiou. 1le ielevanr ioLaLiliry o
exceeuence is 1/(1510
6
). 1le coiiesonuing cumularive ioLaLiliry o evenrs less
rlan oi equal ro rlis evenr is 11/(1510
6
), oi 0.999 999 933. Peaison anu
Hairley (1966) lisr rle coiiesonuing 'X value as 5.2, ovaks 'inveise noimal
value is 5.26eecrively rle same. Similaily, oi a 1-yeai riuck, rle cumularive
iequency is 11/200,000, oi 0.999 995, virl an inveise noimal value o 4.42,
anu oi a 1-uay riuck, 2.91 (ovak iounus rle numLei o riucks ei uay ro
1000, giving an inveise noimal value o 3.09). His noimal ioLaLiliry lors aie,
rleieoie, as in Iig. 5.2, virl rle loiizonral oiuinares scaleu againsr a ievious
uesign riuck. He calls rle veirical scale rle 'inveise sranuaiu noimal uisriiLurion
uncrion. 1le line slovn (nor one o lis cases) las a mean o 0.5 anu a
coeicienr o vaiiarion o aLour 10' (ieiesenreu Ly an inveise sloe o 0.5/5.0).
Ir inuicares rle olloving iarios o airiculai evenrs ro rle mean: 1 uay, 1.61, 1
yeai, 1.0, 5 yeais, 2.05.
Alreinarively, rle ielu uara may Le inreiiereu ro lisr rle maximum evenr in
eacl o a succession o uays, rlar is, rle maximum uaily evenr. Suose rlar
rlese maximum uaily evenrs aie slovn ro Le noimal. 1len rle 100-yeai evenr

(ro rake anorlei examle) las a cumularive ioLaLiliry o exceeuence o 1/
36,500, leauing ro a value o rle 'inveise sranuaiu noimal uisriiLurion uncrion
o 4.03.
Consiuei a uaily maximum oularion virl a mean o zeio anu a coeicienr
o vaiiarion o 1. 1len rle ioceuuie uesciiLeu aLove gives rle olloving values
oi airiculai iecuiience inreivals:
Fig. 5.2 Typical plot of field data, for loads, on normal probability paper
1 uay 1.0
1 yeai 2.S
100 yeais 4.03
Ir is useul also ro aioacl rlis ioLlem in anorlei vay (Heyvoou 1992a: 4.12,
Ransom 2000).
Ler Le rle exrieme uaily evenr.
Ler rle cumularive ioLaLiliry rlar is less rlan some closen value, Le

Consiuei 2 uays. 1len rle ioLaLiliry rlar is less rlan on eacl o rlese
2 uays is

I
2

vleie rlis is a cumularive ioLaLiliry

Similaily, rle cumularive ioLaLiliry oi uays is
.
Suose rle exrieme uaily evenr las a mean o zeio, anu a coeicienr o
vaiiarion o 1.0. 1len iom rle raLles in Peaison anu Hairley (1966), may
Le calculareu oi any anu rlen iaiseu ro some ovei . Iuirlei, rlis
cumularive ioLaLiliry oi uays may Le uieienriareu (leie Ly 3-oinr
numeiical uieienriarion) ro give rle ioLaLiliry uensiry cuive oi rlis -uay
evenr. 1le iesulring cuives slovn in Iig. 5.3 aie oi rle oiiginal 1-uay amily o
evenrs (rle Sranuaiu oimal DisriiLurion) anu oi rle 1-yeai anu 100-yeai
cases.
Consiuei iisr rle 1-yeai case.

(a) 1le iesulring ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurion las a maximum o 1.135 ar
=2.S1.
(L) 1le cuive is nor symmeriical anu ir can Le slovn ro Le non-noimal Ly
lorring ir on noimal uisriiLurion aei.
(c) eveirleless, ir is nor ai iom noimaliry, anu esrimares o irs coeicienr o
vaiiarion lave Leen calculareu in rvo vays.
1le cuive musr conrain an aiea o 1.0. 1le Sranuaiu oimal
DisriiLurion las a maximum o 0.399 anu a coeicienr o vaiiarion o 1.0.
1le 1-yeai cuive las rlis maximum veirical oiuinare incieaseu Ly a acroi
o 1.135/0.399. Accoiuingly, irs loiizonral scale musr Le ieuuceu Ly rle
inveise o rlis value, giving an esrimareu coeicienr o vaiiarion o 0.351.
1le inirial cuive las a semi-loiizonral oiuinare o 1.0 ar a leiglr o
0.2420, oi ar 0.6065rle maximum oiuinare. Scaling rle 1-yeai cuive ar a
leiglr o 0.601.135 gives a semi-loiizonral oiuinare o 0.34, anu rlis is a
seconu aioximarion ro rle 1-yeai coeicienr o vaiiarion.

(u) Vieveu oveiall, rleieoie, rle 1-yeai cuive las a maximum ioLaLiliry ar
a value o rlar is 2.S1rle oiiginal coeicienr o vaiiarion aLove rle
oiiginal mean. 1le orlei analysis suggesreu 2.S oi rle 1-yeai evenr.
1le amily o 1-yeai evenrs las a coeicienr o vaiiarion o aLour 0.34.
(e) Similai iesulrs can Le oLraineu oi rle 100-yeai cuive.
1le maximum ioLaLiliry is 4.05c.v. aLove rle oiiginal mean (as
comaieu virl rle iguie o 4.03 quoreu eailiei).
Irs coeicienr o vaiiarion, esrimareu as oi rle 1-yeai case, is eirlei
0.25 oi 0.24.

Ir is voirl ieearing rle lasr iesulr, oi ir is somevlar suiiising. I one rakes a
seiies o 100-yeai samles, anu oi eacl case consiueis only rle maximum evenr,
rlen rlis las a coeicienr o vaiiarion o rle oiuei o 0.240.25rlar o rle
oiiginal samle. 1le 100-yeai evenr srill las a consiueiaLle vaiiaLiliry.
ovak (1993) menrioneu rlar iesisrances may Le mouelleu as lognoimal (see
Secrion 3.3 anu Iig. 3.4). A uncrion, is lognoimal i las a noimal
uisriiLurion. Ir ollovs rlar, i rle iequency uensiry uisriiLurion o is lorreu,
virl on a logaiirlmic scale, rle iesulr vill Le iuenrical ro a noimal uisriiLurion.
Similaily, i rle cumularive ioLaLiliries o occuiiences less rlan oi equal ro aie
lorreu againsr (ro some suiraLle scale) on noimal uisriiLurion aei, rle
oinrs vill all on a sriaiglr line.
Fig. 5.3 Theoretical probability density distributions for 1-day, 1-year and 100-year
events

1leie is some value ar looking again ar rle oim o rle lognoimal ioLaLiliry
uensiry uisriiLurion. Iiguie 5.4 slovs an examle closen so rlar rle coeicienr o
vaiiarion is aioximarely 0.5 (acrually 0.49). In rle noimal marlemarical
exiession oi rlis uisriiLurion, is exiesseu in reims o rle ioeiries, k anu
o rle uncrion . Heie rle values o k anu aie 1.0 anu 0.4. 1le iesulring
lognoimal uisriiLurion las a mean, q equal ro 3.036. Also slovn on rle gial is
anorlei noimal uisriiLurion (nor ), virl a mean o 3.036 anu a coeicienr o
vaiiarion, 0.49. 1le rvo cuives coulu Le seen as alreinare ieiesenrarions o rle
same uara. Some uieiences may Le noreu.

(a) 1le maximum o rle lognoimal uensiry uisriiLurion lies ro rle ler o rlar oi
rle noimal uisriiLurion.
(L) 1le noimal uisriiLurion incluues negarive values.
(c) Alrlougl rle aieas unuei rle rvo cuives aie rle same, rle lognoimal
uisriiLurion las a osirive skev, virl values ar rle exrieme iiglr rlar exceeu
rlose oi rle noimal uisriiLurion.
(u) Ir is rlis osirive skev rlar moves rle mean (anu also rle meuian) value o rle
lognoimal uisriiLurion ro rle iiglr o irs maximum.
(e) In consiueiing rle aLiliry o rle lognoimal uisriiLurion ro ieiesenr sriengrl
aiamereis, ir sloulu Le iememLeieu rlar resr ioceuuies uuiing
manuacruie anu suly sloulu lave ieuuceu rle occuiience o samles virl
sriengrls less rlan rlose o maximum iequency.

Fig. 5.4 Lognormal probability distribution

Secrion 3.3 sloveu lov ir is ossiLle ro uereimine rle ioLaLiliry o ailuie o a
comonenr virl a iesisrance unuei a loau eecr vlen Lorl anu aie
noimally uisriiLureu. Ir vas aigueu rlar, in rlis case, rle uncrion is
noimally uisriiLureu, virl a mean equal ro
anu a sranuaiu ueviarion
equal ro 1le ieliaLiliry inuex, A vas ueineu as

1len rle ioLaLiliry o ailuie
vas rle cumularive ioLaLiliry oi cases virl

negarive, equal ro A oi rle aiea unuei rle cumularive
ioLaLiliry cuive iom minus ininiry ro A. 1lese aieas can eirlei Le raken iom
sranuaiu ieeience raLles oi calculareu Ly numeiical inregiarion in rle mannei
uesciiLeu in rle ieceuing secrion.
Ir is necessaiy leie ro consiuei rle case vleie eirlei oi (oi Lorl) aie nor
noimally uisriiLureu. Ir is assumeu, lovevei, rlar rle ioLaLiliry uensiry
uisriiLurions oi Lorl aie knovn.
Iailuie occuis vlen oi, ar rle limir, vlen equals 1leie aie,
lovevei, many sucl oinrs, oi rle ioLaLiliry uensiry uncrions oi anu
oveila in rle mannei slovn in Iig. 3.3 (a). O rlese oinrs, ir is necessaiy
ro inu rle one vlicl gives a maximum ioLaLiliry o ailuie. 1le olloving
uesciirion is o an ireiarive ioceuuie, vlicl commences virl a srairing value o
rlen ielaces eacl non-noimal uisriiLurion uncrion Ly a noimal
uisriiLurion virl rle coiiecr ioLaLiliries ar anu rlen uses rlese ro esrimare
A anu ro inu an imioveu cloice o .
Consiuei rle iesisrance oi rlis is mosr likely ro Le noimally uisriiLureu.
Ar rle closen value, Lorl rle ioLaLiliry
anu cumularive ioLaLiliry
aie
knovn. 1lese values aie nov assumeu ro Le ioeiries o a ielareu noimal
uisriiLurion, virl
vleie rle suLsciirs, aie a ieminuei rlar rlese nov ieei ro rle noimal
uisriiLurion. Iiguies 5.5 (a) anu (L) slov rle sranuaiuiseu oim o rlis
noimaliseu uisriiLurion, scaleu ro lave a mean ar zeio, anu a sranuaiu ueviarion
o uniry. Iig. 5.5 (c) slovs rle noimal uisriiLurion: irs mean, k
anu sranuaiu
ueviarion,
aie ro Le ounu.
Iiom rle cumularive ioLaLiliry,
(Iig. 5.3 (a)), inu A

1
, eirlei iom a
raLle o rle aieas o rle Sranuaiu oimal cuive, oi Ly ireiarive numeiical
inregiarion, as uesciiLeu in Secrion 5.2. Ioi rlis value o A rle coiiesonuing
oiuinare o rle sranuaiu noimal uensiry uisriiLurion may Le ounu (Iig. 5.5 (L)).
Ler ir Le . 1len rle value, is ielareu ro rle coiiesonuing ioLaLiliry,
o
rle riue noimal uensiry uisriiLurion (Iig. 5.5 (c)) Ly rle exiession
5.2 Probability of failure for non-normal distributions
PROBABILITY OF FAILURE FOR NON-NORMAL DISTRIBUTIONS 123

Borl
anu aie nov knovn. 1len

Also iom Iig. 5.5 (c),
k

oi rle case slovn.
Similaily, rle ioeiries,
anu k
o rle marcling noimal uisriiLurion

oi rle loau, may Le ounu. 1le coiiesonuing uncrion, is noimally
uisriiLureu, anu rle merlou uesciiLeu in Secrion 3.3 may Le useu ro inu a iisr
aioximarion, A
ro rle ieliaLiliry inuex anu ro rle ioLaLiliry o ailuie,
1le iesenr analysis can also Le useu ro iuenriy values o anu oi a

seconu riial (ovak 1993: Aenuix D, Rackvirz anu Iiesslei 19S). 1le
merlou vill Le uesciiLeu leie virlour ioo.
Fig. 5.5 Properties of the matching normal distribution

1le sranuaiu ueviarion o is Comure rle iarios
On rle ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurion oi (Iig. 5.3 (c)), A
ieiesenrs a
iesisrance given Ly

k

A similai calcularion may Le useu oi anu sloulu give . 1lese aie rle
values oi a nev riial. 1le iocess is ieeareu. Ir is ounu rlar anu conveige
ro inal values vlicl coiiesonu ro rle iequiieu maximum ioLaLiliry o
ailuie.
An alreinarive ioceuuie is simly ro use values o anu (virl )
closen aiLiriaiily ovei a suiraLle iange, anu oi eacl calculare rle ieliaLiliry
inuex, using rle marcling iocess uesciiLeu aLove virl rle analysis o Secrion
3.3. 1le coiiecr values aie rlose vlicl give rle maximum ioLaLiliry o
ailuie.
1le sres leauing ro rle inriouucrion o nev uesign loaus anu orlei majoi
clanges in coues o iacrice musr incluue a comaiison virl oluei coues anu
some sruuy o rle eioimance anu sriengrl o exisring sriucruies. 1o quore
GalamLos (1.V. 41, in Das 199:65):

1le key concer is rlar similai sriucruies sloulu lave essenrially rle
same ieliaLiliry againsr exceeuing a limir srare. Connecrion virl rle
exeiience o rle asr is ro ensuie rlar rle ieliaLiliry o rle exanueu
ser o sriucruies in rle nev coue is rle same as rlar o a ioven
memLei o rle ser o sriucruies uesigneu Ly rle olu coue.

1lis iocess involves rle cloice o loau acrois anu is calleu coue caliLiarion.
As noreu in Clarei 4, rle 199 Onraiio Higlvay Biiuge Design (OHBD)
Coue vas a ioneei sre in rle inriouucrion o rle limir srares concer, virl a
ioLaLilisric Lasis, ro Liiuge uesign. 1le caliLiarion o rlis coue vas uesciiLeu in
ovak anu Linu 199. Alrlougl rlis voik involveu many orleis, noraLly Csagoly
anu Doiron, rle iocess o coue caliLiarion in Ameiica since rlar rime las leavily
involveu rle voik o ovak. Paeis Ly ovak (1994), ovak anu Giouni
(1994), ovak anu Hong (1991), ovak, assi anu ue Iiain (1993), anu 1aLsl
anu ovak (1991), rogerlei virl rlar Ly Kenneuy er al. (1992) uesciiLe similai
5.3 Code calibration
CODE CALIBRATION 125
voik oi rle ieviev o rle OHBD Coue in 1991. CaliLiarion o rle AASH1O 1994
LRID (loau anu iesisrance acroi) Liiuge uesign seciicarion vas also caiiieu our
Ly ovak (1993, 1995 anu 1999), alrlougl a uieienr giou aeai ro lave
caiiieu our rle similai Lur ielareu voik oi rle Canauian CSA-S6 coue o 19SS (see
Agaival anu Cleung (19S), Allen (1992) anu Bucklanu anu Bairlerr (1992)).
ovak also viore rle clarei on Liiuge ieliaLiliry analysis anu uesign coues oi
Das (199). Ir las aeaieu aioiiare rleieoie, ro Lase rlis clarei on lis ieoir
(DecemLei 1993) oi rle AASH1O LRID Liiuge uesign coue (ieiinreu as ovak
1999) anu lis associareu aei (1995).
Ir is necessaiy iisr ro oLrain suiraLle srarisrical uesciirions o rle loaus vleie,
leie, rle ocus vill Le on rle majoi iimaiy loaus anu rle ueau loaus. ovak
ounu rle ueau loau ro Le noimally uisriiLureu virl, oi acroiy-maue memLeis,
rle mean Leing 1.03 rimes rle nominal value, virl a coeicienr o vaiiarion o S',
rle coiiesonuing iguies oi casr-in-lace memLeis veie 1.05 anu 10'.
ovak useu riuck suivey uara oLraineu in Onraiio in 195 oi 9250 riucks,
closen on rle Lasis rlar rley aeaieu ro Le leavily loaueu (Aigaival anu
Wolkovicz 196, Haiman anu Davenoir 199:49), anu oi rlese, calculareu
loau eecrs scaleu againsr one HS2044 sranuaiu riuck oi lane loauing, oi rle
196 alreinare miliraiy loauing ranuem (rvo 106.S k axle loaus), oi sans
iom 9.1 ro 61 m. 1le closen loau eecrs veie maximum Lenuing momenr anu
sleai in simly suoireu sans, anu maximum negarive Lenuing momenr oi a
giiuei virl rvo equal sans. 1lese riucks veie assumeu ro ieiesenr aLour rvo
veeks o riaic. 1le iesulrs veie lorreu on noimal ioLaLiliry aei in rle
oim, closen loau eecr againsr cumularive iequency o occuiience, vleie rle
closen loau eecr miglr Le, oi examle, rle maximum osirive Lenuing momenr
in a 9.1 m san. 1lese lors veie juugeu ro Le suicienrly lineai ro jusriy rle
assumrion rlar rley veie noimally uisriiLureu. 1ley veie rlen exriaolareu ro
give iesulrs oi a closen Liiuge lie, vleie, in airiculai, a lie o 5 yeais vas
assumeu ro coiiesonu ro 2010
6
velicles, a lirrle laigei rlan rle numLei 1S10
6
oLraineu i rle 9250 riucks asseu in exacrly rvo veeks. 1le quanrirarive
signiicance o rlis exriaolarion vas nor giear, oi examle, iom 2 veeks ro 5
yeais coiiesonueu ro an inciease in maximum osirive Lenuing momenr Ly 1.30
oi a 9.1 m san, 1.22 oi a 30.5 m san, anu 1.23 oi a 61 m san. Lxiesseu
alreinarively, rle sloe o rle cuives ieiesenrs rleii sranuaiu ueviarion. ovak
gives esrimares o rle coiiesonuing coeicienrs o vaiiarion rlar lie ryically in
rle iange 10 ro 20', alrlougl ir musr Le iememLeieu rlar rlis is oi rlese closen
riucks. Assuming, rleieoie, rlar rle exriaolarions ro a 5-yeai lie (2010
6
velicles) aie ieasonaLle, ir is imoiranr ro nore some o rle values rlar veie
oLraineu, gioueu leie as (value, san in meries):

maximum osirive Lenuing momenr (1.2, 9.1), (2.0, 30.5), (1.S2, 61)
maximum simly suoireu sleai (1.49, 9.1), (1.90, 30.5), (1.60, 61)
maximum negarive momenr (1., 9.1), (1.2, 30.5), (0.92, 61).
Alrlougl rlis numLei, 2010
6
, is laige, ir is nor ininire. I a numLei o resrs coulu
Le caiiieu our, eacl virl 2010
6
velicles, anu rle maximum eecrs oLseiveu,
rlen rlese maxima voulu vaiy ro some exrenr. 1le exriaolareu values quoreu

aLove ieiesenr rle mean maximum values oi 2010
6
velicles. 1leii vaiiaLiliry
can also Le esrimareu (see Secrion 5.1) anu ovak gives a value o 0.11 as rle
coeicienr o vaiiarion oi rle maximum momenr oi mosr san lengrls, oi a 5-
yeai eiiou.
ovak venr uirlei anu esrimareu giiuei eecrs, assuming longiruuinal
iimaiy giiueis, virl sacings iom 1.2 ro 3. m. 1o uo rlis, ir vas necessaiy ro
make assumrions conceining rle ossiLiliry o joinr oi mulrile iesence. 1lis
vas Laseu on voik Ly ovak, assi anu ue Iiain (1993), alrlougl ovak
nores rlar 'rleie is lirrle uara availaLle ro veiiy rle srarisrical aiamereis oi
mulrile iesence. DisriiLurion acrois veie Laseu on a lineai inire elemenr
analysis, insreau o rle values S/10 oi a conciere slaL on sreel anu iesriesseu
conciere giiueis, anu S/12 oi a similai slaL on ieinoiceu conciere giiueis, o rle
roral lane loaus, as seciieu in rle cuiienr AASH1O. 1le iesulring iarios o mean
maximum 5-yeai giiuei momenrs ro rlose Laseu on rle cuiienr AASH1O vaiieu
virl giiuei sacing, iom aLour 1. oi a sacing o 1.2 m, ro aLour 1.25 oi a
sacing o 3. m. 1leie veie also sruuies o uynamic eecrs, Lur rlese vill nor Le
uiscusseu leie (see Clarei ). 1lis riuck suivey uara vas ielarively olu (195)
comaieu virl rle uare o issue o rle nev coue (1994). Ir vas assumeu uirlei
rlar rle legal loau limirs voulu nor Le clangeu anu rlar rle riuck oularion
voulu iemain rle same.
1le nexr lase vas ro look ar iesisrance uara. Lailiei Canauian voik Ly
Kenneuy anu Bakei (19S4) consiueieu iesisrance acrois oi sreel liglvay
Liiuges, anu oinreu our rlar unceirainries in rle esrimares o iesisrance iesulreu
iom rliee acrois:

(a) vaiiarions in mareiial ioeiries,
(L) clanges in geomeriy, anu
(c) vaiiarions Lerveen uesign ioceuuies anu resr eioimance.

1ley iesenreu srarisrical uara oi all acrois, in rle oim o iarios o mean ro
nominal values anu coeicienrs o vaiiarion, . All mareiial sriengrls anu iarios
o resr ro comureu iesisrance veie exiesseu as lognoimal uisriiLurions virl
geomeriical vaiiarions raken as noimal. 1yical iesulrs veie:

yielu sriengrl o sreel:
meannominal=1.06
=0.051
lasric secrion mouulus oi iolleu secrions:
meannominal=0.99
=0.03S (incluuing macline eiioi)
uiscierisarion acroi in rle cloice o an availaLle secrion:
meannominal=1.059
=0.039
resr ro ieuicreu iarios o lasric momenr:
meannominal=1.02
=0.045

ComLining all acrois anu using ônre Cailo simularion reclniques (using a
ianuomly selecreu amily o 50,000 values, virl rle aLove ioeiries ser so as ro
marcl rle assumeu ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurions), rley ounu, oi rle lasric
linge momenr, rle iario o mean ro nominal vas 1.21, virl a coeicienr o
vaiiarion, equal ro 0.0.
ovak (1993) consiueieu rle same souices o vaiiaLiliry, anu, using
uieienr reclniques, esrimareu srarisrical vaiiarions in iesisrance oi sreel anu
comosire sreel anu conciere secrions, oi ieinoiceu conciere giiueis, anu oi a
conciere slaL comosire virl sranuaiu AASH1O iecasr anu iesriesseu
conciere giiueis.
Dara oi moie rlan 100 acrual Liiuges vas useu ro comaie minimum values
o iesisrance
iequiieu Ly rle cuiienr AASH1O coue virl rlar acrually

ioviueu. 1lese iarios (acrualminimum iequiieu) vaiieu iom aLour 1.5 ro 2 oi
momenr in sreel giiuei Liiuges, iom aLour 1.2 ro 1.S oi momenr in iesriesseu
conciere giiuei Liiuges, anu aLour 1. ro ovei 4 oi sleai in sreel giiuei Liiuges.
1le numLei o rlese Liiuges vas insuicienr oi an auequare sruuy o rle eecr
o all vaiiaLles. He rleieoie useu rle cuiienr coue ro oLrain values o
oi
sreel anu comosire sreel anu conciere giiuei Liiuges, ieinoiceu conciere 1-Leams
anu iesriesseu conciere giiuei Liiuges oi sans iom 9.1 ro 61 m, virl giiuei
sacings iom 1.2 ro 3. m. Assuming rlar rle iesisrances acrually ioviueu veie
ser equal ro rlese values o
le vas rlen aLle ro uereimine ioLaLiliry

uisriiLurions oi iesisrance oi all rlese cases. He rlen useu rlese virl rle
noimally uisriiLureu giiuei loau eecrs comureu ieviously ro oLrain values oi
A rle ieliaLiliry inuex, using rle merlou uesciiLeu in Secrion 5.3. 1liee o lis
iesulrs aie slovn in Iig. 5.6:

(a) oi momenr in simly suoireu comosire giiueis,
(L) oi momenr in simly suoireu iesriesseu conciere giiueis, anu
(c) oi sleai in iesriesseu conciere giiueis.

Some oLseivarions may Le maue.

1. ovaks loau eecrs oi giiuei Lenuing momenr anu sleai useu lis analysis
oi rle uisriiLurion o rle iimaiy loaus Lerveen giiueis, vleieas rle
iesisrances veie Laseu on ioceuuies in rle cuiienr AASH1O coue. 1lis
clange in uisriiLurion coeicienrs las leu ro a maikeu vaiiarion o A virl
giiuei sacing.
2. 1le vaiiarion o A virl san is small oi Lenuing momenrs in giiueis virl
sans giearei rlan 1S.3 m, anu in sleai oi sans equal ro oi giearei rlan
2.4 m. PiesumaLly rlis iesulrs ar leasr airly iom uieiences in ovaks
loaus, comaieu virl rle cuiienr AASH1O loaus.
3. Ioi rle longei sans, values o A iange iom aLour 2. ro 4.5 oi Lenuing,
Fig. 5.6 Values of the reliability index, , for current AASHTO code (Redrawn from
Nowak 1993; used with permission)
anu 1.9 ro 3 in sleai, values oi Lenuing in rle sloiresr sans aie somevlar
less rlan oi rle longei sans, uovn ro aLour 1.9 oi a san o 9.1 m.
4. 1le eecr on A o rle mareiial rye can Le gaugeu Ly oLseiving rle olloving
values in Lenuing oi a san o 2.4 anu a giiuei sacing o 3.3 m:
non-comosire sreel 3.6
comosire sreel anu conciere 3.6
ieinoiceu conciere 3.53
iesriesseu conciere 3.SS
5. Baseu on rlis uara, ovak close a raiger value o A oi rle nev coue o 3.5.

Secrion 4.3 iesenreu rle nev AASH1O uesign loaus, ieviseu uynamic loau
allovances, anu rle loau acrois rlar veie inally closen, rlese Leing:
1.25+1.5+1.5
ovak riieu a iange o loau acrois anu vas guiueu in lis selecrion Ly rle iule

(1+)

vleie

is rle loau acroi oi a airiculai loau rye,
is rle iario o irs mean ro nominal value,
is irs vaiiance, anu
is a consranr oi all loau ryes

His values o anu veie:

(a) ueau loau o acroiy-maue elemenrs:
=1.03, =0.03,
(L) ueau loau o casr-in-lace conciere:
=1.05 =0.10,
(c) ueau loau o aslalric veaiing suiace:
=1.00 =0.25,
(u) live loau (virl imacr)
=1.101.20 =0.01S.

His riial values o veie 1.5, 2.0 anu 2.5, rle value inally selecreu vas 2.0. 1lis
gave a iange in loau acroi oi live loau iom 1.5 ro 1.6. He inally iooseu rle
moie conseivarive value o 1., Lur rlis vas incieaseu ro 1.5 in rle coue. He
useu rlese loau acrois virl rle iooseu nev uesign live loau ro selecr memLeis
virl riial Resisrance Iacrois, o 0.95 anu 1.0 oi sreel, comosire, anu
iesriesseu conciere memLeis in Lenuing, 0.S5 anu 0.90 oi ieinoiceu conciere
memLeis in Lenuing, anu values iom 0.90 ro 1.0 in sleai. Ioi rlese memLeis le
rlen calculareu ieliaLiliry inuices, A using rle ioceuuie uesciiLeu ieviously,
incluuing lis inire elemenr values oi rle uisriiLurion acrois.
Some o lis iesulrs aie slovn in Iig. 5., rley may Le comaieu virl iesulrs
oLraineu using rle cuiienr coue, as slovn in Iig. 5.6, anu rlis leaus ro rle
olloving oLseivarions.
1. Iinire elemenr values oi rle uisriiLurion acrois veie useu in Lorl rle uesign
anu clecking airs o rle seconu analysis, anu rlis necessaiily iemoveu rle
ueenuance o A on giiuei sacing.
2. 1le vaiiaLiliry o A values virl san lengrl, as slovn in Iig. 5.6, is nov
laigely iemoveu, suggesring rlar rle nev oim oi rle live loau is suiraLle.
3. As voulu Le execreu, values o A vaiy virl rle iesisrance acroi, anu rle
loau acroi, .
4. 1le raiger value oi A vas 3.5. Ioi rle cases slovn in Iig. 5., rlis leu ro rle
selecrion o =1.6, virl =1.0 oi Lenuing anu 0.9 oi iesriesseu conciere in
sleai. 1lis value o vas larei ugiaueu ro 1. anu rlen 1.5. His inal
iecommenueu values o veie 0.9 oi ieinoiceu anu iesriesseu conciere in
sleai, anu ieinoiceu conciere in Lenuing, virl 1.0 oi all orlei cases.

1le ioceuuies oi coue caliLiarion uesciiLeu in rle ievious secrion uo nor riuly
oim a merlou oi rle selecrion o rle geomeriy anu naruie o rle uesign iimaiy
loaus, excer Ly riial anu eiioi. 1le selecreu loau is Laseu on rle olu AASHO
loau anu uieis, oi examle, iom rle Onraiio OHBD loaus o 199 anu 1991
on vlicl ovak also voikeu. 1lis is nor inrenueu as a ciiricism, oi ir is
aioiiare rlar uesigneis virlin a airiculai counriy conrinue virl merlous
rlar aie ar leasr airly amiliai, sucl a ioceuuie may also ioviue a cleaiei link
Lerveen nev uesigns anu rlose in seivice. Iuirleimoie, rle ieviev o coues o
iacrice in Clarei 4 inuicareu a rienu rovaius rle use o an aiLiriaiily closen
loau rlar consisreu o a ser o local loaus anu a uisriiLureu loau (see conclusion 6
o rlar clarei). Ir is, neveirleless, aioiiare ro enquiie i rlese aie ioceuuies
leauing uiiecrly iom riuck suiveys ro a airiculai oim o rle iimaiy loau. 1lis
Secrion vill uesciiLe rvo.
As menrioneu in Secrion 4.4, rle 199 Onraiio Higlvay Biiuge Design Coue
useu rle concer o Lquivalenr Base Lengrl ro ielace suiveyeu riuck uara (axle
veiglrs anu sacings) Ly an equivalenr uesign velicle, anu also ro ueine legal
riuck veiglrs (Doiron anu Csagoly 19), rle concer vas larei ievieveu Ly
5.4 Selection of the primary live loads
Fig. 5.7 Values of the reliability index, , for the proposed AASHTO LRFD code
(Redrawn from Nowak 1993; used with permission)

OConnoi (19S0 anu 19S1). 1le equivalenr Lase lengrl
vas ueineu as 'an

imaginaiy inire lengrl on vlicl rle roral veiglr o a given sequenrial ser o
concenriareu loaus is unioimly uisriiLureu sucl rlar rlis unioimly uisriiLureu
loau voulu cause oice eecrs in a suoiring sriucruie nor ueviaring
unieasonaLly iom rlose causeu Ly rle sequence irsel (OConnoi 19S1:105).
Iiguie 5.S slovs a ryical loau giou. Ir vas slovn in Clarei 1 rlar rle
aLsolure maximum Lenuing momenr unuei a airiculai loau (say
) o a loau
sysrem as ir moves acioss a simly suoireu Leam occuis vlen rle cenrie o
rle Leam Lisecrs rle uisrance Lerveen
anu rle cenrie o giaviry o rle loau

sysrem. Heie,

1le momenr o rle loaus,
ro
, aLour

vleie rlis may Le evaluareu alreinarively as

virl Lorl sums incluuing all values o . Ir ollovs rlar rle Lenuing momenr ar
is given Ly

Fig. 5.8 System of concentrated loads
SELECTION OF THE PRIMARY LIVE LOADS 133
A uisriiLureu loau, o lengrl
vill iouuce a maximum Lenuing momenr

vlen irs cenrie is locareu ar rle cenrie o rle Leam. Ler
Le sucl rlar rlis

Lenuing momenr is
. 1len
/4
/S

Lquaring rle rvo,

1le san lengrl aeais only in rle seconu reim. 1le roral lengrl occuieu Ly
loaus is anu rleii aveiage sacing is /(1). Ioi rle smallei sans, vleie rlis
seconu reim is ielarively laige, rleie aie orlei loaus nor ai Leyonu rle enus o rle
Leam. Csagoly anu Doiron (19Sa anu L) inriouuceu rle aioximarion,

/(1)

1len

In rlis exiession, rle uisrances
aie measuieu iom loau
anu rle Lenuing

momenr useu ro ueiive rle exiession vas unuei rlis loau. Ir is somerimes
uiiculr ro iuenriy rle loau
vlicl causes rle giearesr Lenuing momenr. Deine

rle cenrial loau,
as rle loau sucl rlar rle sum o rle loaus ro rle ler, rogerlei
virl some iooirion
virl 0<<1.0, is equal ro /2. Consiuei rle

inluence line oi uncrion slovn in Iig. 5.9, virl equal sloes iising ro a
maximum oiuinare. Place
ar rlis oinr. 1len rle roral loau ro rle ler o rle

cenrial oinr, incluuing
is equal ro /2. Similaily rle loau ro rle iiglr is /

2. Suose rle loau sysrem is moveu a uisrance ro rle iiglr. I rle inluence line
veie given rle uorreu exrension slovn, rle loau /2 ro rle ler voulu iise Ly an
amounr rle loau ro rle iiglr voulu all Ly an equal amounr, rle clange in
voulu Le zeio. In acr, rle loau,
vill uio a uisrance, (2), Lelov rlis

uorreu exrension, anu rleie vill Le a ieuucrion in equal ro
(2). Similaily, i
rle loau sysrem is moveu ro rle ler, rle ieuucrion in vill Le (1)
(2). Ir
ollovs rlar rle maximum value o vill occui virl
ar rle maximum oiuinare.

An amLiguiry aiises in ueining rle cenrial loau i, oi a airiculai loau in rle
sysrem, =0. 1len, oi rle nexr loau ro rle iiglr, =1. 1le loau sysrem can Le
uiviueu inro rvo gious o loaus, eacl roralling /2. 1len i eirlei o rle
neiglLouiing loaus (=0 oi =1) is laceu ar rle maximum o rle inluence line,
equal maximum values o vill occui. Heie rle cenrial loau vill Le ueineu as
rlar vlicl las rle smallei uisrance iom rle iesulranr o irs /2 giou. 1lis
cenrial loau is, oi some orlei oinreu inluence lines, moie likely ro aclieve a
maximum eecr rlan irs neiglLoui.

Fig. 5.9 Identification of the central load (Redrawn from OConnor 1980, 1981)
1le Onraiio concer is nor simly rlar a riuck may Le ielaceu Ly irs veiglr,
uisriiLureu ovei a lengrl,
Lur rlar rleie is a Lase lengrl signaruie in
sace oi rle riuck, virl eacl suLser o aujacenr axle loaus lorreu in rlis
sace. Iiguie 4.6 ioviueu an examle o rlis iocess. Anorlei examle may Le
raken iom OConnoi (19S1). Ar rlar rime rle Ausrialian legal limirs veie:

one-axle giou S.5 r (S3.4 k)
rvo-axle giousreeiing 10 r (9S.1 k)
rvo-axle giounonsreeiing 15 r (14.1 k)
rliee-axle giou 1S r (16.5 k)
maximum lengrl 16 m
maximum roral veiglr vaiying in a seciieu mannei iom 1S r
(16.5 k) ar a 3 m roral lengrl ro 36 r
(353 k) ar 12 m, anu rlen consranr ro a
roral lengrl o 16 m

1lese legal limirs veie useu ro geneiare a amily o 191 riucks, virl 4050 suLsers
o axle loaus. Ioi rlese, values equivalenr ro
(see Lelov) veie lorreu as

in Iig. 4.6 (a), anu rlis lor useu ro geneiare rle uei Lounu line slovn in Iig.
5.10 (a), using rle equarion oi
given aLove, Lur omirring rle aioximare,

seconu reim. 1le values slovn oi anu
aie sliglrly iounueu as a iesulr o

rle inreivals useu in rle counring ioceuuie.
1lis cuive can nov Le useu ro geneiare equivalenr velicles, rliee o vlicl
aie slovn in Iig. 5.10 (L). All conrain one single sreeiing axle ar rle legal limir o
S3.4 k. 1le iisr rvo (L11, 2) also conrain a rliee-axle giou ar rle legal limir,
virl an assumeu axle sacing o 1.0 m, rogerlei virl a uirlei, rvo-axle giou
(1.2 m sacing) closen so rlar rle roral riuck veiglr is ar rle legal limir. 1le rliiu
(L13) las a legal limir sreeiing axle, a uual axle ar rle legal limir, anu anorlei rvo
single axles, eacl o 61.3 k, closen so rlar rle roral loau is ar rle legal limir.
1lese rliee riucks incluue ceirain axle sacings uereimineu so rlar rleii Lase
lengrl signaruie lies on rle cuive o signaruies (Iig. 5.10 (a)). An examle may Le
given.
Ioi riuck L11, consiuei rle comLinarion o rle rliee-axle giou virl rle
aujacenr rvo-axle giou. Ioi rlis giou, =269.9 k. One lal o rlis value is
135 k. Ir ollovs rlar rle rliiu axle is rle 'cenrial loau. 1le sacing, 2.39 m,
Lerveen rle rvo axle gious gives

=6.50.23

oi, omirring rle seconu, aioximare reim,
is 6.5 m, as on rle cuive. 1le

examle illusriares rle ielarive size o rlis seconu reim. In rlis case ir vas omirreu
Lorl in rle geneiarion o rle cuive, anu in rle uesign o rle riuck L11.
1le amily o legal velicles vas useu ro calculare maximum values oi ive
loau eecrs, virl sans ro 100 m:

(a) rle cenrial Lenuing momenr in a simly suoireu san, anu a 3-san
conrinuous giiuei,

Fig. 5.10 (a) Base-length signature for Australian legal trucks (1981); (b)
Equivalent vehicles
(L) rle Lenuing momenr ovei an innei suoir in a 3-san canrilevei Liiuge, anu
(c) rle enu sleais oi a simle san, anu a 3-san conrinuous giiuei.

1le rliee riucks, L113, veie rlen useu oi rle same cases. 1le iesulring eiiois
veie ryically small, oi examle, oi riuck L11, rle maximum eiioi in rle simle
san Lenuing momenrs vas 3.2' ar a san o 9 m, anu less rlan 0.5' oi sans
in excess o 16 m. Liiois in sleai veie giearei, Lur rlis is nor suiiising. 1le
maximum axle loau oi a uual axle is 3.6 k, giearei rlan rlar oi a rliee-axle
giou, anu rlis loau is nor iesenr in L11. Ir is uiiculr ro selecr a riuck rlar
incluues all ossiLle exrieme cases oi rle sloirei sans.
OConnoi (19S1) also uiscusseu a vaiiarion ro rle Onraiio Lquivalenr Base
Lengrl. 1le ser o concenriareu loaus ro rle ler o rle cenrial loau, rogerlei virl
air o rle cenrial loau, is equal ro /2. 1le roral loau can Le ielaceu Ly rvo
concenriareu loaus, eacl equal ro /2, as slovn in Iig. 5.11, virl
anu
rle
uisrances iom rle cenrial loau ro rlese iesulranrs, anu
. Ir may Le slovn
also rlar iecisely equals
/2, vleie
is calculareu virl rle omission o rle

seconu reim. Deine rle Concenriareu Base Lengrl as virl rle locarion
aiamerei, as rle lessei o
anu
. 1len rlis sysrem o rvo equal

concenriareu loaus las rliee aiamereis, anu . I rlis aii o concenriareu
Fig. 5.11 Equivalent concentrated load system

loaus is alieu ro any lineai inluence line, ir vill ioviue rle same maximum
value o rle uncrion, as rle oiiginal sysrem, ioviueu rlar rle cenrial oinrs
aie laceu ar rle same oinr. 1le sruuy uesciiLeu aLove sloveu rlar, o rle legal
riuck ser, rlose neai rle uei Lounu renueu ro lave laige values o . Values o
oi rle comlere riucks L113 aie 0.43, 0.1 anu 0.2S. Ir vas ounu also rlar rle
riuck virl rle laigesr value o L11, gave rle Lesr iesulrs. 1lis aiamerei,
cannor exceeu 0.5. A laigei value o renus ro mean rlar rle loaus aie equally
uisriiLureu on eirlei siue o rle cenrial loau.
Ir is concluueu rlar

(a) rle Onraiio Lquivalenr Base Lengrl,
is a useul rool,
(L) an alreinarive is rle Concenriareu Base Lengrl,
(c) a riuck virl a laige value o rle locarion aiamerei, oi rle comlere riuck,
aeais ro give rle Lesr iesulrs.

A seconu ioceuuie oi rle selecrion o a uesign velicle iom riaic suiveys vas
ueveloeu Ly Heyvoou (1992a). 1le Ausrialian Roau Reseaicl Boaiu, in rle
eiiou iioi ro 1990, ueveloeu CULWAY, an insriumenreu ieinoiceu conciere
Lox culveir, virl an associareu iocessing sysrem, Laseu on voik Ly Pereis
(19S6), anu eailiei voik Ly ôses (199) anu orleis. A ielareu sruuy on Six île
Cieek Biiuge, Queenslanu, vas caiiieu our in 19S12 Ly Piirclaiu (19S2, see also
Piirclaiu anu OConnoi 19S4). 1le CULWAY sysrem gave velicle seeu, axle
sacings anu axle veiglrs oi all iecoius aLove a ie-ser rlieslolu value.
Heyvoou analyseu uara oi moie rlan 69,000 velicles iom 31 sires in all Srares
o Ausrialia, oi iecoiuing eiious Lerveen 19S9 anu 1991, nor conrinuously
moniroieu, Lur roralling .4 yeais oi rle sum o rle sires.
1le naruie o rle riaic using rlese 31 sires vaiieu. Cenrial Ausrialia is
ielarively lar anu virlour majoi srieams, oi many ioures rleie is no iailvay rlar
coulu Le useu as an alreinarive means o riansoir oi leavy oi Lulk loaus. Heie
ioau riains aie eimirreu, maue u o a semi-riailei oi iigiu riuck olloveu Ly
rvo uirlei riaileis virl ielarively sloir rov Lais. 1le leaviesr ioau riain
iecoiueu in rlis sruuy lau a mass o 13S r, equal ro a veiglr o 1354 k. 1lese
cannor Le useu on all ioausro quore Lay (19S5:34S):

Roau riains oeiare in many airs o Ausrialia, rleii ielu o legal
oeiarion (uesignareu ioures) ueenuing on rle eimirs gianreu Ly rle
ielevanr local aurloiiry. 1le aiea o ioau riain oeiarion conrinues ro
inciease as rle oveiall economic eiciency anu riansoir lexiLiliry
associareu virl rle unirs is veiy giear.

Heyvoou iuenriieu 99' o Ausrialian Liiuges as laving a maximum san less
rlan 40 m anu ueciueu ro uiiecr lis sruuy ro sans in rlis iange. He ocuseu
arrenrion on six uncrions vlose inluence lines oim a claiacreiisric ser: oi a
simly-suoireu san, rle cenrial Lenuing momenr anu enu sleai, oi a 3-san
conrinuous sriucruie virl equal sans, rle momenrs ar miu-san anu aLove rle
inreiioi suoir, rle sleai ar rle exreiioi ace o rle inreiioi suoir, anu rle
inreiioi ieacrion. He calculareu values o rlese uncrions oi eacl iecoiueu
velicle, oi sans Lerveen 5 anu 40 m, ar a 5 m inreival.
Ioi a simly-suoireu san, rle maximum miu-san momenr causeu Ly a
single loau, is o rle oim
/4
I, insreau, rleie is a seiies o axle loaus, saceu aair, vleie is small,
rlen rle Lenuing momenr rakes rle oim

2
/(S)

Borl aie secial cases o

=
.

virl =1 oi a single axle, anu 2 oi a unioimly uisriiLureu loau (see also
Heyvoou anu OConnoi 1992). Heyvoou ounu rlar oi lis sires, coulu Le
ielareu ro emiiically Ly exiessions o rlis oim.
Heyvoou evaluareu rle Lesr ir values o anu oi all sires anu concluueu
rlar lov values o . inuicareu sires caiiying sloirei velicles. He ueciueu ro giou
sires accoiuing ro rle olloving iules:

1.4< <1.5 sloir velicles
1.5< <1.65 meuium comLinarion velicles
1.65< <1.5 long comLinarion velicles

His iesulring exiessions oi Lenuing momenr veie:

'sloir sires =19.25 L
1.45
'meuium sires =13.5 L
1.55
'long sires =10.62 L
1.69

1le accuiacy o rlese exiessions can Le gaugeu iom rle coeicienrs o vaiiarion
oLraineu Ly comaiing ielu uara virl ieuicreu values. 1lese veie: sloir, 0.13
0.15, meuium, 0.190.22, long, 0.160.21.
Ioi eacl o rlese gious le comLineu uara oi rle six closen uncrions, le
sloveu rlar, ro an acceraLle uegiee o aioximarion, ir vas noimally
uisriiLureu anu, iom lineai lors on noimal uisriiLurion aei, ounu rle aveiage
exrieme uaily momenrs anu sleais (six uncrions) oi eacl o rle S sans. He rlen
useu an orimisarion iourine ro selecr loauings rlar Lesr mouelleu rlese loau
eecrs.
In rlis orimisarion iocess, a geneial velicle virl axles vas mouelleu Ly
irs axle loaus anu sacings, anu coulu Le alieu virl oi virlour a uisriiLureu
loau, virl inrensiry alloveu ro vaiy virl some ovei o irs loaueu lengrl. 1le
oLjecrive uncrion,
vas exiesseu in rle oim


vleie

vas rle numLei o uncrions (6),
vas rle numLei o sans (S), an
virl

=rle loau eecr iom rle suiveyeu velicles (rle raiger loau eecr),
anu
=rle loau eecr iom rle riial velicle
1lis sum vas evaluareu oi a numLei o reims equal ro (oi 4S). Lacl reim
coulu Le mouiieu Ly a ie-ser imoirance acroi. Also eacl vaiiaLle coulu Le
consriaineu ro Le virlin a seciieu iange. I rlis iange vas zeio, rlen rle
vaiiaLle vas ixeu. Also, rle maximum gioss mass anu/oi rle maximum velicle
lengrl coulu Le seciieu.
1le orimisarion iourine useu Ly Heyvoou vas rlar given Ly W.H.Svann
( in Gill anu ûiiay 194: 191
21). Heyvoou cleckeu rle ioceuuie Ly geneiaring simle san Lenuing
momenrs anu sleais, 5 ro 40 m, oi rle Ausrialian 144 riuck slovn in Iig.
4.11, Laseu on rle Ameiican AASHO HS201944, conveireu inro meriic unirs
anu incieaseu Ly aLour 33'. He rlen useu lis iourine ro cleck i rlis inur
velicle voulu Le iecoveieu Ly rle orimisarion iocess, commencing virl a
seeu velicle o similai coniguiarion, virl axle giou loaus ser ar rle cuiienr
Ausrialian legal limirs (5S.S, 161.S, 161.S k), anu axle sacings o 4.0, 1.2,
5.0 anu 1.2 m. 1lis seeu velicle gave an eiioi, as measuieu Ly rle oLjecrive
uncrion o 21.3'. Arei 3S ireiarions, rlis vas ieuuceu ro zeio. 1le iesulring
velicle uieieu only sliglrly iom rle 144 riuck, virl axle giou veiglrs o
34.2, 199.5 anu 19S.9 k (144:4S, 192, 192 k), anu axle sacings o 3.34,
1.34, 3.0 anu 1.39 m (144:3., 1.2, 3.0, 1.2 m). 1le roral veiglr vas 432.5
k (144:430 k) anu rle roral lengrl, 9.14 m (144:9.1 m). A uirlei riial vas
caiiieu our virl rle uual axle sacing ser ar 1.2 m anu gave rle 144 riuck. 1lis
uemonsriarion sloveu (a) rlar rle sysrem voikeu, anu (L) rlar rleie may Le
moie rlan one equivalenr riuck. Wlen useu ro inu a suiraLle rliee-axle velicle,
ir yielueu a iesulr rlar vas signiicanrly uieienr iom rle simliieu 144 riuck,
virl axle loaus o 145.S, 141 anu 146.9 k, anu axle sacings o 3.55 anu 3.5S
m. 1le iesulring oLjecrive uncrion vas 0.3'. 1lis again is small, anu
coniims rlar a iange o velicles may give suiraLle iesulrs.
Heyvoou ioceeueu ro aly rlis merlou ro mouel rle Ausrialian
CULWAY uara. Only a ev o lis conclusions can Le iesenreu leie. He
consiueieu, iisr, rle comLinarion o rlose sires iuenriieu virl sloir anu
meuium velicles. His Lesr iesulr vas oLraineu oi a velicle virl an associareu
uisriiLureu loau, as slovn in Iig. 5.12 (a), giving a value oi rle oLjecrive
uncrion,
o 0.9S', virl a maximum eiioi in one o rle loau eecrs o

1.'. Ioi comaiison, Iig. 5.12 (L) slovs a single uual axle virl a uisriiLureu
loau, geneiareu Ly rle iogiam as laving an inrensiry rlar uiu nor vaiy virl rle
san. Heie
vas 6.39', virl a maximum eiioi o 10.3'. Wlen rle iogiam

vas iun virlour a uisriiLureu loau, rle orimum velicle vas rlar slovn in Iig.
5.12 (c), vleie rle uesignarion, 1511111, inuicares rlar ir las a roral mass o
5 r, virl ive single axles. Ir gave
as 2.01', virl a maximum eiioi o 4.4'.

Ir Leais some similaiiry ro rle Onraiio OHBD riuck slovn in Iig. 4.6 (L). One o
rle Leneirs o rle Heyvoou merlou is rlar ir allovs rle iogiessive mouiicarion
o rle closen velicle, ossiLly virl some ieuucrion in accuiacy. His suivey o
riuck loaus gave rle values in 1aLle 5.1 oi aveiage exrieme uaily axle loaus.

Fig. 5.12 Vehicles chosen by Heywood (1992a) to model Australian CULWAY data
for short and medium vehicle sites

Table 5.1
Ioi ranuems, rle legally acceraLle iange o axle sacings is 1.02.0, anu
1.01.6 oi rii-axle gious. 1le minimum san useu Ly Heyvoou in rlis sruuy
vas 5 m. 1o ensuie a velicle rlar suiraLly mouelleu local eecrs (sans less rlan 5
m), le rlen consriaineu rle axle loaus ro lie virlin 10' o rleii aveiage exrieme
uaily values, yieluing rle riuck slovn in Iig. 5.12 (u), virl
equal ro 2.35',
anu a maximum eiioi o 6.1'. Lxiesseu in ronnes, rle loaus on rle successive
axle gious aie 5.0, 20.0, 20.0 anu 10.0 r, giving a roral mass o 55 r. He calls ir
rle 1551221 velicle anu iuenriies ir as lis ieiesenrarive velicle oi sloir-
meuium sires, rlar is, oi sires virl noimal riaic.
A similai sruuy vas caiiieu our oi rle long-velicle sires. 1le Lesr value oi
vas 1.S', oi a velicle geneially similai ro rle 19012223 velicle slovn in

Iig. 5.13. 1lis larrei velicle lau irs axle loaus consriaineu ro virlin 10' o rle
oLseiveu aveiage exrieme uaily values, anu gave
equal ro 2.45', virl a

maximum eiioi o 5.65'. Ir is similai in many iesecrs ro rle 1551221 velicle
selecreu oi rle sloir-meuium sires.
1lese iesulrs lave Leen iesenreu ro uemonsriare a merlou oi rle selecrion
o a uesign velicle iom riuck-suivey uara. Heyvoou calleu rlem 'ieiesenrarive
live loau mouels, Lur, in rle aLsence o uirlei voik on rle loaus acrually iesenr
on Liiuges o longei san, anu on uruie legal loau limirs, rlouglr ir iemaruie ro
iecommenu rlem oi use. Hovevei, ir is imoiranr ro nore some uirlei
conclusions iom lis suivey, oi ir is eirlei rle laigesr, oi one o rle laigesr, sucl
suiveys evei caiiieu our.
Ir is useul, iisr, ro see rle naruie o rle ioLaLiliry uisriiLurions iom rlis
uara. Iiguie 5.14 slovs rvo lors on noimal uisriiLurion aei o miu-san
momenrs oi a simly-suoireu san scaleu againsr
1.5
. 1le iisr, (a), is
Fig. 5.13 Vehicle chosen by Heywood (1992a) to model Australian CULWAY data
for long vehicle sites
Fig. 5.14 Probability distributions for Australian CULWAY data for bending
moments (Redrawn from Heywood 1992a; used with permission)
Fig. 5.15 Probability distributions for Australian CULWAY data for shears
(Redrawn from Heywood 1992a; used with permission)
rle cumularive uisriiLurion oi all evenrs, rle seconu, (L), is rle cumularive
uisriiLurion oi maximum uaily evenrsrle seconu riuncares rle lovei rail anu,
oi rlis ieason, gives a moie lineai lor. 1le use o
1.5
Liings rle iesulrs oi
rle nine sans (540 m in inreivals o 5 m) closei rogerlei, rle cuives oi rle eiglr
sans, 10 ro 40 m, aie close ro coinciuenr, anu rle seconu gial slovs rle Lesr ir
line. 1le ielarive values o Lenuing momenr oi vaiious eiious aie:
1 uay 1.0
1 monrl 1.33
1 yeai 1.4S
100 yeais 1.0

Similaily, rle cumularive ioLaLiliries oi simle san sleai aie slovn in Iig.
5.15, leie scaleu againsr
0.5
. Again, a Lesr-ir sriaiglr line is slovn, ielarive
values o sleai oi rle oui eiious aie as oi momenr. Ir can Le seen rlar in
neirlei case aie rle cuives riuly lineai, anu rlis musr imly some unceirainry in
rle exriaolarion ro 100 yeais (see also Heyvoou anu OConnoi 1992).
Iiguie 5.16 comaies loau eecrs calculareu (a) iom a single 144 riuck, anu
(L) oi a single 144 riuck anu lane loauing, virl rle aveiage exrieme uaily evenrs
comureu iom rle suivey uara ar rle sloir-meuium sires (a osirive eiioi
inuicares rlar rle 144 value is ligl). 1le eecrs slovn on rle gials aie:

1 one san, cenrial Lenuing momenr
1 one san, enu sleai
3 rliee conrinuous sans, negarive momenr ovei iei
3 rliee conrinuous sans, sleai ar exreiioi iei ace
3 rliee conrinuous sans, negarive momenr ar cenrie
3 rliee conrinuous sans, ieacrion ar iei.

Ir can Le seen rlar a single 144 riuck oren gives a value rlar is lovu ro
10'. 1le comLineu 144 riuck anu lane loau gives laigei uesign eecrs,
airiculaily oi rle rliee-san Liiuges anu rle longei sans, virl eiiois
Lerveen aLour 10' anu +40'. I rle maximum 1-yeai riuck veie useu, rlis
voulu Le 1.4S Ly rle aveiage maximum 1-uay evenr, anu rle ieuicreu loau
eecrs voulu geneially Le roo lov. Ir sloulu Le iememLeieu also rlar oi many
yeais iioi ro 193 (Secrion 4.) rle olu AASHO HS201944 loauing vas useu,
rlis Leing aLour 0.5 o rle 144 loauing. 1o quore Heyvoou (1992a:639),
'On rlis eviuence ir is execreu rlar rleie sloulu Le many Liiuges sueiing
uisriess. Hovevei, ailuie uue ro oveiloau iemains iaie in Ausrialia. Some o
rle ieasons oi rlis vill Le uiscusseu larei.


1leie is a necessaiy link Lerveen rle iimaiy live loaus seciieu oi Liiuge
uesign anu rle legal limirs imoseu on velicle veiglrs anu geomeriies. 1lis link is
uieienr oi iailvays as comaieu virl ioaus.
Fig. 5.16 Comparison of load effects from T44 loadings and Australian CULWAY
data (Redrawn from Heywood 1992a; used with permission: see text for
definition of terms)
5.5 Legal limits and costs
LEGAL LIMITS AND COSTS 147
1le Ameiican Railvay Lngineeiing Associarion seciicarions oi 1990
iequiieu rle alicarion o rle Cooei LS0 loau, slovn in Iig. 4.16 in rle
oiiginal unirs o ounus anu eer. Also slovn in rlar iguie is rle êriic Cooei
^250 loau seciieu in rle 194 manual o rle Ausrialian anu ev Zealanu
Railvay Coneiences, equivalenr ro aLour Cooei L56. Borl mouel a riain maue
u o rvo locomorives uiaving a long seiies o vagons, virl rlese ielaceu Ly a
unioimly uisriiLureu loau. Ir is nor uiiculr ro slov rlar rle laigei loaus aie
alieu Ly rle locomorives. In rle seconu case, oi examle, rle oui majoi
locomorive axle loaus aie eacl 250 k, ar a sacing o 1.5 m. 1le aveiage
loauing is 16 k/m. Ioi comaiison, rle equivalenr vagon loau is S2.5 k/m.
In sucl a case, rle seciieu locomorive loauing is inrenueu ro Le equivalenr ro rle
veiglrs o acrual locomorives in seivice on rlar iailvay sysrem. 1le quesrion o
acciuenral oi ueliLeiare oveiloauing aiises only in rle case o rle ielarively
smallei vagon loaus.
By comaiison, Aenuix D o rle Biirisl sranuaiu BD3/SS (see Secrion
4.2) concluues rlar axle loaus anu aiiangemenrs oi mouein locomorives renu ro
Le similai ro rlose useu oi Logie ieiglr velicles (oi vagons), ieiglr velicles
oren Leing leaviei rlan locomorives, anu rlis vas illusriareu in Secrion 4.11 Ly
ieeience ro a iecenr sruuy o Ausrialian coal riains. Heie, 30,000 Logie loaus lau
a mean o 450 k virl a coeicienr o vaiiarion o only 2'. 1lis mean is
equivalenr ro a mass o 45.9 r. ôsr o rle vagons veie nominally o 90 r, virl a
ev o 100 r, in Lorl cases virl rvo Logies ei vagon. 1le oinr maue leie is
rlar rle vaiiaLiliry o rle iecoiueu loaus is small, eirlei Lecause o conriols
exeiciseu ar rle oinr o loauing, oi Lecause o rle iesriicrion on loau
auromarically alieu Ly rle volume o rle conrainei. 1le only ieal souice o
vaiiarion vas rle moisruie conrenr o rle coal, leauing ro a ossiLle clange in
uensiry. Lconomy in riansoir cosrs uicrareu rle ull usage o rle riansoir
velicles anu rlis iesulreu also in an auromaric Laiiiei againsr acciuenral oveiloau.
Alrlougl secial uiose leavy oi mainrenance velicles coulu Le useu on some
lines, rleii veiglrs sloulu also Le suLjecr ro caieul conriol.
Wirl liglvay loauings rle case is uieienr. Alrlougl eacl counriy vill lave
legal iesriicrions on velicle veiglrs anu geomeriies, anu merlous in lace ro
olice rlese limirarions, yer in iacrice rlese conriols aie oren avoiueu. A case in
oinr aiises iom Heyvoous (1992a) sruuy o Ausrialian ioau riaic loaus,
uesciiLeu in rle ieceuing secrion. 1lar secrion lisreu measuieu values o aveiage
exrieme uaily axle loaus oi vaiious axle gious, oi rvo classes o sires. 1le
coiiesonuing legal limirs oi rle comlere axle gious aie lisreu Lelov.

Single axlesreei 6.0 r (5S.S k)
1anuem-sreei 11.0 r (53.9 k ei axle)
1anuemnonsreei 16.5 r (S0.9 k ei axle)
1ii-axle giou 20.0 r (65.4 k ei axle)

1le iarios o measuieu values ro legal limirs (sloir-meuium, long sires) veie
(1.29, 1.14), (1.13, 1.09), (1.26, 1.2) anu (1.24, 1.22) oi rlese oui axle
coniguiarions.

Ar rle rime o rlis suivey, Ausrialian legal limirs vaiieu a lirrle iom Srare ro
Srare, as eacl alieu a so-calleu 'Liiuge oimula ro limir rle roral mass, (r), as
a uncrion o rle uisrance, (m), Lerveen exrieme axles, virl an uei Lounu in
rle iange 3S ro 42.5 r, rvo examles aie

Queenslanu 3.0+S.0
oirlein 1eiiiroiy 3.6+.2.
1lese oimulae veie geneially alieu also ro rle riuck o a riuck-semiriailei
comLinarion.
1le iesence o oveiloau is iecogniseu Ly mosr coues, vlicl seciy a uesign
velicle somevlar leaviei rlan rle legal limir. 1lis iovision is aioiiare, Lur ir
sloulu Le oLseiveu rlar irs inluence on Liiuge uesign is moie aaienr rlan ieal,
as rle iimaiy loaus aie mulrilieu Ly loau acrois, vlose level may Le aujusreu.
Some orlei examles o legal limirs oi liglvay velicles may Le given.
Clarreijee (1991:64, 5) quores an agieemenr ieacleu in 19S6 oi a single
iegularion rliouglour all counriies o rle Luioean Communiry. Ioi Giear
Biirain, rlis meanr 'an inciease in rle maximum axle veiglr iom 10.5 ro 11.5 r,
anu in rle maximum velicle veiglr iom 3S ro 40 r.
An eailiei OLCD ieoir (199) summaiiseu legal limirs in rvelve Luioean
counriies as ar 1 ]anuaiy 19. 1le maximum eimirreu lengrl oi a rvo-axle
velicle vaiieu iom 10 ro 12.4 m, oi an airiculareu velicle, iom 15 ro 16.5 m,
anu oi a ioau riain, iom 1S ro 24 m. 1le maximum masses ei axle giou veie:

single axle 10 ro 13 r
uual axle 16 ro 21 r

anu oi comlere velicles:

virl 2 axles 16 ro 20 r
airiculareu, virl 5 axles geneially 32.5 ro 44 r (2S r in Svirzeilanu)
ioau riains geneially 3S ro 50 r (32.5 r in rle Unireu
Kinguom)

1vo exrensive ievievs o Ameiican riuck loaus veie uLlisleu in 19S9 anu 1990,
rle iisr enrirleu anu rle seconu,
(Humliey er al. 19S9, Colen anu Hoel
1990). 1le olloving summaiy o Ameiican legal limirs is raken iom rle seconu.
In 1946, AASHO iecommenueu single axle limirs o S.16 r (1S,000 lLm) anu, oi
a ranuem axle, 14.52 r (32,000 lLm), virl a maximum roral velicle mass o 33.24
r (3,2S0 lLm), ioviueu rlar rle exrieme axle sacing vas nor less rlan 1.4 m
(5 r). Ioi sloirei lengrls, rle limiring gioss mass, vas given Ly

=10.25 (+24)3
2
(lLm anu r unirs), oi
(r)=1.525 (+.32)0.01465
2
(oi in m)
1le inrenrion o rlis consriainr on roral mass vas ro limir oveisriessing o
Liiuges, anu rle oimula vas ieeiieu ro as a Liiuge oimula (Ioimula A).
1lese AASHO iules veie auoreu in 1956 oi Inreisrare liglvays, anu rlen
incieaseu in 194. 1le nev limirs oi axle gious veie 9.0 r (20,000 lLm) oi
single axles, anu 15.4 r (34,000 lLm) oi ranuems. 1le nev limir on roral mass vas
36.29 r (S0,000 lLm), virl a nev Liiuge oimula (Ioimula B):

=500 |/(1)+12+36] (lLm anu r unirs), oi
(r) =0.226S |3.2S1/(1)+12+36] (oi in m)

1le 1990 sruuy ieraineu rlese limirs on axle anu roral mass Lur iooseu a nev
Liiuge oimula, calleu rle 111 HS-20 oimula:

=1000 (2+26) oi =24 (lLm anu r unirs)
=1000 (/2+62) oi >24 (lLm anu r unirs), oi
(r) =0.4536 (6.562+26) oi =.32 m
(r) =0.4536 (1.64+62) oi >.32 m

Heaviei loaus veie eimirreu on Secial Peimir Velicles.
In Canaua, rle CL-W uesign riuck vas Laseu on a êmoianuum o
Unueisranuing (ÔU) Lerveen rle Canauian Piovinces ieacleu oiiginally in 19SS,
anu rlen amenueu in 1991. 1lis uesign riuck vas oiiginally CL-600, virl a roral
veiglr o 600 k, oi mass o 61.2 r, ir vas rlen incieaseu ro rle CL-625 (625 k,
63. r). Ir vill Le iecalleu rlar rlis uesign velicle vas inrenueu ro mouel legal limirs,
vleieas rle Onraiio OHBD 1iuck vas Laseu on rle âximum OLseiveu Loaus
(ÔL) in rle Piovince o Onraiio, somevlar liglei rlan rle legal limirs. Some o
rle ÔU legal limirs aie:

single sreei axle 55 k (5.61 r)
orlei single axles 91 k (9.2S r)
ranuem axle giou 10 k (1.34 r)

1le maximum gioss veiglr is 225 k (22.9 r) oi a 'sriaiglr riuck, iising ro 625
k (63. r) oi vlar vas calleu a B-riain, maue u o a riacroi velicle virl a single
sreei axle anu a uual oi ranuem uiive axle giou, olloveu Ly a riailei virl a rii-
axle anu a ranuem. 1le B-riain las a minimum lengrl o 19 m.
Ir is imoiranr ro oLseive rlar, vleieas rle OLCD (199) sruuy o Luioean
legal limirs in 19 seciieu values oi rle lengrls o velicles, rle larei
ieeiences iequiie ceirain lengrls, eirlei ueineu seciically, oi Ly rle so-
calleu Liiuge oimulae. 1lese nevei limirs ielecr rle eecrs o rlese loaus on
Liiuges anu exiess a uesiie ro inciease roral velicle mass virlour lacing unuue
sriess on an exisring srock o Liiuges. 1le classic sriaregy o rlis kinu vas rlar
auoreu in Onraiio in connecrion virl rle uevelomenr o rle 199 OHBD 1iuck
(see Secrion 4.4). 1le concer o Lquivalenr Base Lengrl (Doiron anu Csagoly
19) vas useu ro lor uara iom rle cuiienr legal limirs oi riucks in Onraiio anu
gave iise ro rle olloving oimula:


1lis vas larei ieviseu ro

Ir vas calleu rle Onraiio Biiuge Ioimula (OBI) anu useu ro ueine a nev lexiLle
sysrem o legal limirs. Wirl rle eailiei oim, rle maximum legal limir oi velicle
lengrl vas 65 eer (19.S1 m), rle maximum value o
coiiesonuing ro rlis
vas S0 eer (24.4 m) giving equal ro 140,000 lL, oi 63.5 r (623 k). 1le larei
1991 Canauian êmoianuum o Unueisranuing gave a iguie o 63. r (625 k),
as quoreu eailiei. 1le Onraiio ÔL cuive, iom vlicl rle OHBD 1iuck vas
ueiiveu, lay 22,500 lL (10.2 r oi 100 k) aLove rle OBI cuive. As srareu Ly
Doiron anu Csagoly (19), rlis uieience vas a measuie o rle eecriveness o
enoicemenr o legal limirs ar rlar rime. 1le OBI vas inirially useu as a oimula
oi rle seciicarion o legal limirs in Onraiio. Ir vas ounu uiiculr ro oLrain
couir convicrions oi oveiloaueu velicles, anu so ir vas larei ielaceu Ly a seiies
o raLles. 1le uei Lounu oi velicle veiglr o 63.5 r may Le comaieu virl rle
coiiesonuing iguies oi orlei counriies quoreu eailiei, oi examle, rle iange
iom 3S ro 50 r oi Luioean counriies in 19. 1le Onraiio iacrice vas a sre
rovaius oLraining leaviei velicle loaus virlour enalry ro exisring Liiuges, oi
Ly uisriiLuring rle loau in an aioiiare mannei, ovei a suiraLle lengrl, rle roral
velicle veiglr coulu Le incieaseu. Ir aeais rlar rlis iovision lau a signiicanr
eecr on rienus in velicle uesign, sucl as rle use o a seaiare riailei virl a long,
iigiu rovLai.
1leie aie signiicanr cosr Leneirs in rle use o leaviei velicles, ioviueu rlar
rlese can Le accommouareu saely on narional ioaus. Ioui cloices aie availaLle:

(a) exisring loau limirs may Le ieraineu, so as ro saeguaiu exisring Liiuges,
(L) loau limirs may Le incieaseu i ir is eiceiveu rlar oluei uesign ioceuuies
lave iesulreu in Liiuges virl a suicienr ieseive o sriengrl,
(c) a uevice sucl as rle Onraiio Biiuge Ioimula may Le useu ro inciease rle roral
legal loau virlour iisk ro exisring Liiuges, oi
(u) ir may Le juugeu rlar rle economic Leneirs aclieveu in narional riansoir Ly
rle use o leaviei velicles may jusriy rle consriucrion o nev Liiuges ro a
liglei sranuaiu, accomanieu Ly a iogiamme oi rle sriengrlening o
exisring Liiuges.

In rlis connecrion, ir is necessaiy ro lave some iuea o rle cosrs involveu, ir
sloulu Le noreu rlar some o rlese vill vaiy giearly iom counriy ro counriy. 1le
rvo Ameiican sruuies quoreu ieviously (Humliey er al. 19S9, Colen anu Hoel
1990) invesrigareu rle eecr o clanges ro legal limirs in rle Unireu Srares, anu o
rle iules goveining rle access o rle leaviei velicles ro local ioaus. Deraileu
saery anu cosr sruuies veie caiiieu our, anu as a iesulr rle maximum gioss
velicle mass vas lelu ar 36.29 r (S0,000 lLm), rle legal axle loaus veie ker
unclangeu, Lur rle Liiuge oimula vas alreieu, as uesciiLeu eailiei. Orlei
orions veie also examineu, incluuing use o rle 19SS Canauian êmoianuum
o Unueisranuing iules, vlicl eimirreu rle roral riuck veiglr ro iise as ligl as
61.2 oi 63. r (135,000140,000 lL) oi long velicles. 1le nev Liiuge oimula
gave rle olloving clanges in roral cosrs ($US Lillions/yeai, + inuicares an
inciease, a ueciease, Colen anu Hoel 1990:13):
roral riansoir 5.1
avemenr mainrenance +0.1
Liiuge sriengrlening oi ielacemenr +0.4
roral 4.6

I rle Canauian ÔU limirs veie auoreu, rle coiiesonuing clanges voulu Le
11., +0.5, +2.4, S.S. Borl slov rlar rle savings in geneial riansoir cosrs
giearly ourveigleu rle ourlays on avemenrs anu Liiuges. 1lese iguies aly
only ro arional Higlvays, oi ro ioaus anu Liiuges unueu unuei rle Ieueial Aiu
iogiamme. 1le ieoir Ly Humliey er al. (19S9:1S9, 2423) lisrs 1S2,10
miles (294,000 km) as rle arional ervoik îleage, oi 209,310 miles (33,000
km) i orlei ioaus unuei rle Ieueial Aiu sysrem aie incluueu. 1le coiiesonuing
Liiuge numLeis aie given in 1aLle 5.1.
A similai majoi sruuy las Leen caiiieu our in Ausrialia (Ausrioaus 199S) in
connecrion virl rle ioosal ro auor rle ^1600 anu S1600 uesign velicle loaus
slovn in Iig. 4.13, vleie rle iisr o rlese consisrs o oui rii-axle gious, eacl
virl a roral veiglr o 360 k (equivalenr ro a mass o 36. r), rogerlei virl a
unioimly uisriiLureu loau, one o rle leaviesr o iooseu oi iecenrly auoreu
Liiuge uesign loaus (see Iigs. 4.19 21). Woik Ly Peaison (incluueu in rlis ieoir)
suggesrs rlar rle use o longei velicles virl ayloaus incieaseu iom 26.5 r (rle
iesenr value) ro 0 r voulu ieuuce Ausrialian riansoir cosrs Ly a lirrle ovei $A1
Lillion ei yeai, rlar rle inciemenral Leneirs veie giearesr in rle iange 2S.5 ro 40
r, anu small Leyonu aLour 65 r. Ausrialia cuiienrly eimirs rle use o a iange o
velicle ryes (Iig. 5.1) on inlanu ioures, virl a limiring mass o 20 r alieu ro a
rliee-axle giou, vleie rlis may Le incieaseu in rle uruie ro 40 r. 1le roral
velicle masses aie lisreu in 1aLle 5.2 (Goiuon anu Boully 199S).
1le Airiculareu Velicle is a semi-riailei, like rle HS-20 riuck. 1le B-DouLle
las a uirlei axle giou, suoiring a laroim rlar is ivoreu ro rle ieceuing
semi-riailei. 1le B-1iile las a rliiu laroim, suoireu in rle same vay iom
rle ieceuing B-DouLle. On rle orlei lanu, rle ioau riain is a semi-riailei
olloveu Ly riaileis, eacl o vlicl las rvo axle gious, consisring ryically o a
uualolloveu Ly a riile-axle giou.

Table 5.2

A sruuy vas maue o uruie Liiuge cosrs, virl rliee alreinarive velicles
airiculareu, B-DouLle anu B-1iileeacl virl 40 r axle gious, as lisreu aLove.
1le iesulring Liiuges veie comaieu virl rlose uesigneu ro exisring sranuaius
(144 oi moie), using an aioiiare mixruie o Liiuge sans anu ryes. 1le
incieases in annual cosrs veie $A1.S million (0.S'), $A4.2 million (1.9'), anu
$A6.4 million (2.9'). As virl rle Ameiican sruuy, rlese incieases aie ielarively
small. Similaily, esrimares veie maue o incieases ro avemenr mainrenance cosrs
anu rle cosrs necessaiy ro ugiaue exisring Liiuges (R.Goiuon in Ausrioaus
199S). 1lis esrimare o ugiauing vaiieu iom $A2.45 Lillion ro $A3.S5 Lillion,
oi iom 2.2 ro 3.5 yeais o rle saving in geneial riansoir cosr. Alrlougl
consiueiaLle, rlis cosr is nor excessive.
Peilas o moie geneial signiicance aie rle sriaregies iecommenueu oi rle
imlemenrarion o rlese ioosals. 1le nev uesign loau voulu Le inriouuceu
immeuiarely oi rle uesign o nev Liiuges. 1le mass limirs on velicles, on rle orlei
lanu, voulu Le imlemenreu in srages, virl incieases in yeais 6, 14 anu 20. Ir is
iarlei roo easy ro uo cosr esrimares ro slov rle economic uesiiaLiliry o incieases
in uesign loau anu legal limirs, ir is iarlei moie uiiculr ro ensuie rle saery o
exisring Liiuges anu rle easiLiliry o rleii ielacemenr. 1lis is airiculaily so in rle
case o laigei Liiuges virl long sans, anu rle marrei vill Le ieeiieu ro again in
Fig. 5.17 Vehicle types permitted on some Australian roads
Table 5.3
Secrion 5.6. 1lis may Le o less signiicance in Ausrialia rlan in orlei counriies,
oi rle Ausrialian ioures caiiying leavy loaus renu ro Le inlanu ioures virl evei
vareivays anu sace ro ielocare Liiuges vleie rlis is iequiieu.
1le eecr o riaic loaus on Liiuge uesign may Le illusriareu Ly rvo
examles. GaLel (19S2) ueveloeu a iogiam oi rle minimum-cosr uesign o
Liiuges o small san, virl cioss-secrions similai ro rlar slovn in Iig. 5.1S, using
iesriesseu conciere giiueis o sranuaiu slae. 1lis iogiam vas Laseu on rle
196 AASRA Coue, vlicl in ruin vas ueiiveu iom rle Ameiican AASHO
Coue. 1le loauing vas rle HS-20 riuck oi lane loau, virl iovision oi an
aLnoimal velicle loau. 1le sans consiueieu iangeu iom 15 ro 32 m, rle larrei
iguie ieiesenring rle maximum san rlar coulu Le aclieveu virl rle seciieu
giiuei geomeriies. 1le uesign ioceuuies incoioiareu analyses oi rle
uisriiLurion o rle iimaiy loaus Lerveen rle main giiueis, virl ioei
allovance oi rle eecr o uialiagms. A 40' inciease in live loauing vas ounu
ro iequiie only a ro 12' inciease in rle roral sueisriucruie cosr.
Anorlei sruuy (OConnoi 191L) consiueieu iesriesseu conciere Lox
giiueis o mucl laigei san, iom 61 ro 305 m (200 ro 1000 eer) anu iouuceu
orimum uesigns oi Liiuges conrinuous ovei an ininire numLei o equal sans.
Alrlougl rle sruuy consiueieu also giiueis o consranr uerl, rle cases quoreu
leie lave vaiiaLle uerl virl a soir rlar is ciiculai in elevarion. 1le oim o rle
Liiuges is slovn in Iig. 5.19, virl rliee lanes on an inueenuenr sriucruie rlar
oims one lal o a uiviueu liglvay. 1ley veie uesigneu ro rle 1965 AASHO
Coue, oi rle HS-20 loauing, anu rle Ausrialian Coue CA35 oi Piesriesseu
Conciere (1963). 1le sel-veiglrs o some orimum uesigns aie slovn in Iig.
5.20, in rle oim o veiglr, ei unir ueck aiea (k/m
2
). 1le equivalenr
sriaiglr line slovn on rle iguie las rle equarion,

(k/m
2
)=.2+0.0 ( in m)

1le AASHO lane loauing consisrs o a concenriareu loau (oi Lenuing momenr)
o 10 k on eacl san, rogerlei virl a unioimly uisriiLureu loau o
Fig. 5.18 Typical cross-section of small span bridge in study by Gabel (1982) of
minimum-cost design
Fig. 5.19 Bridge form considered by OConnor (1971b) in study of minimum-cost
design
Fig. 5.20 Self-weight of long-span, computer-designed, prestressed concrete
bridges (OConnor 1971b)
BRIDGE LIFE AND ACCEPTABLE RISK 155
9.34 k/m oi eacl lane. 1le uesign las assumeu rliee lanes. I rle uisriiLureu
live loau on rlese rliee lanes is aveiageu ovei rle 13.4 m roral viurl, virl rle
seciieu ieuucrion o 90' oi mulrile loauing, rle iesulring loau is 1.SS k/m
2
.
Ioi comaiison, rle sel-veiglrs, given Ly rle aLove exiession, anu rle
iarios, =1.SS/ aie:

100 m =14.2 k/m
2
=0.132
200 m =21.2 k/m
2
=0.0S9
300 m =2S.2 k/m
2
=0.06

Ioi rlese sans, rle eecr o rle concenriareu loau is small. Ioi examle, a loau
o 10 k aveiageu ovei rle roral ueck aiea is equivalenr ro only 0.0S, 0.04 anu
0.026 k/m
2
oi rlese sans.
1le cosrs o rle orimum uesigns veie lorreu againsr san lengrl, anu rook
rle oim (ieviseu ro meriic unirs),

cosr ($/m
2
)= (1+0.0125)

vleie is a consranr.
1le valiuiry o rle ioceuuie can Le juugeu Ly oLseiving rlar rle orimum
uesign oi a san o 1S2.9 m (600 eer) lau a uerl o 0.0 ar rle suoirs anu
one lal o rlis ar miu-san. 1le unir cosrs useu in rle sruuy veie ueiiveu iom
rlose oi rle Carain Cook Biiuge, a Liiuge virl rle same maximum san rlen
unuei consriucrion in BiisLane. Ir lau uerls o 0.05 anu 0.025. 1le iogiam
vas ie-iun virl rlese uerls anu gave a cosr only ' aLove rle orimum. 1le
cloice o rle slallovei uerl vas jusriiaLle on orlei giounus.
Wlen rlese acrois aie ur rogerleirle ielarive size o rle live loau
comaieu virl rle sel-veiglr, anu rle ielarive insensiriviry o cosr ro san (anu
orlei causes o incieaseu Lenuing momenr anu sleai) one can juuge rlar
incieases in rle uesign live loau voulu lave only a small eecr on roral cosr. Ir is
o some inreiesr ro oLseive rlar rlis lineai inciease o cosr virl san ieiouuceu a
iesulr oLseiveu in orlei sruuies (OConnoi 191L).
1leie is a ossiLle amLiguiry in rle use o rle reim 'lie. Consiuei rle case o a
Luiluing. Heie rle Lasic concer o lie is rle rime ir is execreu ro iemain in
seivice, unril ir is ielaceu oi ieasons rlar incluue rle olloving:

(a) irs oim may no longei Le aioiiare,
(L) ir may Le uncrionally ineicienr,
(c) rle use oi vlicl ir vas uesigneu may lave uisaeaieu, anu
(u) ir may nov consrirure an uneconomic use o irs sire.

Ir is, rlen, uesiieu rlar rle Luiluing sloulu nor suei sriucruial ailuie uuiing rlis
5.6 Bridge life and acceptable risk

uncrional oi economic lie anu rlis gives iise ro a sriucruial use o rle voiu 'lie
as rle rime unril rle Luiluing ails (oi collases), oi oui Lesr esrimare o rlis
rime. Ir ollovs rlar a lie closen on non-sriucruial giounus Lecomes rle
lie oi rle sriucruial uesign.
1lis iuea o a uncrional oi economic lie is less easily ueineu in rle case o a
Liiuge, alrlougl some Lecome oLsolere Lecause o viurl oi alignmenr
consiueiarions oi orlei acrois, oi may inueeu all our o use. I rle concer o
Liiuge lie is ully emLiaceu, sriaregies oi Liiuge ielacemenr sloulu Le ueveloeu.
ôie riuly, rle uLlic eicerion o majoi Liiuges, airiculaily rlose rlar Lecome a
uisrincrive ciry earuie, sucl as rle Syuney HaiLoui Biiuge, is rlar rley aie rleie
oievei, anu mainrenance ioceuuies aie ur inro lace in an enueavoui ro ensuie
rlar rlis is so. A majoi Liiuge Lecomes rle ocus o majoi riaic ioures anu, i ir is a
ciry Liiuge, rle aujoining lanu is ryically leavily ueveloeu. Borl comLine ro
cieare a uruie uiiculry. A riue ueuicarion ro rle concer o a limireu Liiuge lie
voulu iequiie rlar, iom rle ourser, lanu is ieraineu oi a ielacemenr Liiuge virl a
suiraLle geomeriy oi irs aioacles.
Ir is aioiiare ro ielecr on rle riue signiicance o some elemenrs o rle
cuiienr aioacl ro ioLaLilisric limir srares uesign. 1le Luiocoue LV 19911
(1994) suggesrs a raiger Liiuge lie o 100 yeais, virl a raiger ieliaLiliry inuex, A
o 3.S. 1le caliLiarion ioceuuies oi rle 1994 AASH1O coue close a value,
A=3.5, anu, imlicirly, a Liiuge lie o 5 yeais. 1le coiiesonuing annual iisks o
ailuie aie 0.2410
6
anu 3.110
6
. As slovn in Secrion 5.3, rle AASH1O
values veie Laseu on a uesiie ro kee rle iisk o ailuie o Liiuges uesigneu ro rle
nev coue aLour rle same as rlose iom rle ieceuing coue, anu ro make rlis iisk
moie consisrenr.
Ir is suggesreu rlar rlis merlou o coue caliLiarion is enriiely aioiiare. 1o
srair, ro uereimine an acceraLle iisk in cases involving rle ossiLle loss
o luman lie is uiiculr, alrlougl rvo sruuies may Le quoreu. ênzies (ênzies,
].B. 'Biiuge ailuies, lazaius anu socieral iisks, 3641, in Das 199: 3641)
ieeis ro rle (IAR) as rle iisk o uearl iom 100 million louis
o exosuie ro some airiculai acriviry, vleie rle Lasic value o IAR oi lome
iisks is aLour 1. He srares rlar 'in rle Unireu Kinguom rleie aie aLour 4000
uearls eacl yeai on rle ioaus in a oularion o 56 million vlicl equares ro a
IAR o aLour 20. 1lis imlies an exosuie ro ioau uearl o 1 loui ei eison
ei uay, as can Le slovn as ollovs.
A IAR o 20 imlies a iisk o 20 uearls in 10010
6
louis o inuiviuual
exosuie, equivalenr ro 0.2410
6
yeais. Ioi a oularion o 5610
6
inuiviuuals,
one voulu execr 20 uearls in 0.24/56 yeais, oi 40SS ei yeai. He suLuiviues
rle causes o rlese 40SS ioau uearls Ly quoring rle olloving ielarive iguies oi
vaiious moues o riavel:

Ly moroi cycle 300
Ly eual cycle 60
valking Lesiue a ioau 20
riavel Ly cai 15
riavel Ly Lus 1

Ioi 100,000 liglvay Liiuges in rle Unireu Kinguom, le quores a iecoiueu ailuie
iare o aLour one in eveiy 1 oi 2 yeais, iom all causes. I sucl acrois as scoui
anu loouing aie uelereu, a ossiLle collase iare 'uue ro sriucruial ueiciency oi
oveiloauing is aLour one in eveiy ive yeais, virl a loss o lie o aLour one in 10
yeais. 1leie is some unceirainry in esrimaring rle coiiesonuing exosuie rime. I
ir veie raken as 1 loui ei uay (as Leoie) rlen rle coiiesonuing value o IAR is
mucl less rlan 1 (acrually aLour 0.510
3
). ênzies suggesrs rlar rlis lisroiical
ailuie iare las Leen acceraLle. Accoiuingly le quores rle olloving iisks ei
Liiuge as acceraLle:

annual iisk o acciuenral uearl uue ro sriucruial Liiuge 1 in 10
6
ailuie
annual iisk o sriucruial Liiuge ailuie 1 in 0.510
6
iisk o sriucruial collase in a 100-yeai Liiuge lie 1 in 5000

1le raiger annual iisks o ailuie oi rle Luiocoue LV 19911 (1994) veie
quoreu aLove as 0.2410
6
anu 3.110
6
, oi, in inveise oim, 1 in 1.3S10
6
, anu
1 in 0.323 x 10
6
. 1lese sriauule rle value o 0.5 in 10
6
suggesreu Ly ênzies,
alrlougl rle uieiences aie nor giear.
Anorlei majoi sruuy vas uone Ly Allen (1992), alrlougl rlis vas conceineu
virl rle assessmenr o exisring Liiuges, oi Liiuge evaluarion, iarlei rlan nev
Liiuge uesign.
Ir is useul ro ielecr again on some o rle uara ounu Ly ovak (1993 anu
1995). Iiguie 5.6 iesenreu some o lis values oi , calculareu oi suivey riuck
uara, using Liiuges rlar incoioiareu rle minimum sriengrl eimirreu Ly rle
olu coue. Ioi rle cases slovn (momenrs in comosire sreel giiueis, momenrs in
iesriesseu conciere giiueis, anu sleais in iesriesseu conciere giiueis) rle
minimum value o A vas 1.9, oi Lenuing in a iesriesseu conciere giiuei o 9.1
m san. 1le coiiesonuing ioLaLiliry o ailuie in 5 yeais vas 0.02S
(Devoie 1995, Iiasei 196), oi 1 in 2610 yeais. Secrion 5.5 quoreu iom rle
Ameiican 1iansoirarion Reseaicl Boaiu ieoir viirren Ly Humliey (19S9:
1S9), vlicl lisreu a roral o 245,015 Liiuges on Ieueial Aiu Higlvays. A
ioLaLiliry o ailuie o 1 in 2610 yeais (i.e. 1/0.02S in 5 yeais) voulu imly
rlar 94 Liiuges sloulu ail Lecause o iimaiy oveiloaus eacl yeai. 1lis is,
lovevei, an oveiesrimare, as only a ev o ovaks giiueis yielueu a A value o
1.9. On rle orlei lanu, moie rlan lal rle Liiuges veie uesigneu oi loaus less
rlan HS-20. ovaks A values oi sleai veie ryically o rle oiuei o
magniruue slovn in Iig. 5.6 (c), virl mosr less rlan 3.0. I rle calcularion is
ieeareu oi A equal ro 3.0, rlis gives a ioLaLiliry o 0.00135 in 5 yeais, oi
4.4 Liiuge ailuies ei yeai. Lven rlis iguie may Le an oveiesrimare, oi ovak
also iecoius rlar a sruuy o acrual Liiuges gave sriengrls ianging iom 1.2 ro
2.0 rimes rle minimum iequiieu values. 1lese iougl calcularions srill suggesr,
lovevei, rlar one voulu execr moie rlan oui cases o ailuie rliougl
oveiloauing eacl yeai, rleie is no eviuence rlar rlis numLei is occuiiing, anu
rleie is a neeu oi imioveu uara on rle ioLaLiliry o ailuie as uemonsriareu
Ly Liiuges in seivice.

5.7 Reserves of strength
1le caliLiarion ioceuuies Luilr inro mouein limir srares coues sloulu ensuie
rlar air o rle ieseive o sriengrl lelu Ly exisring Liiuges is ully uriliseu, sucl
as rlar Lerveen rle occuiience o iisr yielu in a sreel Liiuge anu rle
uevelomenr o rle lasric linge momenr. 1leie may Le auuirional ieseives o
sriengrl vlicl incluue rle olloving.

1. A Liiuge may Lelave in a vay vlicl uieis iom rlar assumeu in irs
oiiginal uesign. Ioi examle, rle moving Leaiings o a Liiuge may seize u,
ievenring rle lovei lange iom exanuing unuei rle acrion o rle iimaiy
loaus (OConnoi anu Piirclaiu 19S2, Ransom 1999).
2. Yielu may mouiy Lelavioui in rvo vays. In a Leam conrinuous ovei a
numLei o sans, riue collase can occui only vlen a suiraLle meclanism is
oimeu, virl a longiruuinal ieuisriiLurion o Lenuing momenrs. In mosr
Liiuges rleie is rle ossiLiliry also o a riansveise ieuisriiLurion. Yielu in a
longiruuinal Leam may riansei loau ro irs neiglLouis anu collase may
involve rle ailuie o a numLei o aiallel memLeis. Lven a Liiuge
consisring o a single iimaiy memLei, sucl as a mulri-cellulai Lox giiuei,
vill unueigo clange in Lelavioui uuiing collase.
3. Iiguie 2.20 sloveu rlar rle yielu sriengrl o a airiculai sreel incieaseu
virl rle sriain iare. Soiouslian anu Cloi (19S) lave ieoireu similai
incieases, nor only oi sriucruial sreel, Lur also oi sreel ieinoicemenr.
Soiouslian, Cloi anu Allamau (19S6) lave uesciiLeu incieases in rle
sriengrl o conciere causeu Ly incieases in rle sriain iare. Ir ollovs rlar
elevarions in sriengrl may occui unuei rle uynamic comonenrs o rle
iimaiy loaus.
4. As menrioneu in Secrion 2.3, rle collase o a Liiuge is essenrially a
uynamic lenomenon. 1le assage o a loau laige enougl ro cause sraric
collase may insreau leave rle Liiuge in lace, Lur virl some eimanenr
ueoimarion. On rle orlei lanu, uynamic acrois can cause iemaruie
collase, as illusriareu in Secrion 6.1.

1lese acrois mean rlar Liiuge ailuie may Le eviuenceu nor so mucl Ly a
suuuen collase Lur Ly a giovrl in uamage causeu Ly successive laige evenrs.
1lis uamage may lie in rle uevelomenr o eimanenr uelecrions, in rle onser
o ciacking in conciere sriucruies, oi in rle giovrl o arigue ciacks in sreel.
Regulai insecrion Ly an exeiienceu Liiuge engineei sloulu oim air o any
Liiuge mainrenance iogiamme. 1lese iemaiks leau also ro rvo inal
conclusions.

(a) Iuirlei voik neeus ro Le uone on rle meclanisms o Liiuge ailuie.
(L) 1leie is also a neeu oi imioveu ailuie srarisrics, vleie rlese sloulu rake
nore o iogiessive ailuie as vell as roral collase.

5.8 Bridge evaluation and proof testing
anu aie reims commonly alieu ro rle
examinarion o exisring Liiuges ro uereimine rleii conuirion anu loau-Leaiing
caaciry. Sucl an examinarion may leau ro a uecision rlar a Liiuge neeus ro Le
rlar is, rlar a limir musr Le imoseu on rle veiglrs o velicles alloveu ro
use rle Liiuge. 1lese roics aie uiscusseu in many coues. Some o rlis uiscussion
lies oursiue rle scoe o rlis Look, anu rle riearmenr leie vill Le limireu ro rle
o Liiuges.
A ioo loau may Le ueineu as a loau alieu ro an exisring sriucruie ro
uereimine oi 'iove irs loau-Leaiing caaciry. 1le aieas o ueck loaueu ro
iouuce ciirical eecrs in Liiuge comonenrs vill vaiy. 1le ioo loauing o a
Liiuge may, rleieoie, consisr o a iogiamme o resrs virl rle sueiimoseu (oi
alieu) loaus moveu caieully iom one locarion ro anorlei. 1le mosr common
ioo loaus aie srarionaiy anu alieu inciemenrally, rlar is, rleie vill Le
srarionaiy velicles oi loau locarions, virl loaus auueu ro rlese velicles oi
locarions in inciemenrs. 1lis allovs rle eecrs o rle loauing ro Le assesseu as ir is
incieaseu, so as ro give some vaining o imenuing collase. Ioi examle, a
uelecrion may Le lorreu againsr rle alieu loau. 1le inirial iesonse may Le
lineai, Lur as rle loau is incieaseu ir may Le ounu rlar rle sloe o rle loau-
uelecrion cuive incieases, vleie rlis may Le raken as a vaining rlar rleie sloulu
Le no moie incieases in loau.
1le uesign o a ioo resring iogiamme oi a airiculai Liiuge iequiies,
rleieoie, rle selecrion o airiculai locarions oi rle loaus, rogerlei virl some
uecision as ro rle mannei in vlicl rle loaus aie alieu anu incieaseu. 1leie vill
also Le uecisions conceining rle oLseivarions ro Le raken uuiing loauing, anu
rlese vill commonly incluue uelecrion anu sriain ieauings ar vell-closen
locarions.
1vo imoiranr marreis aiise anu rlese vill Le uiscusseu leie:

1. 1leie is a iisk o collase uuiing rle ioo resr.
2. 1le ourcome o rle resr vill commonly incluue an assessmenr rlar rle
sriucruie may saely caiiy a airiculai level o seivice loau. 1le knovleuge
gaineu iom rle ioo resr may Le useu ro ieassess rle ioLaLiliry o ailuie in
a mannei rlar neeus ro Le uereimineu.

A useul uiscussion o rle ioLlem may Le ounu in rle aei Ly ôses, LeLer
anu Bez (1994). Consiuei rle case o a simly-suoireu giiuei Liiuge o
moueiare san. 1le loauing may rake rle oim o a airiculai riuck, oi a
airiculai ser o riucks laceu siue Ly siue in aujacenr lanes, vleie rle
longiruuinal locarion o rlese loaus ro iouuce maximum giiuei Lenuing
momenrs may Le uereimineu Ly rle merlou uesciiLeu in Clarei 1. 1le numLei
o riucks in aujacenr lanes anu rleii riansveise locarion vill neeu ro Le
uereimineu. In many cases, giiuei Lenuing momenrs vill vaiy virl rlis riansveise
locarion, anu rlis is one ieason vly a numLei o resrs may Le iequiieu. Ler ir Le
suoseu, lovevei, rlar a suiraLle riansveise locarion las Leen uereimineu. 1len

rle iesulring Lenuing momenr in rle giiuei o inreiesr may Le calculareu as a
uncrion o rle level o rle alieu loau. 1le coiiesonuing seivice Lenuing
momenrs vill vaiy. Suose uirlei rlar rle srarisrical uisriiLurion o rlese
Lenuing momenrs las Leen assesseu in rle mannei uesciiLeu in Secrions 5.1 anu
5.3. 1len rlis loauing may Le comaieu virl iesisrance oi sriengrl as in Secrion
3.3 anu Iig. 3.2, ro give an esrimare o rle ioLaLiliry o ailuie. 1le uecision ro
caiiy our rle ioo resr las, iesumaLly, iesulreu iom an inirial oLseivarion rlar
rlis ioLaLiliry o ailuie is unacceraLle oi cuiienr levels o rle seivice loaus.
In rle iesenr conrexr, rle iisr Leneir rlar iesulrs iom iioi srarisrical
esrimares o iesisrance anu sriengrl is rlar rley allov oi an assessmenr ro Le
maue o rle ioLaLiliry o ailuie uuiing rle ioo resr, anu rle inirial selecrion o
rle magniruue o rle ioo loau. I eiecr conriol veie exeiciseu ovei rle
loauing, rlen rle loau eecr, is knovn. Iailuie vill occui oi any value o rle
iesisrance, less rlan . 1le ioLaLiliry o ailuie is ieiesenreu, rleieoie, Ly
rle aiea o rle ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurion oi iesisrance Lelov rle level ,
oi Ly rle cumularive ioLaLiliry rlar . 1le acrual iisk is somevlar less, oi
rvo ieasons.

(a) Suose rle loau level is Leing incieaseu iom
1
, rle iioi resr loau, ro .
1len ir is knovn rlar rle iesisrance, is nor less rlan
1
. Pair o rle
ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurion oi rle iesisrance may Le uelereu (Lur virl
some aujusrmenr, as vill Le seen Lelov).
(L) 1le oLseivarions Leing maue uuiing rle resr ioviue a saeguaiu againsr
ailuie, oi, ar any rime, rle resr may Le reiminareu i rle eviuence inuicares
rlar collase is imminenr.

1le seconu Leneir is similai ro rlar menrioneu in (a). Ler
Le rle maximum
level o a airiculai loau eecr iouuceu uuiing rle iogiamme o ioo resrs.
1len ir is ieasonaLle ro assume arei rle resr rlar rle coiiesonuing iesisrance is
nor less rlan
. 1le ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurion oi may, rleieoie, Le

riuncareu as slovn in Iig. 5.21, vleie rlis riuncarion las rvo logical srages.
Inirially, all ioLaLiliry o iesisrances less rlan
may Le uelereu, leaving only

rle iiglr lanu oirion o rle inirial cuive
. Hovevei, any ioLaLiliry

uensiry uisriiLurion musr lave a roral aiea o uniry. 1le inirial, riuncareu
uisriiLurion oi neeus ro Le ieviseu. 1le simlesr vay o uoing rlis is ro aujusr
rle scale o irs veirical oiuinares.
Ler
equal rle aiea o rle inirial ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurion ro rle ler
o rle oinr
. 1len rle coiiesonuing inirial aiea ro rle iiglr is (1
).
1le aiea ro rle iiglr may, rleieoie, Le Liouglr Lack ro zeio i eacl veirical
oiuinare is uiviueu Ly (1
). Secrion 3.3 iesenreu a numeiical merlou oi rle

evaluarion o rle convolurion inregial rlar yielueu rle ioLaLiliry o ailuie vlen
anu veie Lorl noimally uisriiLureu. Ir is nor uiiculr ro aujusr rlis oi rle
iesenr case. 1le inirial, unriuncareu, ioLaLiliry o ailuie may Le evaluareu,
anu uiviueu Ly (1
), anu rlen rle conriiLurion iom rlar air o rle

iesisrance cuive virl
may Le evaluareu anu uelereu.

Ir sloulu Le oLseiveu, lovevei, rlar rlis calcularion, alrlougl nor unieasonaLle,
may involve a signiicanr assumrion. 1le oiiginal ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurions
SERVICEABILITY LOADS 161
oi anu veie, iesumaLly, Laseu on oLseiveu uara. In some cases, a ioo resr
may inuicare incieases in oi ieuucrions in rlar veie nor iesenr in rlese
oLseivarions. A nor uncommon eecr is rlar seizuie o Liiuge Leaiings ieuuces
Lenuing sriesses anu inuicares a ieseive o sriengrl Leyonu rlar oLseiveu Ly rle
uesignei. Beoie ielying roo leavily on rlis ieseive o sriengrl, ir voulu Le
uesiiaLle ro lave some uara on irs srarisrical uisriiLurion. 1lar is, rle
mouiicarion uesciiLeu aLove arei riuncarion o rle iesisrance cuive, may nor Le
ully jusriieu. Desire rle iecaurionaiy vaining, lovevei, ir uoes seem
ieasonaLle ro assume rlar rle esrimareu ioLaLiliry o ailuie, olloving a ioo
resr, vill Le ieuuceu.
A uirlei nore sloulu Le auueu. 1le oLjecrives o a iogiamme o ioo resrs
sloulu incluue nor only an inrenrion ro uereimine rle saery o exisring Liiuges,
Lur also a uesiie ro imiove rle qualiry o uruie rleoierical ieuicrions. An
oLseivarion rlar some exeiimenral ieseive o sriengrl is iesenr is nor ieally
suicienr. Rarlei, one voulu loe rlar rle souice o rlis ieseive o sriengrl is
iuenriieu anu Luilr inro uruie uesign anu assessmenr calcularions.
A Liiuge may ail in vays orlei rlan collase, anu oi rlis ieason all mouein
Liiuge coues seciy loaus oi rvo classes o limir srare: seiviceaLiliry anu
collase.
Pair 1 o Luiocoue 1 (LV 19911) ueals virl sriucruies geneially, incluuing
Luiluings as vell as Liiuges, anu incluues rle olloving sraremenrs:
Fig. 5.21 Proof load testing
5.9 Serviceability loads

3.1 Limir srares aie srares Leyonu vlicl rle sriucruie no longei sarisies rle
uesign eioimance iequiiemenrs. In geneial, a uisrincrion is maue Lerveen
ulrimare limir srares anu seiviceaLiliry limir srares.
3.3 SeiviceaLiliry limir srares coiiesonu ro conuirions Leyonu vlicl seciieu
seivice iequiiemenrs oi a sriucruie oi sriucruial elemenr aie no longei mer. 1le
seiviceaLiliry iequiiemenrs concein:
rle uncrion o rle consriucrion voiks (Liiuges in rle iesenr case) oi
airs o rlem,
rle comoir o eole,
rle aeaiance.

1le 1992 Ausrioaus Biiuge Design Coue goes uirlei:
1le seiviceaLiliry limir srares ro Le consiueieu incluue:
(a) eimanenr ueoimarion o ounuarion mareiial oi a majoi loau
caiiying elemenr, o suicienr magniruue rlar rle sriucruie is unir
oi use, oi sucl rlar rle uLlic voulu Lecome conceineu as ro rle
saery o rle sriucruie,
(L) eimanenr uamage uue ro coiiosion, ciacking oi arigue vlicl
signiicanrly ieuuces sriucruial sriengrl oi useul seivice lie,
(c) viLiarion leauing ro sriucruial uamage oi uLlic concein,
(u) loouing o rle ioau nervoik anu suiiounuing lanu anu scoui
uamage ro rle clannel Leu, Lanks anu ioau emLankmenrs.

Some o rlese irems aie nor conceineu virl riaic loaus, sucl as irem (u), vlicl
seaks o scoui anu loouing. Orlei common seiviceaLiliry ioLlems in Liiuges
ielare ro sucl marreis as rle eioimance o ueck exansion joinrs, ueck uiainage
anu rle uisosal o rle varei rlar may ass rliougl rle ueck joinrs. one aie
conceineu cliely virl majoi riaic loaus, iarlei, all lave ro uo virl rle qualiry
o rle uesign uerails. Again, rleie aie marreis sucl as rle uevelomenr o a Lum
on rle ioau suiace as riaic enreis rle LiiugeuncomoiraLle, Lur also leauing
ro incieaseu uynamic eecrs in rle loaus alieu Ly velicles ro rle Liiuge. Again,
remeiaruie clanges may Le ar rle ioor o ceirain seiviceaLiliry ioLlems.
Hovevei, some aie ielareu uiiecrly ro riaic loaus, incluuing (L) anu (c). 1le
Lenuing Lelavioui o ieinoiceu anu iesriesseu conciere memLeis uiviues inro
rvo imoiranr srages, Leoie anu arei ciacking. 1le ulrimare limir srare geneially
occuis arei ciacking, anu rle rensile sriengrl o rle conciere may Le ignoieu. On
rle orlei lanu, rle uuiaLiliry o rle conciere ueenus airly on rle iesence o
ciacks. Ir is aioiiare, rleieoie, oi coues ro seciy loaus rlar may Le useu ro
cleck rlis limir srare. 1le same alies ro uynamic eecrs rlar cause eiceriLle
veirical acceleiarions ar iequencies rlar may leau ro uiscomoir oi uLlic concein
(see Clarei ).
Coues o iacrice musr, rleieoie, seciy rvo levels oi rle iimaiy uesign
loaus: one ro cleck seiviceaLiliry, anu rle orlei, collase. Ir vas noreu elsevleie
rlar, as ai as collase is conceineu, coues commonly seciy Lorl a loau anu a
loau acroi, vleie ir is rle mulrile o rlese rlar is ielevanr. 1le neeu ro seciy
seiviceaLiliry loaus auus anorlei uimension. Common iacrice ryically seciies
SERVICEABILITY LOADS 163
a Lasic uesign loau rlar is eirlei a lirrle less rlan, oi aLour rle coiiecr oiuei oi,
seiviceaLiliry clecks, rogerlei virl a loau acroi rlar enaLles rlis ro Le incieaseu
oi ulrimare limir srares. 1le neeu oi a seiviceaLiliry loau causes rle seciieu
loaus anu loau acrois ro lave an aioiiare, iarlei rlan an aiLiriaiy
ielarionsli ro one anorlei.
In rle Ausrialian conrexr, Ienvick (19S5) vas quoreu eailiei as seaking o
rle ulrimare loau as rlar vlicl las a 5' clance o occuiience virlin rle 100-
yeai lie o a Liiuge. Ir sloulu Le noreu rlar rlis is nor a sraremenr rlar says rlar
one sloulu iuenriy sucl a riuck, allocare ro ir a veiglr anu coeicienr o
vaiiarion, anu use rlese ro aclieve a uesiieu level o ieliaLiliry. Rarlei, rlis
sraremenr sloulu Le inreiiereu as suggesring rlar a ieliaLiliry analysis voulu
inally yielu loau eecrs (seciieu loausloau acrois) rlar aioximare ro rlis
uesciirion. Similaily, Ienvick seaks o rvo ossiLle 'ueinirions o rle
seiviceaLiliry loau:

(a) a loau virl a 95' clance o occuiience in rle uesign lie, oi
(L) one vlicl as a 5' clance o occuiience ei yeai.

1le seconu o rlese ueinirions vas closen as rle ieeiieu Lasis oi selecrion o
seiviceaLiliry loaus oi Ausrialian Liiuges. Ir inuicares rlar sucl velicles may Le
execreu ro occui a numLei o rimes (norionally 5) virlin rle 100-yeai lie o a
Liiuge. 1le loau acrually closen vas rle 144 riuck (Secrion 4.) virl a
seiviceaLiliry loau acroi o 1.00, anu ro rlis vas rlen alieu a uynamic loau
allovance.
SeiviceaLiliry loaus aie iequiieu oi vaiious kinus o Lelavioui. Ir is
imossiLle, rleieoie, ro ueiive rlem geneially in rle same vay as rlar useu in
Secrion 3.3 oi rle ulrimare limir srare. Ir is uiiculr also ro summaiise coue
iovisions, oi rley aly ro a iange o limir srares. Some o rlese marreis,
lovevei, sucl as arigue loaus anu uelecrion limirs oi comoir, vill Le
consiueieu larei (see Clareis 6 anu ).

Chapter 6
6.1 Multiple presence

Multiple presence, progressive
failure and fatigue

ûcl o rle voik uone on rle selecrion o iimaiy uesign loaus oi Liiuges las
Leen conceineu virl rle iuenriicarion o a single leavy velicle, oi examle, a
riuck virl a seciieu ieruin inreival. 1lis voik neeus ro Le exrenueu in rvo
vays: (a) all mouein Liiuges caiiy ar leasr rvo lanes o riaic, anu riuck loaus in
aiallel lanes neeu ro Le consiueieu, (L) in long san Liiuges, rleie aie also
signiicanr eecrs iom rle iesence o succeeuing velicles in eacl lane.
1lis neeu ro allov oi mulrile iesence vas eviuenr in rle uiscussion o
coues o iacrice in Clarei 4. 1le olu înisriy o 1iansoir loauing, anu rle
iimaiy uesign loaus seciieu in BS 5400 anu BD3/SS all mouel riains o
velicles in one oi rvo lanes (Secrion 4.2). Successive Ameiican AASH1O coues
lave Leen Laseu on a single leavy riuck ei lane, Lur rlen aly a similai riuck
loau in aujacenr lanes, virl ieuucrion acrois oi rle loaus in lanes Leyonu Lane 2
(Secrion 4.3). 1le uiar Luiocoue alies a ieuuceu loau in rle seconu lane
(Secrion 4.6).
Ir is aioiiare, rleieoie, ro consiuei rle ioLaLiliry o occuiience o mulrile
velicle loaus. Beoie uoing rlis, one musr oLseive rlar a vaiiery o cases aiise.

1. Loau eecrs in some Liiuge comonenrs, sucl as ueck uerails, may Le uue ro
local loaus, sucl as a single axle oi vleel loau.
2. In some cases, rle alicarion o loaus in a seconu lane vill nor clange rle
uesign, oi examle, in closely-saceu aiallel giiuei sysrems, oi in rle case o
longiruuinal giiuei unirs virl limireu sleai riansei Lerveen unirs.
3. 1le lanes o a rvo-lane Liiuge commonly caiiy velicles moving in oosire
uiiecrions.
4. On rle orlei lanu, a uiviueu liglvay may Le caiiieu Ly seaiare aiallel
Liiuges, virl all loaus on one Liiuge moving in rle same uiiecrion.
MULTIPLE PRESENCE 165
5. 1le riaic on a ciry Liiuge may Le srarionaiy, virl a mix o velicles illing all
lanes ar a minimum longiruuinal sacing.
6. 1le riaic on counriy Liiuges may vaiy viuely. In some cases, rle ioLaLiliry
o one leavy velicle assing oi oveiraking anorlei is lov. In orlei cases,
leavy riucks may Le Luncleu rogerlei, occuying moie rlan a single lane. An
examle occuis on moroivays, sucl as in rle Unireu Kinguom, vleie rleie
aie commonly rliee lanes in eacl uiiecrion, Lur o rlese, leavy riucks may Le
alloveu ro use only rle ourei rvo. Cais can ieauily ass, using rle rliiu lane.
1iucks visling ro oveirake may inu ir uiiculr ro uo so, virl rle iesulr rlar
an uninreiiureu succession o leavy velicles may occuy rle oursiue lane.
Iuirlei, vlen riucks uo oveirake, rleii seeu uieienrial is small, oveiraking
rakes some rime, anu a laige giou o riucks may oren Le ounu illing rle
ourei rvo lanes.
. îliraiy riaic also may comlerely ill a lane.

Ir is uiiculr, rleieoie, ro give geneial conclusions conceining mulrile iesence.
Some uiscussion o merlous o analysis, lovevei, may Le useul.
Lailiei sruuies incluue rlose Ly Aslunu (1955), Ivy er al. (1954) anu
ûiakami er al. (192). Ivy er al. gives rvo ryical gials o oLseiveu velicle
veiglrs along a 550 m lengrl o rle lovei ueck o rle San Iiancisco-Oaklanu
Bay Biiuge (virl a main san o 04 m). 1le AASH1O coue (Secrion 4.3) ar rlar
rime iecommenueu rle HS2044 riuck anu lane loaus, vleie rle larrei consisreu
o an S0 k line loau oi Lenuing momenrs, anu a unioimly uisriiLureu loau o
9.34 k/m, rle coue inriouucrion suggesreu rlar rlis Le useu only oi sans less
rlan 152 m. 1le riaic arreins oLseiveu Ly Ivy er al. inuicareu rlar rlese uesign
loaus veie conseivarive oi sans in excess o 120 m. 1ley iecommenueu rlar rle
line loau Le ieuuceu ro 40 k oi sans iom 1S3 ro 244 m, anu rlen ro zeio oi
laigei sans, virl rle concuiienr uisriiLureu loau raken as S.5 k/m oi sans
iom 305 ro 366 m, anu rlen S.1 k/m oi longei sans.
1le voik caiiieu our Ly Bucklanu (19S1), Bucklanu er al. (19S0) Legan as a
sruuy o loaus on rle Lions Gare susension Liiuge in Vancouvei (main san 43
m). Ir ielies on rle oLseivarion rlar maximum loau eecrs occuiieu only vlen
rle riaic vas srarionaiy anu 'Lumei ro Lumei. Ioi rlis ieason, rleii inal
iecommenuarions (see Secrion 4.3 anu Iig. 4.5) veie oi uesign loaus virlour
imacr. 1leii voik vas in rvo lases.
1le iisr lase vas calleu a simularion iogiam. Ranuom sequences o riaic
veie geneiareu anu eu on ro rle Liiuge, in one oi moie lanes. In rlis riaic,
cais veie all assumeu ro lave rle same veiglr anu lengrl, anu rle same
riearmenr vas alieu ro Luses. 1iucks veie given a ioLaLiliry uisriiLurion o
veiglr anu on rlis Lasis veie uiviueu inro six (oi evei) gious. Lacl giou
vas given a lengrl ioLaLiliry uisriiLurion. Lacl riaic sequence vas mouelleu,
rleieoie, as a seiies o inire unioimly uisriiLureu loaus o vaiying lengrl anu
veiglr inrensiry. 1le roral riaic volume oi eacl loui o rle uay, rle mean
velicle seeu anu rle ielarive numLeis o cais, Luses anu riucks in eacl lane
veie seciieu as inur uara. 1le velicle sacing consisreu o a seciieu,
consranr value oi zeio seeu, virl an auuirional sacing oi moving riaic,
raken as iooirional ro rle riaic velociry.
MULTIPLE PRESENCE, PROGRESSIVE FAILURE AND FATIGUE 166
1lese srieams o moving riaic veie inreiiureu Ly sroages causeu Ly
meclanical Lieakuovns oi acciuenrs involving one, rvo oi rliee lanes, vleie rle
numLeis o rlese evenrs veie Laseu on oLseivarion, rogerlei virl a srarisrically
vaiieu rime ro cleai eacl sroage. Duiing a sroage, rleieoie, a ceirain
numLei o velicles voulu Lecome srarionaiy on some air o a Liiuge oi irs
aioacles, anu in one oi moie lanes. 1lis loauing vas rlen scanneu, oi lengrls
iom 15.2 ro 1951 m (50, 100, 200, 400, S00, 1600, 3200 anu 6400 eer) ro
iuenriy gious o velicles rlar voulu iouuce maximum roral loau, maximum
cenrial Lenuing momenr anu maximum enu sleai in a simly-suoireu san o
rlis lengrl. In uoing so, rle lengrl o 15.2 m vas consiueieu iisr. Lacl lane o
riaic, vlerlei srarionaiy oi moving, vas scanneu ro inu rle giou o velicles,
15.2 m long, rlar lau a maximum veiglr. 1le roral riain o velicles in eacl lane
vas rlen moveu longiruuinally so rlar rlese maximum-veiglr 15.2 m gious
veie siue Ly siue. In rlis iocess, rle only uieience Lerveen a 'moving lane anu
a srarionaiy lane lay in rle velicle sacing, alrlougl rle seeu o rle moving
riaic vas aujusreu, ueenuing uon riaic uiiecrion, i ir vas moving asr a
srarionaiy lane.
1le closen inur uara meanr rlar a ceirain numLei o sroages voulu occui
uuiing a 3-monrl eiiou. Ioi eacl o rle lengrls (15.21951 m) rle exrieme
values o roral loau simle san Lenuing momenr anu simle san sleai
veie sroieu. 1le iocess vas ieeareu oi many sucl eiious, enaLling a
srarisrical uesciirion o rlese values anu an exriaolarion ro give exrieme values
oi a closen ieruin eiiou, acrually 5 yeais.
Bucklanu anu lis co-voikeis rlen ielaceu rlese rliee exrieme values Ly
rvo, in rle olloving vay. Consiuei a simly-suoireu san, unuei rle acrion
o a moving oinr loau, anu a unioimly uisriiLureu loau o inrensiry, . Ioi
rlis loauing, rle cenrial Lenuing momenr, maximum enu sleai, anu roral
loau, aie given Ly:

/4+
2
/S

1le oLseiveu uara coiiesonus ro anu . Only rle seconu anu rliiu o rlese
equarions veie useu ro ueiive anu . 1len
oi
=2
Also,

=2

Bucklanu aigues rlar, oi lis rye o uara, rle values o anu ueiiveu in rlis
aslion yielu only small inconsisrencies in His inal iecommenuarions (see Iig.
4.5) aie Laseu on rle olloving samle uara (moie comlere uara may Le ounu in
lis 19S0 aei):
numLei o sroages ei yeai amounr ro S00, o vlicl 560 veie meclanical
Lieakuovns, 120 veie single lane acciuenrs, 104 involveu rvo lanes anu 16
involveu rliee lanes,
in 90' o cases, rle rime ro cleai an evenr vas 15 minures olloving
meclanical ailuie, oi 23 minures olloving an acciuenr,
cais veie assumeu ro Le 4.9 m long anu veigl 15SS kg, rle coiiesonuing
iguies oi Luses veie 12.2 m anu 13,610 kg,
o rle riucks, 60' veigleu 16,330 kg oi less, 99' veie 4S,990 kg oi less,
none veigleu moie rlan 54,400 kg,
o riucks in rle iange 5,400 ro 2,200 kg, 90' lau lengrls equal ro oi less
rlan 1S.3 m, o rlose virl veiglrs Lerveen 2,200 kg anu 54,400 kg, 95'
lau lengrls less rlan 29 m,
rle sace Lerveen srarionaiy velicles vas 1.5 m, incieasing Ly a velicle
lengrl oi eveiy 16 kl o velociry,
rle roral uaily riaic volume in rvo uiiecrions on six lanes vas S5,900 cais,
350 Luses anu 6,510 riucks, coiiesonuing ro a roral o 92,60 velicles, o
vlicl .4' veie leavy velicles (Luses anu riucks).

1le equivalenr loaus slovn in Iig. 4.5 lave a oinr loau rlar incieases virl
loaueu lengrl. Ir is, lovevei, srill less rlan rle roral uisriiLureu loau, vleie rlis
iario incieases iom zeio ro aLour 0.26 ar S0 m, anu rlen ieuuces ro 0.155 ar 4SS
m, anu 0.066 ar 1950 m.
Bucklanu er al. (19S0) also useu vlar rley call an Analyrical Piogiam, Lur
rlis vill nor Le uesciiLeu leie. 1ley uiu nor suLuiviue rleii inal iesulrs Ly lane.
Iuirlei voik on rle longiruuinal uisriiLurion o loau may Le ounu in aeis
sucl as rlose Ly Haiman anu Davenoir (199) anu Haiman, Davenoir anu
Wong (19S4).
Woik uone Ly ovak on rle caliLiarion o rle 1994 AASH1O coue vas
uesciiLeu in Secrion 5.3. As srareu rleie, rle analysis o loaus vas Laseu on rle
195 Onraiio riuck suivey. 1le eecrs o mulrile iesence veie uiscusseu also
Ly ovak anu Hong (1991), using rle same suivey uara, oi successive velicles
on a single-lane Liiuge o moueiare san, anu oi aiallel velicles in rvo aujacenr
lanes. Reeiences Ly ovak ro rle suivey size vaiy somevlar: leie ir is uesciiLeu
as ieiesenring aLour 10,000 riucks in a 2-veek eiiou o leavy riaic on an
inreisrare liglvay, virl an equivalenr numLei o riucks, in a 5-yeai eiiou
o 1510
6
. 1le coiiesonuing ioLaLiliry level is 1/1510
6
, leauing ro an inveise
noimal ioLaLiliry (Secrion 5.1) o 5.26. 1le coiiesonuing riuck momenr oi
rlis iecuiience inreival vas aLour rvice rlar iouuceu Ly a single HS2044
AASH1O riuck. Wirl iegaiu ro mulrile iesence in a single lane, ovak close
ro consiuei rle olloving rliee cases, 'Laseu on oLseivarions anu engineeiing
juugemenr.

1. Lveiy 10rl riuck vas assumeu ro Le olloveu Ly an uncoiielareu riuck ar a
leauvay uisrance o less rlan 15.2 m.
2. Lveiy 50rl riuck vas assumeu ro Le olloveu Ly a riuck rlar vas 'airially
coiielareu in reims o irs veiglr.
3. Lveiy 100rl riuck vas assumeu ro Le olloveu Ly a 'ully coiielareu riuck.
1le reim, coiielarion coeicienr, las nor Leen useu ieviously in rlis Look, Lur is
a measuie o rle exrenr ro vlicl rvo vaiiaLles aie srarisrically ielareu (Devoie
1995:215). Ioi examle, one coulu measuie rle aLiliry o a class o sruuenrs Ly a
resr ar age 10, anu rlen Ly anorlei resr ar age 12. I scoies given Ly rle rvo resrs
aie lorreusay rle yeai 10 iesulrs lorreu loiizonrally ( againsr rle yeai 12
iesulrs veirically rlen rle iesulrs oi eacl sruuenr lor as a oinr in rlis
uomain. I rle resrs aie uncoiielareu, rlen rle iesulring oinrs vill Le ounu ro Le
comlerely scarreieu. I rle resr iesulrs aie liglly coiielareu, rlen rle scarrei is
ieuuceu anu rle oinrs renu ro lor close ro a single line. 1le marlemarical
ueinirion o coiielarion is Ly rle vleie a value o 0 means
no coiielarion, anu 1 means eiecr coiielarion. Ir is ossiLle ro geneiare,
marlemarically, a ser o ianuom values, anu also rvo sers o values connecreu Ly
a seciic coiielarion coeicienr. ovak ueineu lis coiielarion coeicienrs as 0
oi case 1, 0.5 oi case 2 (airial coiielarion), anu 1 oi case 3.
In case 1, one o rle riucks vas 'eveiy 10rl riuck. 1lese riucks oim a
oularion o size 1/101510
6
, coiiesonuing ro a iecuiience inreival o .5
yeais. 1le veiglr o rlis riuck vas raken as rlar virl an inveise noimal
ioLaLiliry o 4.S2. 1le coiiesonuing values oi 'eveiy 50rl riuck veie 1.5
yeais anu 4.53, anu oi 'eveiy 100rl riuck, 0.5 yeais anu 4.34. Having Ly rlis
means uereimineu rle magniruue o rle leau riuck in a aii, rle seconu riucks
veie allocareu rle olloving values: case 1, rle aveiage riuck, case 2, rle
maximum uaily riuck, anu case 3, rle 0.5 yeai riuck (vleie ir aeais rlar
rlese veie ounu Ly simularion sruuies ro give rle uesiieu values o rle
coiielarion coeicienr). An aioximarion ro ovaks cuives oi Lenuing
momenr, calculareu iom rle oLseiveu riucks anu scaleu againsr a single HS20
44 riuck, is a sriaiglr line rliougl rle oinrs (1.0, 1.0) anu (2.0, 5.26) on
noimal ioLaLiliry aei. On rlis Lasis, rle riuck veiglrs, ounu Ly simle
lineai inreiolarion, Lecome: case 1:1.90, 0.6, case 2:1.S3, 1.49, case 3:1.9,
1.9, all mulrilieu Ly a single HS20 riuck. 1le riuck geomeriies veie raken ro
Le rle same as oi rlis riuck. 1vo leauvay uisrances veie assumeu, o 4.6 anu
9.1 m, anu Lenuing momenrs anu sleais veie calculareu anu lorreu oi sans
iom 12.1 ro 61 m. Ioi comaiison, rle eecrs o rle single 5-yeai velicle
(2.0HS20) veie also lorreu. 1le olloving conclusions may Le uiavn iom
rlese iesulrs.

(a) Ioi a leauvay uisrance o 9.1 m, rle eecrs o rle single velicle veie laigesr
oi all sans.
(L) Ioi a leauvay uisrance o 4.6 m, rle single velicle uominareu oi sans less
rlan aLour 3036 m (vaiying as Lerveen Lenuing momenr anu sleai).
(c) Ioi rle longei sans, rle case 3 aii o velicles gave rle laigesr Lenuing
momenrs anu sleais.

1lis sruuy gave some suoir, rleieoie, ro rle use o a single uesign velicle oi
Liiuges o moueiare san. Hovevei, rle iange o sans consiueieu vas nor laige
enougl ro allov oi signiicanr conclusions oi long san Liiuges.
ovak anu Hong (1991) also alieu rlis reclnique ro rle sruuy o mulrile
velicles in rvo aiallel lanes. 1ley useu simularion sruuies ro slov rlar rle
goveining case vas oi rvo siue-Ly-siue riucks virl ull coiielarion, vleie rlis
evenr occuiieu oi eveiy 500rl riuck. Ioi eacl o rlese riucks, rleieoie, rle
oularion size vas 1/5001510
6
, coiiesonuing ro a ieruin inreival o 5 yeais/
500, oi 1.S monrls, anu an inveise noimal ioLaLiliry o 3.94. 1le
coiiesonuing size o eacl velicle vas 1.69a single AASH1O HS2044 riuck.
1le roral eecr vas rleieoie aLour 0.S5 o rlar iouuceu Ly a 5-yeai single
lane velicle (vlicl vas 2one HS20 riuck).
In a seaiare aei, ovak (1991) gives coiiesonuing iguies o 1.0, 0.S5,
0.0 anu 0.5 oi 1, 2, 3 anu 4 lanes. 1lar is, i 1.0 ieiesenrs rle 5-yeai velicle
oi one lane, rlen oi 3 lanes, 0. rimes rlis velicle sloulu Le alieu in eacl o
rlese rliee lanes. He goes uirlei, anu links rlese iguies ro aveiage uaily riuck
riaic (AD11), vlicl in rle iesenr conrexr le ueines as rle roral numLei o
riucks riavelling in rle same uiiecrion, uisriiLureu Lerveen rle 1, 2, 3 oi 4 lanes.
His suivey size vas 'aLour 10,000 leavy velicles in 'aLour rvo veeks, Lur rlese
incluueu only 'riucks rlar aeaieu ro Le leavily loaueu. PiesumaLly oi rlis
ieason, le inreiiers rle samle as coiiesonuing ro an AD11 o 1000
(somevlar giearei rlan 10,000/14=14). 1ake as an examle rle case virl an
AD11 o 100, caiiieu Ly rvo lanes. 1le 500rl riuck coiiesonus rlen ro a
ioLaLiliry o 500 in 1.510
6
in 5 yeais, giving an inveise noimal ioLaLiliry o
3.4 anu a size o eacl riuck equal ro 0.S rimes rle ievious 5-yeai value.
ovak gives rle sliglrly uieienr iounueu iguie o 0.S. His comlere raLle o
mulrile lane acrois is slovn in 1aLle 6.1.
1lese iesulrs come iom limireu uara anu aie Laseu airly on 'engineeiing
juugmenr. ovak, assi anu De Iiain (1993) suLsequenrly veigleu anu
iecoiueu riuck riaic on rvo majoi US liglvays, eacl virl 2 lanes in eacl
uiiecrion. 1le iesulrs aie imoiranr anu incluue rle olloving uiiecr oLseivarions
o mulrile iesence, virl rlese reims ueineu as ollovs:

(a) in-lane: rvo riucks olloving eacl orlei virl a leauvay uisrance (axle ro
axle) less rlan 15.2 m,
(L) siue-Ly-siue in ranuem: rvo riucks in aujacenr lanes, riavelling in rle same
uiiecrion, virl ionr axles on rle same line,
(c) siue-Ly-siue anu Lelinu: as (L), Lur virl rle uisrance Lerveen ionr axles less
rlan 15.2 m.

In-lane mulrile iesence involveu aLour eveiy 100rl riuck. Siue-Ly-siue mulrile
iesence (L+c) roralleu aLour 4 ro m eveiy 100 riucks, uiviueu aLour equally
Lerveen (L) anu (c). 1le veiglrs o rlese velicle-aiis veie nor iecoiueu in rle
sruuy.
Table 6.1
Heyvoou (1990, 1992a, 1992L) caiiieu our rvo imoiranr sruuies on
mulrile iesence in rvo aujacenr lanes, imoiranr nor only in rlemselves, Lur
Lecause rley uemonsriareu coiielarion Lerveen a simularion anu a rleoierical
analysis. Ioi rlis uiose le useu uara collecreu ar a sire on rle Sruair Higlvay
ar Daivin in rle oirlein 1eiiiroiy o Ausrialia. 1lis uara vas oi 3,553
riucks, noirlLounu, ovei a roral eiiou o 221.2 uays, iom ây ro DecemLei,
19S9. Ir incluueu inoimarion oi all velicles virl veiglrs aLove a ceirain
rlieslolu level, incluuing axle sacings anu veiglrs, anu rle rime o aiiival ar rle
sire. 1lis aiiival rime vas iecoiueu in seconus, coiiesonuing ro a iesolurion o
aioximarely 25 m ar liglvay seeus. 1o avoiu an incoiiecr juxraosirion o
velicles in rle simularion, a ianuom iacrion o a seconu vas auueu ro rle aiiival
rime o ceirain velicles, virl saeguaius ro ensuie a minimum leauvay.
Pioceuuies veie also auoreu ro iemove gas in rle iecoiu.
In lis simularion sruuy, le ian rlis sequence o velicles ovei a seiies o
inluence lines, incluuing rlose oi miu-san Lenuing momenr in a simly
suoireu Leam, virl anorlei similai sequence in rle aujacenr lane, laving a
srair rlar vas uelayeu in rime. 1o ensuie rlar riaic eaks occuiieu in Lorl lanes
aLour rle same rime, ir vas uesiiaLle ro cloose a uelay rime rlar vas virlin an
loui o an inregial numLei o uays, Lur vas nor less rlan 10 minures. Ioi rle
comLineu loauing in rvo lanes, le iecoiueu lisrogiams o miu-san Lenuing
momenr anu lorreu rlem on noimal ioLaLiliry aei. He ieeareu rle sruuy oi
vaiious uelay rimes anu oi rle seconu lane moving in rle oosire uiiecrion. 1le
eecrs o rlese vaiiarions on rle lisrogiams veie small.
An evenr can Le ieiesenreu Ly a gial o eecr veisus rime. 1lis gial can
Le ielaceu Ly a sre-vise aioximarion oimeu Ly uiviuing rle rime scale inro
sloir sres, anu assuming rlar rle evenr is consranr ovei eacl sre. 1le roral
evenr can Le seen as a seiies o rlese 'oinr-in-rime evenrs, aiiangeu in sequenrial
oiuei. Heyvoous analysis, Laseu on rle voik o 1uiksria anu âusen (19S0),
assumes rlar ir is rle magniruue anu iequency o rlese oinr-in-rime evenrs (eacl
o uuiarion ) rlar is imoiranr, iarlei rlan rleii oiuei. 1le acrual cuive o
eecr veisus rime vill consisr o gials oi seaiare velicles, seaiareu Ly eiious
vlen rleie is no velicle on rle Liiuge. 1le eecr cuive oi a airiculai velicle
can Le Lioken uovn inro a numLei o oinr-in-rime evenrs, anu rlese useu ro
uereimine a ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurion. Similaily, rle eecrs o a roral
sequence o velicles can Le comLineu Ly auuing rle eecrs o rle seaiare
velicles ro give a roral ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurion anu iom rlar, a
uisriiLurion o cumularive ioLaLiliries. Ler rlis Le vlen is rle magniruue
(say o Lenuing momenr) anu irs cumularive ioLaLiliry, oi all rimes vlen
rleie is a velicle on rle Liiuge. Suose rlar rleie aie rvo lanes, numLeieu 1 anu
2. 1len, i rle riaic sequence in eacl lane is ueineu, rle seaiare uisriiLurions
`
1
anu
`
2
can Le ueiiveu.
Heyvoou comureu uisriiLurions o rlis kinu oi rle Sruair Higlvay
riuck suivey, oi velicles in a single lane, virl rle iesulr slovn in Iig. 6.1. Ir
may Le raken leie as
`
1

o velicles in rle seconu lane. Iuirleimoie, le aioximareu rle cumularive
uisriiLurion slovn in Iig. 6.1 Ly rliee sriaiglr lines (uei cuive in Iig. 6.2),
vleie eacl ieiesenreu a noimal uisriiLurion valiu ovei air o rle iange in
Fig. 6.1 Cumulative probability distribution for point-in-time events, calculated
from truck survey on the Stuart Highway, Australia (Redrawn from Heywood 1992;
used with permission)
Fig. 6.2 Point-in-time distributions for one- and two-lane events, Stuart Highway,
Australia (Redrawn from Heywood 1992; used with permission)
iom =0 ro 99.3, 99.3 ro 1413, anu giearei rlan 1413. 1le ioeiries o rlese
uisriiLurions, in reims o mean anu sranuaiu ueviarion veie (S5.0, 1.0), (64S,
S2) anu (6S0, 311). 1le inreisecrion oinrs o rlese lines can Le calculareu ro
give rle iooirions o rle roral oularion ieiesenreu Ly rle rliee lines. Ioi
examle, rle veirical oiuinare, ro rle inreisecrion oinr o rle iisr rvo
segmenrs is given Ly
S5.0+1.0=64S+S2

Hence

=0.S5
1lis value o rle inveise noimal ioLaLiliry uncrion ieiesenrs a cumularive
ioLaLiliry o 0.S04, rlar is, S0.4' o all oinrs-in-rime lau values o miu-san
momenr less rlan 99.6 km anu rlese vaiieu virl a mean o S5.0 anu a sranuaiu
ueviarion o 1.0. Similaily, rle iooirions o rle orlei uisriiLurions may Le
evaluareu.
Heyvoou rlen consiueieu cases vleie rle eecrs o a velicle in Lorl lanes
vas elr ar rle same rime. 1o uo rlis, le useu ônre Cailo merlous (Benjamin
anu Coinell 190, 124) ro geneiare rvo amilies, eacl sarisying rle srarisrical
uesciirion o Iig. 6.1. He auueu rlese ro give a nev amily anu again useu
noimal ioLaLiliry aei ro uesciiLe rlese srarisrically. Ioi examle, i rle
ioeiries o rle iisr values in rle rvo samles veie
1
anu
2
, rlen rle sum,
1+2
2
, vasa memLei o rle nev amily. 1le iesulrs o rlis auuirion aie slovn
in Iig. 6.2, rogerlei virl rle cuive oLraineu i rle oiiginal uisriiLurion vas useu
uiiecrly, iarlei rlan irs aioximarion. 1leie is ieasonaLle agieemenr. 1lis nev
cuive ieiesenrs rle cumularive ioLaLiliry
`
1+2
.
In iacrice, on a Liiuge virl rvo lanes, rleie aie laige eiious o rime vlen
rle Lenuing momenr is zeio, rlar is, vlen rleie is no velicle in eirlei lane. Ioi a
single lane caiiying riucks ei uay, virl a san, a riuck lengrl, anu a riuck
seeu, (kl), rle ioLaLiliry o any velicle Leing iesenr is given Ly
Ioi examle, oi =20 m, =10 m, =100 kl, anu =500 riucks ei uay ei
lane,

=0.00625

Ler
1
Le rle ioLaLiliry o a riuck Leing iesenr on lane 1, anu
2
rle ioLaLiliry
oi lane 2. 1len rle acrual cumularive iequency, oi mulrile iesence is
given Ly

1le lasr reim is a coiiecrion reim oi rle case vleie rleie is no velicle on rle
Liiuge. All sucl oinrs-in-rime lave rle loau eecr, equal ro zeio. 1le numLei
o sucl oinrs-in-rime musr Le auueu ro rle cumularive ioLaLiliry oi any value
o . 1le simularion vill also geneiare oinrs-in-rime virl alse, negarive values
o anu rlese may Le uiscaiueu. may rleieoie Le evaluareu oi closen
values o .
Iiguie 6.3 slovs rle iesulrs o rlis analysis anu comaies rlese virl rlose
oLraineu iom rle simularion sruuy. 1le oui cuives aie:

1. eecr o riaic in one lane: (a) simularion (L) analysis,
2. comLineu eecr o riaic in rvo lanes: (a) simularion (L) analysis.

Ir can Le seen rlar a useul agieemenr las Leen oLraineu.
Levels o miusan momenr oi vaiious ieruin eiious can Le evaluareu oi
airiculai values o rle aveiage uaily riuck riaic. Heyvoou uiu rlis anu
iecoiueu rle iarios o rle iesulring rvo-lane evenr virl rvice rle value o rle
coiiesonuing single-lane evenr. Some o rlese iarios aie lisreu in 1aLle 6.2.
Ir can Le seen rlar rlese iarios ieacl a maximum o 0.5 oi S000 riucks,
Lur rlis is only a minoi inciease on rle value o 0.2 oi 1000 riucks. 1lese
iarios aie lovei rlan rlose useu in many coues, ovak (1991), oi examle,
gives a iario o aLour 0.S5. Hovevei, rle riaic ar rlis sire is a iarlei secial
case, virl veiy laige single riucks saceu our Lerveen a laige numLei o mucl
Fig. 6.3 Prediction of two-lane events (Redrawn from Heywood 1992; used with
permission)
smallei riucks. 1le value o Heyvoous voik lies nor so mucl in rle values, Lur
in lis conriiLurion ro rle selecrion o a suiraLle merlou o analysis.
Orlei imoiranr sruuies o mulrile iesence may Le ounu in rle aeis Ly
Baklr anu ôses (19SS) anu Baklr anu ]aegei (1990).
Duczmal (19SS anu 19S9, see also Duczmal anu Svannell 19S5, anu Svannell,
îllei anu Duczmal 19S5) ueveloeu a iogiam oi rle analysis o rle uynamic
inreiacrion Lerveen a velicle anu a comosire sreel anu conciere giiuei Liiuge.
His analysis vas exrensive anu incluueu many aiamereis, sucl as rle use o non-
lineai sriess-sriain ielarionslis oi sreel anu conciere, anu rle eecrs o iesiuual
sriess, Lur nor rle eecrs o sriain iare on sriengrl menrioneu in Secrion 5.. Ir
alloveu oi rle riue momenr-cuivaruie ielarionsli anu ioviueu oi a Lumy
ioau. Ir also alloveu oi ieeareu assages o rle velicle, incluuing Lorl
eimanenr anu elasric ueoimarions o rle Liiuge in rle ioauvay ioile. 1le
Liiuge vas assumeu ro Le srarionaiy ar rle Leginning o eacl velicle assage. 1le
Lasic accuiacy o lis analysis vas coniimeu Ly comaiing some o lis
ieuicrions virl rlose iom inueenuenr Lur ielareu sruuies (Clan anu OConnoi
1990a anu 1990L, OConnoi anu Clan 19SSa anu 199SL, OConnoi anu
Piirclaiu 19S2 anu 19S5, Piirclaiu anu OConnoi 19S4).
1lis Secrion uesciiLes iesulrs oLraineu oi successive velicle assages o a
velicle similai ro rle 144 riuck (1.33rle AASH1O HS-20 riuck), Lur scaleu u
ro rle levels iequiieu oi ailuie. Realisric, non-lineai mouels o velicle siings
anu ryies veie incluueu (see OConnoi, KunjamLoo anu ilsson 19S0). Ioi rlis
sruuy, rle iouglness o rle ioau, Lorl on rle aioacles anu on rle Liiuge, vas
mouelleu as a sinusoiual ioile, virl a vavelengrl o 1.2 m (equal ro rle
minimum axle sacing) anu a Lum leiglr oi uouLle-amliruue, iom 420
mm. Ioi one ser o analyses, a velicle velociry o 12.93 m/s vas closen so rlar
rle rime ro riavel a uisrance o 1.2 m equalleu rle iisr naruial iequency o rle
Liiuge (10.S Hz). 1lis comLinarion o velicle seeu, sinusoiual iouglness,
vavelengrl anu axle sacing vas selecreu ro aclieve uynamic excirarion o rle
Liiuge. Orlei analyses veie caiiieu our oi a uieienr velicle seeu. Iiguie 6.4
gives ryical values oi rle seconu anu rliiu axle gious o a 144 riuck
riavelling along a iigiu, Lumy ioau ar seeus o 12.93 anu 19.4 m/s. 1le seeu
o 12.93 m/s, virl a Lum leiglr o 10 mm, gave an imacr acroi o 0.22, com
Table 6.2
6.2 Progressive failure
PROGRESSIVE FAILURE 175
aieu virl rle coue iequiiemenr ar rle rime o eirlei 0.3 oi 0.25. ûcl laigei
imacr values veie oLraineu oi laigei Lums anu ar rle liglei velociry. 1le
Liiuge san vas 11.2S m, closen ro coiiesonu virl rlar o an exisring Liiuge
useu in ielareu sruuies. 1le memLei uimensions veie also rle same as oi rlis
Liiuge. 1le analysis vas nor uiiecreu ar rle ioLlem o riansveise uisriiLurion o
rle loau anu consiueieu eecrively a single giiuei. Hovevei rle loau alieu ro
rlis giiuei vas scaleu so as ro give a uiiecr comaiison virl rle roral Liiuge loau.
Heie rle magniruue o rle roral riuck loau vill Le exiesseu as vleie is rle
numLei o 144 riucks vlicl, i alieu as a sraric loau, virl rle sel-veiglr o rle
Liiuge, voulu cause ailuie.
Iiguie 6.5 is a ryical lor o axle loau againsr rime, oi rle miuule axle giou
o a single 144 riuck, riavelling ovei rle Liiuge ar 12.93 m/s, virl a Lum leiglr
o 10 mm. 1le lor is oi rle irl assage o rle velicle, rle maximum imacr
acroi is aLour 0.32.
Iiguie 6.6 slovs rliee examles o rle eimanenr ser ler in rle Liiuge arei
assages o rle velicle. 1le iisr, (a), is oi =0.55, a velociry o 12.93 m/s, anu
rle Lum leiglrs slovn. Ioi leiglrs o S, 10 anu 12 mm, rle eimanenr ser
Lecame sraLle arei a ev assages. Ioi rle iemaining cases, rle Liiuge aileu
uuiing rle assage olloving rle oinr slovn, rlar is, uuiing rle 24rl assage oi
a 14 mm Lum leiglr. Ioi 16, 1S anu 20 mm Lum leiglrs, ailuie vas uuiing
rle 14rl, rl anu 4rl assages. Iiguie 6.6 (L) is oi =0.66 anu rle same velociry.
or suiiisingly, ailuie occuiieu ar an eailiei srage. Iiguie 6.6 (c) is oi rle
Fig. 6.4 Theoretical impact values for various bump height-sinusoidal profiles
(Redrawn from Duczmal 1989; used with permission)
smallei velicle, =0.55, Lur ar rle incieaseu velociry o 19.40 m/s. Iailuie
occuiieu ar an even eailiei srage.
Ir is cleai iom rlese examles rlar uynamic vleel loaus, vlen couleu virl
rle uelecreu slae iesulring iom eailiei oveiloaus, may cause rle collase o a
Liiuge, even vlen rle alieu loau is vell Lelov rlar vlicl, i alieu srarically,
voulu cause ailuie. Hovevei, as can Le seen iom rle iguie, rle iisk ro rle
Liiuge vaiies virl rle Lum leiglr. Ir may also Le execreu ro vaiy virl rle
ueraileu slae o rle ioau ioile.
Reeareu loaus may cause ciacking anu rle evenrual ailuie o sreel memLeis anu
comonenrs Ly arigue, as uiscusseu Liiely in Secrion 2.6. Iig. 2.24, raken iom
Iislei (19:19), lors lovei Lounu cuives oi rle numLei o cycles ro ailuie
againsr sriess iange oi rliee ryes o sreel memLeis. Ir is imoiranr ro nore leie
rlar rle veirical oiuinare ieiesenrs sriess iange, rlar is, iom rle minimum ro
maximum sriess. Ioi a ully ieveiseu sriess, iom ro rle iange is, rleieoie,
2. Borl oiuinares aie lorreu on a log-scale. Wirl rlese scales, eacl cuive
consisrs o rvo sriaiglr lines virl rle seconu loiizonral, rlar is, rleie is oi rlese
cases a sriess level, calleu rle enuuiance limir, Lelov vlicl arigue ailuie uoes
nor occui. Ioi rle cases slovn, rlese arigue limirs aie:

iolleu Leams 165 ^Pa
velueu lare giiueis 110 ^Pa
coveilareu Leams (ar coveilare enu) 34 ^Pa
Fig. 6.5 Typical plot of axle load against timetheoretical (Redrawn from
Duczmal 1989; used with permission)
6.3 Fatigue loading
FATIGUE LOADING 177
1le rliiu o rlese limirs lies vell virlin rle iange o sriess likely ro occui in
iacrice. Ir is necessaiy, rleieoie, ro consiuei rle ossiLiliry o arigue ailuie. Ioi
rlese cases, rle enuuiance limir is ueineu Ly 210
6
, 310
6
anu S.510
6
cycles on
rle loiizonral scale. 1le ievious secrion ieeis ro vaiious values o rle Aveiage
Daily 1iuck 1iaic (AD11), ovaks sruuy o rle magniruue o riuck loaus, anu
rle eecr o successive velicles, useu a value o 1000, virl a roral numLei o
velicles in a 5-yeai Liiuge lie o 152010
6
. I a maximum loau eecr is causeu
Fig. 6.6 Progressive collapse (Redrawn from Duczmal 1989; used with
permission)
Ly a single velicle, rlen rlis iguie suggesrs 152010
6
sriess cycles. On rle orlei
lanu, rle maximum eecr ar a local level, sucl as in a Liiuge ueck, may Le causeu
Ly rle assage o a single axle. 1le HS2044 velicle lau 4 majoi axles, lus a
sreei-axle. I rle numLei o 4 veie raken as rle numLei o loaus ei riuck, rlen
152010
6
riucks voulu coiiesonu ro moie rlan 6010
6
loau cycles, oi,
eilas, 4010
6
i rle riucks aie sieau Lerveen a numLei o lanes. 1lese counrs
aie also suicienr ro suggesr rlar rle ossiLiliry o arigue ailuie ueseives uirlei
consiueiarion.
1le iisr oinrs ro norice aie rlar nor all riucks vill iouuce rle same iange
o sriess, noi uo rle comLineu roral sriesses vaiy ovei a iange ro
Conceining rle seconu oinr, rle geneial assumrion, Laseu on exeiimenral
sruuies, is rlar rle eecr o mean sriess, i.e. is unimoiranr, alrlougl rlis voulu
Le suiiising i Lorl
max
anu
min
veie comiessive. Iislei (19:19) aigues rlar
ligl rensile iesiuual sriesses alvays occui ar velus anu, oi rlis ieason, rle
sriesses alieu Ly seivice live loaus alvays coiiesonu ro rension ar rle ciirical
locarions oi ciack oimarion anu giovrl: 'mosr o rle arigue lie is exlausreu Ly
rle rime rle arigue ciack ioagares our o rlis ligl rensile iesiuual zone.
Alrlougl rlis aigumenr may nor Le comlerely eisuasive in all cases, ir is
accereu as suicienr in rle iesenr conrexr.
1le seconu acroi is rle iesence o vaiying ianges o sriess. Heie rle noimal
lyorlesis (îneis Hyorlesis) is rlar iooseu Ly înei (1945), Laseu on
eailiei voik Ly Langei (193) anu orleis. He inriouuceu rle iuea o 'arigue
uamage. Iiguie 6. slovs a ryical lor o sriess iange againsr rle numLei o
cycles ro ailuie (leie calleu ). Suose rlar
1
cycles o sriess iange
1
aie
alieu. Ler rle numLei o cycles ro cause ailuie unuei rle sriess iange
1
Le
1
.
Fig. 6.7 Basis of Miners Hypothesis for fatigue damage (Miner 1945)
FATIGUE LOADING 179
1len rle iario
1
1
is raken Ly înei ro ieiesenr rle uamage causeu Ly rle
cycles o
1
Sucl reims can Le evaluareu oi all levels o sriess. 1le coiiesonuing
iarios aie auueu ro ieiesenr roral uamage. 1len ailuie vill occui vlen rle roral
uamage ieacles 1.0, rlar is,

(
1
/
1
)=1.0 oi arigue ailuie
Iislei oLseiveu rlar exeiimenral cuives ryically veie aiallel, as in Iig.
2.24, anu oi rle inclineu sriaiglr lines suggesreu rle ielarionsli,

3

oi

log =log 3 log

Ir may Le slovn rlar rlis sloe (3) is ieiesenreu in all rle sloing lines o rlis
iguie. 1len îneis Hyorlesis suggesrs rlar, oi saery,

(
1
/
3
)=1.0

Iislei also uiscusses an alreinarive Roor êan Squaie lav, vleie rle
comLinarion o a seiies o uieienr ianges o sriess may Le ielaceu Ly rle single
iange o sriess
, evaluareu as

vleie
1
is rle numLei o cycles ar sriess iange
1
, anu
min
is rle minimum sriess iange.
Pievious secrions lave slovn lov sucl aiamereis as rle maximum Lenuing
momenrs in a simly suoireu Leam uue ro seivice velicles may Le lorreu on
noimal ioLaLiliry aei anu ieiesenreu Ly a noimal uisriiLurion o given mean
anu coeicienr o vaiiarion. Sucl uara may Le useu virl one oi orlei o rlese
iules ro ieuicr rle likeliloou o arigue ailuie. 1leie aie, lovevei, some uirlei
marreis rlar neeu ro Le uiscusseu.
înei oiiginally iooseu rlar only sriess ianges in excess o rle enuuiance
limir (
in Iig. 6.) sloulu Le incluueu as conriiLuring rovaius uamage. Iislei

(19:20) caiiieu our resrs rlar incluueu some sriess ianges aLove, anu some
Lelov
. He concluueu rlar rle iesence o some cycles '(in excess o) rle

consranr cycle arigue limircauseu all sriess cycles ro conriiLure ro arigue
uamage. As a iesulr, all sriess cycles veie incluueu in lis calcularions.
1lis iaiseu a uirlei oinr. Acrual iecoius o sriess iouuceu vlen a velicle
asses ovei a Liiuge (see oi examle Clan anu OConnoi 1990L: 15, OConnoi
anu Piirclaiu 19S3:193, 19S5:64S) incluue uynamic eecrs, sueiimoseu on
equivalenr sraric eecrs. 1lese cause nor only liglei sriesses, Lur also incieaseu
cycles o sriesses ar lovei sriess ianges. One merlou o counring rlese cycles is
calleu rle Rain Ilov Counring êrlou (Dovling 192: Aenuix).
Iiguie 6.S is a lyorlerical lor o sriess (oi sriain) againsr rime, virl rle rime
lorreu veirically uovnvaius. âxima on rle cuive lave rle even numLeis, 2, 4, 6
erc, virl rle ouu numLeis allocareu ro successive minima. 1le gial slovs a
lyorlerical uio o varei iunning iom 1 ro S. As ir uios iom oinr 2, rle air
o rle cuive ro rle ler, virl a minimum oinr numLeieu 3, is nor riaveiseu. A
seconu uio is alloveu ro iun iom 2 ro 3, anu so on. 1le counr o cycles incluues
one lal cycle oi rle sriess iange 1S, lus ull cycles coiiesonuing ro rle sriess
ianges 23, 45, 6 erc. 1le naruie o rle mouel gives rle souice o irs name.
1le ioceuuie may Le iogiammeu as ollovs.

1. Scan rle iecoiu, anu allocare rle even numLeis 2, 4 erc ro rle maxima, anu
Fig. 6.8 Rain Flow Counting Method for fatigue (Redrawn from Dowling 1972)
FATIGUE LOADING 181
rle ouu numLeis, 3 erc, ro rle minima, virl 1 as rle srairing oinr. Sroie rle
coiiesonuing sriesses.
2. Consiuei again rle maxima in ascenuing oiuei, 2, 4 erc. I a maximum sucl
as 2 las irs sriess,
2
, less rlan rle succeeuing maximum,
4
(as slovn in Iig.
6.4 (a)), iegaiu rle sriess iange (
2
3
) as a comlere cycle, auu 2 ro rle counr
oi rlis sriess iange, iemove oinrs 2 anu 3 iom rle iecoiu, anu ienumLei all
succeeuing oinrs, virl oinr 4 ienumLeieu as 2. Pioceeu rliougl rle enriie
iecoiu.
3. Rescan rle iecoiu oi rle minima, srairing virl oinr 3, oi examle,
consiuei oinr 21 in Iig. 6.4. I
21
exceeus rle suLsequenr minimum sriess,
23
, rlen counr rle sriess iange (
22
21
) as a comlere cycle, uelere oinrs 21
anu 22 anu ienumLei all succeeuing oinrs.
4. Reear sres 2 anu 3 unril a srage sucl as rlar slovn in Iig. 6.4 (L) is
ieacleu. 1le only inreiioi oinrs aie 2, 3 anu 4, vleie neirlei maximum is
olloveu Ly a laigei maximum, noi is rle minimum olloveu Ly a lovei
minimum. Iinalise rle counr Ly auuing 1 ro rle counr oi eacl o rle lal
cycles l
2
1
l, l
3
2
l erc.

As iesenreu leie, rle merlou counrs lal cycles, i all numLeis aie uiviueu Ly
rvo, rle iesulr is a counr oi ull sriess cycles. An examle oi rle counr o cycles
is iesenreu in 1aLle 6.3 (OConnoi anu Piirclaiu 19S3). 1lese ieiesenr sriesses
calculareu iom sriains measuieu in rle lovei lange o a cenrial giiuei in a small
comosire giiuei Liiuge uuiing rle assage o moie rlan 42,000 velicles, oi a
eiiou o 11 uays (OcroLei 19S1 ro Aiil 19S2). 1le iesulrs lave Leen gioueu
in sriess ianges, eacl o 4.6 ^Pa, virl a maximum o 1.5 ^Pa. 1le reim is
rle iario, sriess1.5.
1le roral numLei o evenrs vas 42,222. I rle maximum eecr o eacl evenr
is counreu, rle iguie
3
Lecomes 2,101. 1le iainlov counr las, rleieoie,
causeu an inciease in rle equivalenr numLei o cycles. eveirleless, rle roral
numLei o equivalenr cycles (3036) is mucl less rlan rle roral numLei o evenrs,
virl a signiicanr conriiLurion iom evenrs a lirrle Lelov rle miuule o rle iange.
Giunuy (19S0) las also iesenreu iainlov counrs oi some Ausrialian iailvay
Liiuges.

Table 6.3

Chapter 7
7.1 Introduction

Dynamic vehicle loads
Dynamic loau eecrs ro Le consiueieu in Liiuge uesign incluue rle olloving.

1. 1le maximum veirical loaus exeireu Ly a moving velicle vill oren exceeu
rlose iouuceu Ly an equivalenr sraric oi slov moving velicle. 1le eecr las
commonly Leen calleu virl rle Imacr Iacroi, ueineu as rle iario
o rle auuirional loau (uynamic minus sraric) uiviueu Ly rle equivalenr sraric
loau. Anorlei reim virl rle same ueinirion is Dynamic Loau Allovance.
Alreinarively, rle Dynamic Amliicarion Iacroi las Leen ueineu as rle iario
o maximum uynamic eecr ro rle maximum eecr iouuceu Ly an
equivalenr sraric loau. Heie, rle oluei reim, imacr, vill Le ieraineu (Lur see
4. Lelov).
2. Longiruuinal loaus may Le alieu Ly Liaking oi acceleiaring velicles.
3. 1leie is also rle ossiLiliry o riansveise loiizonral cenriiugal oices, o rle
oim
2
/ vleie is rle mass o a Louy moving virl rangenrial velociry,
aiounu a ciicle o iauius, . 1lese may aiise in rle case o a Liiuge cuiveu
in lan, oi vlen a velicle clanges irs uiiecrion o movemenr.
4. 1iue imacr occuis vlen rvo Louies rlar aie oiiginally seaiare sriike
againsr eacl orlei. Cases rlar aiise in Liiuge uesign aie vlen a velicle sriikes
a guaiu vall, oi vlen a log oi loaring ice sriikes againsr a Liiuge iei.
Inueeu, rleie is a sense in vlicl all srieam oi vinu loaus may Le classeu as
uynamic loaus.
5. Lairlquake eecrs also iouuce uynamic Liiuge loaus.

or all o rlese vill Le consiueieu leie. Loaus on ciasl Laiiieis aie menrioneu in
Clarei 10, rle eecrs o moving varei anu loaring oLjecrs aie uiscusseu in
MEASURED IMPACT VALUES 183
Clarei 11, virl vinu anu eairlquake eecrs in Clarei 12. 1le iimaiy ocus
o rlis clarei vill Le on irems 2 anu 3.
Dynamic eecrs may inluence rle collase o a sriucruie, ir is common, oi
examle, ro use in Liiuge uesign nor rle equivalenr sraric veirical loau, Lur rlis
loau incieaseu oi uynamic eecrs. 1lis is rlen mulrilieu Ly rle aioiiare
loau acroi ro cleck againsr collase. ôieovei, rleie is rle ossiLiliry rlar
uynamic eecrs may cause uiscomoir ro rle useis o a Liiuge. 1lis ossiLiliry
aiises cliely vlen euesriians slaie use o rle Liiuge virl moving velicles.
Peuesriian loaus aie uiscusseu in Clarei 9, vlicl incluues Secrion 9.3, on rle
'Peicerion o viLiarion. 1lar clarei consiueis rle uynamic excirarion o a
euesriian Liiuge Ly euesriians, vlicl may also Le a ioLlem. Anorlei case is
a Liiuge caiiying a mixruie o srarionaiy anu moving velicles, vleie eisons in
srarionaiy velicles may Le uisruiLeu Ly uynamic movemenrs causeu Ly rlose
rlar aie moving. 1lis ioLlem is nor geneially auuiesseu leie, Lur ieeience
may Le maue ro ISO 2631/119S5,
(see Sranuaius Associarion o Ausrialia (1990) AS260.1). Some
liglvay Liiuge coues srare seciically rlar rlis ioLlem neeu nor Le consiueieu
oi many Liiuges (see oi examle BS 5400: Pair 2:19S: Cl.6.11, BD3/SS:
Cl.6.13). Comoir levels oi iailvay Liiuges aie menrioneu Liiely in Secrion .5
(see Luiocoue 1).
Anorlei ioLlem aiising iom rle uynamic naruie o iimaiy loaus is rlar
rle numLei o occuiiences o a airiculai sriess level may Le incieaseu, leauing
in some cases ro an incieaseu ossiLiliry o arigue ailuie, an examle o rlis
eecr vas given in Secrion 6.3. Secrion 6.2 o rlar clarei also iesenreu some
iesulrs iom a rleoierical sruuy o iogiessive ailuie uue ro ieeareu assages
o a velicle rlar lau Leen uynamically uisruiLeu.
Coue iovisions oi rle uynamic veirical eecrs o iimaiy velicle loaus
veie incluueu in rle uiscussion o coues o iacrice in Clarei 4. 1lis clarei
vill consiuei in some uerail rle Lasic naruie o rlese veirical eecrs, virl a
ieviev o oLseiveu imacr values in Secrion .2, a riearmenr o ioau anu
iailvay riack iouglness in .3, olloveu Ly an accounr o rle uynamic
mouelling o velicle Lelavioui in Secrion .4. Hoiizonral uynamic eecrs aie
consiueieu in Secrion .5, virl a ieviev o coue iovisions anu some analysis o
rleii signiicance anu unueilying assumrions.
Iielu measuiemenrs o rle veirical imacr eecr lave Leen ieoireu Ly many
aurloiiries oi Lorl ioau anu iailvay Liiuges, Lur only a selecrion o rlese vill Le
uesciiLeu leie.
Page (196) uuareu measuiemenrs o rle uynamic vleel loaus rlar
occuiieu vlen a airiculai velicle vas uiiven acioss 30 sloir-san Liiuges anu
6 long Liiuges in rle Unireu Kinguom. 1le velicle is uesciiLeu as an ALC
ânuaroi, rvo-axleu loiiy, virl sraric axle loaus o 60 k on rle ionr anu 100
k on rle ieai axle. O rle sloir-san Liiuges, 10 caiiieu a moroivay, virl rle
7.2 Measured impact values
DYNAMIC VEHICLE LOADS 184
orlei 20 caiiying eirlei Class A oi Class B minoi ioaus ovei a moroivay. 1le
maximum lengrl vas S4.0 m, vleie rlis Liiuge lau rliee sans acioss a
moroivay. In one case, rle velicle ciosseu rle Liiuge in Lorl uiiecrions, giving a
roral o 31 cases. In auuirion, measuiemenrs veie raken oi oui long viauucrs,
incluuing rle A4 Hammeismirl Ilyovei, anu rle Sevein (virl a susension san
o 9SS m) anu Wye (virl a caLle-srayeu san o 235 m) Liiuges (see OConnoi
191a:130, 3S0). In ievieving rlis voik, ir is essenrial ro iememLei rlar rle
imacr values all ieiesenr vleel loaus (uynamic comonenrmean), rley uo nor
iecoiu rle iesonse o rle Liiuge. Vieveu anorlei vay, rley aie measuies o rle
eecr on ryie loaus rlar can Le causeu Ly rle ioau ioiles on a Liiuge, vleie
rlese may Le mouiieu also ro some small exrenr Ly movemenrs o rle Liiuge
irsel. 1le velicle seeus iangeu iom 42.3 ro 64.0 kl.
1le maximum oLseiveu imacr value oi rle sloir Liiuges vas +1=1.5, rle
minimum eak value oi a airiculai Liiuge vas 1.09, rle mean o rle 31
ieoireu eak values vas 1.3 (all Laseu on vleel loaus). 1le aei iecoius rle
osirion o rle eak imacr value on rle Liiuge: in 6 cases, rlis vas virlin rle
iisr 10' o rle lengrl o rle Liiuge, anu in 23, virlin rle lasr 10', rlar is, in
only S cases our o 31, oi 26', vas rle eak imacr value in rle cenrial S0' o
rle lengrl.
In anorlei ielarively nev Liiuge caiiying an unclassiieu ioau ovei a
moroivay, a laige iiiegulaiiry vas oLseiveu ar irs ixeu enu. Heie +1 vas
measuieu as 2.. 1liee orlei Liiuges, auuirional ro rle Lasic giou o 30, veie
iuenriieu virl suiaces rlar veie classeu as: A, goou, B, aveiage, anu C ooi
suiaces. 1le velicle vas iun ovei rlese in Lorl uiiecrions ar seeus iom 1S ro
60 kl. Ioi Liiuge A, rle eak imacr value (+1, vleel loau) oi riavel in rle
voisr uiiecrion, vaiieu iom 1.54 ro 1.6, oi Liiuge B, 1.5S ro 1.96, oi Liiuge C,
iom 1.6 ro 2.29.
Ioi rle oui viauucrs, eak values o +1 vaiieu iom 1.36 ro 1.53. 1esrs veie
caiiieu our ar a nominal velicle seeu o 64 kl, virl rle locarions as vell as rle
magniruues o rle laigei imacr values iecoiueu. Ioi rle Sevein Liiuge, eak
values o aLour 1.66 veie oLseiveu ar rle sourl-easrein enu o rle siue san, anu
ar rle rvo ieis. Llsevleie, ryical values veie o rle oiuei o 1.2S1.33, virl
ren eaks in excess o 1.25 in rle main san. 1le maximum value oLseiveu on rle
Wye Liiuge vas only a lirrle ovei 1.25, ar rle vesrein rovei.
Page also caiiieu our resrs on rle 1iansoir anu Reseaicl LaLoiaroiies resr
riack oi rlis velicle virl rvo ryes o ryies, ar uieienr ryie iessuies,
riavelling ovei lanks virl leiglrs o 20, 30 anu 40 mm, ar vaiious seeus. Ar
60 kl, +1 (oi rle iisr eak) vaiieu iom aLour 1.0 ro 2.23. On rlis
eviuence, eak vleel imacr values (+1) in rle iange 1.09 ro 2. coulu occui,
virl some ueenuence on seeuliglei values occuiiing ar rle liglei seeus.
Page (193a anu 193L) also caiiieu our associareu voik on rle uynamic
analysis o velicle susensions.
Ar aLour rle same rime, Leonaiu, Giaingei anu Lyie (194) oLseiveu
uynamic axle loaus vlen eiglr velicles, o gioss veiglr 32.5 ro 44. ronnes
veie uiiven ovei airiicial Lums o 40 mm leiglr, nor on a Liiuge, virl
vaiying ioiles anu lengrls iom 250 ro 50 mm. 1o quore iom rleii
conclusions:
(a) o cleaily ueineu ielarionsli vas oLseiveu Lerveen gioss velicle veiglr
anu uynamic loauing oi viLiarion.
(L) 1le voik suggesrs rlar rle mosr imoiranr inluence on loauing anu
viLiarion comes iom rle uynamic ioeiries o rle velicle susension
sysrems.

OLseiveu values o +1 (rleii Iiguie S) vaiieu iom 1.56 ro 3.04, oi iom 1.56 ro
2.16 i rle moie liglrly loaueu axles aie ignoieu, oi velicles riavelling ar 64 kl
ovei a 40250 mm lank. Ioui o rle velicles veie iun ovei a smoorl suiace,
virl a ioile saiu ro Le Lerrei rlan rlar aclieveu on mosr riunk ioaus anu
moroivays. Resulrs aie given oi rvo o rlese velicles, moving ar seeus iom 62
ro 1 kl, virl +1 oi rle eak axle loau vaiying iom 1.19 ro 1.2.
A majoi iogiamme oi rle uynamic resring o liglvay Liiuges vas iniriareu
in 1922 Ly ^.Ro o rle Sviss Ieueial LaLoiaroiies oi âreiials 1esring anu
Reseaicl (L^PA). In 195S, a uecision vas maue ro sranuaiuise resr ioceuuies,
anu iom rlen unril 19S1 sraric anu uynamic loau resrs veie caiiieu our on 226
slaL anu giiuei liglvay Liiuges. ûcl o rlis (anu larei) voik las Leen
uesciiLeu Ly R.Canrieni anu lis associares (Bez, Canrieni anu ]acquemouu 19S,
Canrieni 19S4a, 19S4L, 19S, 1992, KieLs anu Canrieni 199). Canrieni (19S4a
anu 19S4L) ieoireu iisr rle measuiemenr o naruial iequencies oi 224
Liiuges, virl sans iom 13 ro S6 m. He lorreu (Hz) againsr rle maximum
san anu ueiiveu rle Lesr-ir cuive:

=90.6
0.923

1le sranuaiu ueviarion o ueairuies iom rlis cuive vas 0.S (Hz). He also
lorreu rle exiession,

100/

oi

=100

Lur rlis renus ro all a lirrle Lelov lis resr iesulrs (see Secrion .4). Daming in
19S conciere Liiuges vas inuicareu Ly rle olloving values o rle logaiirlmic
ueciemenr: minimum, 0.019, mean, 0.0S2, maximum, 0.360.
1esrs oi rle uynamic inciemenr (calleu leie, rle imacr, ) veie caiiieu our
using rvo-axle riucks virl gioss veiglrs iom 110 ro 193 k (mean 15S k),
virl axle sacings in rle iange 3.4 ro 6.0 m, Lur o rlese sacings, moie rlan
0' lay in rle iange 4.50.12 m. 1lese velicles veie uiiven ar consranr seeu,
in sres o 5 oi 10 kl u ro rle maximum aclievaLle seeu, along rle
longiruuinal axis o rle Liiuge. Canrieni (19S4a: Iiguie 9) iesenrs a lisrogiam
o rle maximum seeu oi eacl o 224 resrs, virl rle olloving values:
minimum, 10 kl, mean 4 kl, maximum, S0 kl. O 226 Liiuges, 205 veie
iesriesseu conciere, 5, ieinoiceu conciere, 14, comosire sreel anu conciere,
anu 2, iesriesseu liglrveiglr conciere. 1le mosr common sriucruial
aiiangemenr vas a Liiuge conrinuous ovei moie rlan one san, anu rle
maximum Liiuge sans vaiieu iom 11.0 ro 11S.S m virl a mean o 39.5 m.
1le uynamic inciemenr vas calculareu iom measuiemenrs o uelecrion
(usually ar miu-san) as rle iario o rle maximum auuirional uynamic
comonenr ro rle measuieu sraric uelecrion. 1le inal iecoiueu iogiamme o
uynamic inciemenrs vas limireu ro resrs on conciere Liiuges, in 3 resrs, rle
velicle moveu along rle unuisruiLeu avemenr, in anorlei 69, rle velicle
ciosseu a lank, 50 mm rlick, 300 mm viue, laceu ar rle oinr vleie rle
uelecrion vas iecoiueu.
Canrieni (19S4a: Iiguies 16, 1) lorreu rle measuieu values o iisr
againsr rle san anu rlen againsr rle Liiuge iequency. Iiguie .1 (a) lors rvo
limiring Lounus oi rle oLseiveu values o (i) virlour a lank, anu (ii) virl
rle lank. 1le iisr las an uei Lounu o 0.0 oi iequencies Lerveen 2.5 anu
4 Hz, rle seconu las rvo uei Lounuaiies: ar =2.5 Lerveen 2 anu 3 Hz, anu
oi iequencies o S Hz anu aLove. 1le measuieu values o aie nor slovn
leie, none lie aLove rle uei Lounus anu rlese oim ieasonaLle limirs ro rle
exeiimenral values. Ioi examle, rle maximum iecoiueu values o in rle iisr
ser aie aLour 0.65 ar 2. Hz, 0.66 ar 3.3 Hz, anu 0.34 ar 4.9 Hz. Similaily, oi
rle cases virl a lank, ryical uei Lounu exeiimenral values aie 2.2 ar 2.
Hz, 1.22 ar 4. Hz, anu 2.26 ar S Hz. Hovevei, rle exeiimenral values aie nor
evenly uisriiLureu ovei rle ull iange o Liiuge iequencies, virl only aLour
15' o rle resr values aLove 5 Hz, anu aLour 10' aLove Hz. 1le maximum
iequency vas 14 Hz.
In assessing rlese iesulrs, one musr oLseive also rle riuck claiacreiisrics.
Canrieni uesciiLes rle riucks as 'ully loaueu rvo-axle ri riucks virl lea
siings. Unuei noimal conuirions o avemenr iouglness, rle uynamic vleel
loaus o sucl velicles ieuominanrly occui in rvo iequency ianges 'Louy
LounceLerveen 2 anu 5 Hz, anu vleel loLerveen 10 anu 15 Hz. He
auus rle commenr rlar 'as a lea siing riuck is a nonlineai meclanical sysrem,
irs naruial iequencies aie ueenuenr on rle excirarion amliruue, Leing less
virl incieasing amliruue. Ir can Le seen rlar rle iisr o rle eaks in Iig. .1,
iom 2 ro 4.5 Hz, coiiesonus ro rle Louy Lounce iequencies, vlile rle
seconu, aLour S Hz anu aLove (in rle exeiimenral values) is a lirrle less rlan
rle iange o 1015 Hz quoreu aLove oi vleel lo (see also Secrion .4). 1lese
iesulrs, as virl rlose Ly Leonaiu er al. (194), suggesr sriongly rlar Liiuge
imacr vaiies virl rle riuck claiacreiisrics.
Bez, Canrieni anu ]acquemouu (19S) uesciiLe associareu voik useu ro
suggesr liglvay riaic loaus anu imacr values oi rle 19S9 euirion o rle
Sviss loauing coue SIA160 (see Secrion 4.5), as srareu in rle aei, rle inal
coue iovisions uiei in some iesecrs. Loau mouel 1, vlicl in rle inal coue
consisrs o a rvo-axle giou, rogerlei virl a uisriiLureu loau, is uesciiLeu in rle
aei as coiiesonuing ro an isolareu riuck moving as air o rle noimal Liiuge
riaic. Ioi rlis case, iecommenueu imacr values aie as slovn in Iig. .1 (L).
1ley coiiesonu geneially ro Canrienis (19S4a) uei Lounu oi riucks
moving acioss rle noimal Liiuge avemenr, Lur virl an uei Lounu o 0.S
seciieu oi Liiuge iequencies iom 2 ro 4 Hz.
Fig. 7.1 (a) Upper bounds to values of I observed by Cantieni (1984a, 1984b) for
truck passages with and without a 50 mm plank; (b) Values recommended by Bez,
Cantieni and Jacquemoud (1987) for dynamic load coefficients to be used with the
Swiss Load Model 1
Canrieni (19S, 1992) anu KieLs anu Canrieni (199) lave also uesciiLeu
voik o rlis rye caiiieu our on seciic Sviss Liiuges, noraLly rle DeiLuel
Biiuge, a single-cell iesriesseu conciere Liiuge virl sans o 3, 41 anu 32.4
m, anu rle Soir Biiuge, conrinuous ovei ive sans, virl a maximum o 0.0 m.
In lis 1992 aei, Canrieni also summaiises voik caiiieu our in rliireen
counriies, incluuing Canaua anu rle Unireu Srares. Ir is nor inrenueu ro ieviev
rlis voik leie, alrlougl arrenrion sloulu Le uiavn ro rle AASHO Roau 1esr
caiiieu our in rle Unireu Srares Lerveen 1956 anu 1960, anu ieoireu Lerveen
1961 anu 1962. Ir is aii ro uesciiLe ir as ioLaLly rle giearesr civil engineeiing
ieseaicl iojecr evei caiiieu our, one o irs majoi oLjecrives vas ro oLseive rle
uynamic Lelavioui o Liiuges. Six secial loos o ioauvay veie consriucreu
anu rlese incluueu 16 Liiuges, all o 15.2 m san, virl oui o iesriesseu
conciere, oui o ieinoiceu conciere anu eiglr o comosire sreel anu conciere
consriucrion. Iireen o rlese veie sruuieu unuei aioximarely 1900 assages
o 0 ro S0 velicles o ren uieienr ryes, virl axle lo iequencies iom 10 ro
13.2 Hz, anu iequencies oi Louy Lounce, unuei vaiious conuirions, iom 1.
5.6 Hz. 1le maximum iecoiueu values o rle uynamic inciemenr, veie 0.63
iom uelecrion measuiemenrs (virl SS' Lerveen 0.1 anu 0.4), anu 0.41 iom
sriains (90' Lerveen 0.05 anu 0.30). 1lese values aie ielarively lov, anu
unuouLreuly conriiLureu ro rle ielarively lov values o (0.30 oi less) seciieu
in rle AASH1O uesign coue (see Secrion 4.3). Alrlougl rle numLei o assages
anu velicles is laige, rle numLei o Liiuges srill consrirures a ielarively small
samle.
An eaily Ameiican sruuy,
vas uLlisleu in 1931. Anorlei ieviev is Ly Vainey anu GalamLos
(1965). Bucklanu (19S2) lisreu neeus oi ieseaicl in rlis aiea. Hvang anu
ovak (1991) lave iesenreu a ielarively iecenr rleoierical sruuy. 1leie is a
close link Lerveen voik caiiieu our in rle Unireu Srares anu Canaua,
airiculaily in connecrion virl rle Onraiio Higlvay Biiuge Design Coue
(OHBDC), iisr uLlisleu in 199, anu rle larei euirions o rle AASH1O coue.
Canrieni (1992:32) ieeis ro voik uone Ly Csagoly, CamLell anu Agaival
(192) in connecrion virl rle OHBDC anu says rlar, 'ioLaLly oi rle iisr
rime, rlis ieoir conrains a iesenrarion o rle uynamic inciemenr as a uncrion
o rle unuamenral iequency o rle Liiuge. 1le 199 Onraiio coue vas,
eilas, rle iisr ro seciy uesign values oi I in reims o rle Liiuge iequency.
Ir is aioiiare, rleieoie, ro ieviev some Canauian voik leie.
Billing (19S4) anu Gieen (Billing anu Gieen 19S4) caiiieu our uynamic resrs
on Liiuges ar 22 locarions in Canaua, incluuing ive rvin Liiuges, virl 14 o
sreel virl sans 22122 m, 10 o conciere virl sans 1641 m, anu 3 o rimLei,
all virl sans o aLour 5 m. 1le ioau ioiles on rlese Liiuges aie uesciiLeu as
'goou ro excellenr. Ioui resr velicles ovneu Ly rle înisriy o 1iansoir anu
Communicarions veie useu, rvo o ive axles virl gioss veiglrs o 391 anu
414 k, one o eiglr axles virl a gioss veiglr o aLour 5S0 k, anu a rliee-
axle seivice velicle o gioss veiglr 241 k. Values o sriain anu uelecrion veie
iisr iecoiueu in slov seeu iuns (16 kl) ro enaLle rle caliLiarion o rle Liiuge
oi esrimarion o rle veiglr o assing riucks. Dynamic iecoius veie rlen raken
oi 100 oi moie inuiviuual iuns Ly rle resr velicles, anu also iom riucks rlar
asseu uuiing rle resr. 1le uynamic amliicarion acroi vas calculareu as rle
eak value uiviueu Ly 'an equivalenr sraric iesonse oLraineu Ly smoorling rle
iecoius. Ioi eacl Liiuge, a eak value, raken as a maximum iom rle vaiious
clannels, vas iecoiueu. 1le iesulring imacr values veie ielarively small,
virl a maximum o aLour =0.52 oi a rvo-san iesriesseu conciere Liiuge
(sans 36.6 anu 3S.1 m), virl a naruial iequency o 2.6 Hz. Iiguie .2 slovs
seciieu values o iom rle 199 anu 19S3 Onraiio coues, virl rle uei
cuive oi rle 199 coue. 1le ieuucrion in rle seciieu values iesulreu laigely
iom rlis voik Ly Billing. I rle lovei cuive is raken oi ieeience, rlen only
ive Liiuges gave liglei values o 0.52 ar 2.6 Hz (as alieauy quoreu), 0.42 ar
2.9 Hz, 0.29 ar .2 Hz, 0.33 ar 10.3 Hz, anu 0.32 ar 11.9 Hz. 1le values o
0.42 anu 0.33 veie oi sreel Liiuges. Aair iom rlese ive excerional values,
rle lovei cuive oims a ieasonaLle uei Lounu ro Billings iesulrs. 1le
uynamic amliicarion acroi vas ounu ro ieuuce as rle riuck veiglr
incieaseu. Billing also oLseiveu coeicienrs o vaiiarion oi rle values o
iecoiueu oi airiculai Liiuges. 1ley veie ryically laige, vaiying iom 0.56 ro
1.11, virl a mean o aLour 0.S2.
1le ouirl giou o imacr sruuies ro Le uesciiLeu leie vas caiiieu our on
Six île Cieek Liiuge on rle Cunninglam Higlvay, neai BiisLane (OConnoi
anu Piirclaiu 19S2, 19S5, Piirclaiu 19S2, Piirclaiu anu OConnoi 19S4). As
menrioneu in Secrion 4., rlis Liiuge vas insriumenreu oi rle Ausrialian Roau
Reseaicl Boaiu in 19S1 oi rle uiose o iecoiuing riuck veiglrs anu
Fig. 7.2 Values of the dynamic load allowance (I) specified in the 1979 and 1983
editions of the Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code (Billing 1984)
uimensions. Hovevei, rle siring o rle Liiuge is moie oi less unique, oi rleie is
a comulsoiy veigl-Liiuge km iom rle Liiuge anu, ar rle rime o rlis resr, all
velicles virl a laige gioss veiglr veie iequiieu Ly lav ro Le veigleu.
Alrlougl some riucks leave rle liglvay Lerveen rle veigl-Liiuge anu rle
Liiuge irsel, rle majoiiry uo nor. 1le sire, rleieoie, vas aumiiaLly suireu oi
an imacr sruuy, virl rle Liiuge ciosseu Ly a ianuom samle o seivice velicles,
o knovn veiglr anu uimensions. Accoiuingly, in 19S3, an imacr sruuy vas
auueu ro rle oiiginal iogiamme.
1le insriumenreu Liiuge caiiies rle rvo easr-Lounu lanes o a uiviueu
liglvay. Ir is o comosire consriucrion, virl ive iolleu sreel joisrs, 610 190
mm140 kg/m, suoiring a 1S mm slaL, anu ive simly-suoireu sans
iom 11.2S ro aLour 13.5 m. O rlese, rle 11.2S m san, rle iisr san ieacleu
Ly riaic, vas insriumenreu virl sriain gauges on rle Lorrom lange, 0.45 m on
rle aioacl siue o rle cenrieline. 1le Liiuge vas caliLiareu Ly loauing ir virl
a sraric, knovn velicle anu rle cenrial Lenuing momenr vas exiesseu as a
consranr mulrilieu Ly rle veiglreu sum o rle sriains (virl veiglring acrois,
1.2S, 1.13, 1.0, 1.13 anu 1.3S). 1le Liiuge lau Leen selecreu arei riials virl
anorlei Liiuge, anu srainless sreel/relon inseirs veie auueu ro rle moving
Leaiings ro ieuuce iicrion.
1le iisr imacr sruuy vas caiiieu our on S DecemLei 19S1. OLseiveis
veie srarioneu ar rle Liiuge anu veigl-Liiuge anu o 356 velicles ciossing rle
Liiuge, 13 eecrive coiielarions veie aclieveu. Dara oLseiveu ar rle veigl-
Liiuge incluueu rle velicle uesciirion, gioss veiglr, veiglr o eacl axle giou
anu rle uisrances Lerveen rle cenries o rle axle gious. Only single anu uual-
axle gious occuiieu, in rle seconu case, rle uisrance Lerveen axles vas
assumeu ro Le 1.5 m, Laseu on orlei Ausrialian sruuies. 1le iesulrs aie slovn
in Iig. .3, virl +1 lorreu againsr rle gioss velicle mass. 1le gial also
slovs a mean line iouuceu Ly a lineai iegiession analysis, anu esrimares o rle
95' anu 5' coniuence lines. 1le iecoiueu values o vaiy Lerveen 0.03 anu
+1.32 virl a mean o +0.3S. 1le uei Lounu values aie ligl. Ir vas ueciueu ro
ieear rle resr, on SeremLei 19S3, virl anorlei 33 coiielarions, as slovn in
Iig. .4. In rlis resr, vaiieu iom +0.21 ro 1.31, virl a mean o +0.2.
1le magniruue o rlese values, comaieu virl rlose iom orlei ielu
sruuies, iomreu uirlei voik, Lorl exeiimenral anu analyrical: some o
vlicl is uesciiLeu in Secrion .4. Clan (see Clan 19SS, Clan anu OConnoi
19S6, 1990a, 1990L, OConnoi anu Clan 19SSa, 19SSL) caiiieu our uirlei
resrs on Six île Cieek Liiuge, virl auuirional sriain gauges ioviueu ro allov
rle esrimarion o cuives o axle loau againsr rime oi moving velicles (see
Secrion .4). He ie-caliLiareu rle Liiuge anu rlen ieeareu Piirclaius voik
oi 130 velicles ciossing rle Liiuge uuiing a eiiou in ]une 19S, o vlicl 2
veie veigleu ar rle veigl-Liiuge, rle sraric veiglrs o rle orleis veie
esrimareu iom rle uynamic iecoius using lis iogiam oi rle esrimarion o
axle loaus. As slovn in Iiguie .5, values o iangeu iom 0.20 ro +1.25
virl a mean o 0.51.
I rlese resrs aie comaieu, ir is aaienr rlar all gave ligl values o
1.32, 1.31 anu 1.25 (+1=2.32, 2.31 anu 2.25). 1le means vaiieu in rle
olloving clionological oiuei: 0.3S, 0.2 anu 0.51. On inquiiy o rle âin
Fig. 7.3 Values of I+1 observed by Pritchard in his first impact study of Six Mile
Creek Bridge (Redrawn from Pritchard 1982; OConnor and Pritchard
Fig. 7.4 Values of I+1 observed by Pritchard in his second impact study of Six Mile
Creek Bridge (Redrawn from Pritchard 1982; OConnor and Pritchard 1985)
Roaus Deairmenr, ir vas ounu rlar Lerveen rle iisr anu seconu imacr
sruuies, rle ioau on eirlei siue o rle Liiuge lau Leen iesuiaceu, virl no
iesuiacing alieu ro rle Liiuge irsel, as a iesulr rleie vas an incieaseu uio
iom rle aioacl ioau ro rle Liiuge suiace. 1len, in Aiil 19S5, an oveilay
o 20 mm o Lirumen vas alieu ro rle liglvay virlour inreiiurion ovei rle
Liiuge, leauing ro a ieuuceu uio on enriy. 1lis lisroiy is consisrenr virl rle
vaiiarion in rle oLseiveu mean values. Clan esrimareu rle Liiuge iequency as
10.S Hz. Ir is useul ro oLseive rlar rlis lies virlin rle seconu eak o imacr
values ounu Ly Canrieni (see Iig. .1 (a)) in lis voik virl a lank on a Liiuge.
Wleel lo vas iecoiueu Ly Canrieni as occuiiing commonly Lerveen 10 anu
15 Hz. Slav (1993) esrimareu values in rle iange 1012 Hz iom uynamic
analyses o rvo susensions (slovn in Iigs. .15 anu .16). Ir also sloulu Le
ieeareu rlar rlis sruuy is unusual in rlar rle measuieu values o aie oi a
viue iange o seivice velicles.
1leie lave also Leen sruuies on rle eecrs o Liaking on rle veirical loau
alieu Ly velicle ro a Liiuge oi avemenr.
Secrion 4.S sloveu rlar rleie vas an eaily inreiesr in rle uynamic loaus
alieu ro iailvay Liiuges. Some o rlis vas uue ro rle naruie o eaily sream
locomorives, Lur rle ioLlem srill iemains. Ir uieis iom rle case virl liglvay
Liiuges in rvo vays: (a) rle susension claiacreiisrics anu geomeriy o iailvay
Fig. 7.5 Values of I+1 observed by Chan on Six Mile Creek Bridge (Redrawn from
Chan 1988; Chan and OConnor 1990a)
Liiuges aie uieienr, anu (L) rle naruie o iail anu vleel iouglness also is nor
rle same. A ev Ausrialian ielu sruuies vill Le iecoiueu leie.
ûllei anu Dux (19SS, 1992) lave ieoireu ielu sruuies caiiieu our uuiing
DecemLei 19S anu âicl 19SS on a iesriesseu conciere giiuei iailvay Liiuge
in Cenrial Queenslanu, Luilr in rle eaily 19S0s. Ir las rliee sans o 15 m anu
rliee o 25 m, eacl virl rliee giiueis ei san. 1le ueck is Lallasreu. 1le Liiuge
caiiies coal riains, eacl virl ryically 111 ro 14S vagons o gioss mass S0 oi 2
ronnes, equally uisriiLureu Lerveen oui axles. An inuusriial riain may Le u ro 2
kilomeries in lengrl, virl u ro ive elecriic oi six uiesel elecriic locomorives
uisriiLureu along irs lengrl, anu rlese lave nominal axle masses o 1S.3 (elecriic)
oi 16.3 ronnes. Ir is aaienr rlar rle vagon axle loaus (20 oi 1S r) may exceeu
rlose iom rle locomorives. 1le noimal iunning seeu o rle riains is 40 ro 60
kl, virl a legal iesriicrion ar rle rime o 60 kl. 1le cuiienr coues o iacrice
(ARLA oi Ausrialian anu ev Zealanu Railvay Biiuge Design ânual, see
Secrion 4.11) seciieu imacr values o 30' oi rle 15 m san anu 22' oi rle
25 m san.
1lese sruuies inuicareu rlar measuieu imacr values veie small oi smoorl
riack. Hovevei rle clie cause o concein ielareu ro rvo common ueecrs. I a riain
Liakes slaily so as ro cause rle vleels ro sliue along rle iails, vleel lars aie
oimeu. 1le geneial iacrice on rlis line vas rlar vleels veie nor iemoveu oi
iemaclining unril lars sloveu a ueviarion o aiounu 2 mm iom rle oiiginal
ciiculai slae. ûllei anu Dux (19SS:23) nore rlar 'iecoius ro uare inuicare rlar
exrieme cases o vleel ueecrs virl ueviarions o u ro 5 mm anu lar lengrls o u
ro 125 mm exisr oi some sloir rime. 1le seconu ielareu ueecr is 'vleel Luin,
causeu Ly a locomorive sinning irs vleels ro oLrain riacrion. Heie rle ueecr is ler
in rle iail, nor only is air o rle iail leau giounu our ro oim a ueiession, Lur a
molren siay o uiolers o meral is ueosireu on rle iail Lelinu rle vleel anu
laiuens ro oim a lum. ûllei anu Dux (19SS:23, 1992: 362) lave iecoiueu
eviuence o a uerl o vleel Luin o aiounu 3 mm, Lur exrieme vleel Luins o
giearei uerl lave Leen oLseiveu'oi examle, Luins comlerely rliougl rle
leau o rle iail anu inro rle veL. Orlei riack iiiegulaiiries incluue Larreieu oi
mismarcleu joinrs, velu iiiegulaiiries, ciacks in rle iail, anu suiace coiiugarions,
rle lasr vill Le ieeiieu ro Liiely in Secrion .3.
Ir vas ueciueu ro inriouuce airiicial iiiegulaiiries giounu inro rle ro suiace
o rle iail: eirlei one ueecr 3 mm uee anu 250 mm long, oi 6 mm uee anu 300
mm long in one iail, oi rvo ueecrs 6 mm uee anu 300 mm long saceu 16S0
mm aair in one iail, vleie in Lorl cases one ueecr vas locareu ar a sriain-
gaugeu cioss-secrion neai miu-san. Ioi iacrical ieasons, ir vas nor ossiLle ro
sro riains on rle Liiuge. Ioi riains virl elecriic locomorives a iecoiu vas
availaLle oi a riaveise ar 10 kl on a smoorl riack, anu rlis is useu as a uarum
oi . In orlei cases, rle iecoiueu riaces inuicareu rlar imacr causeu Ly velicles
on rlis Liiuge virl irs inirial smoorl riack veie small, anu rlese measuieu sriains
lave Leen useu as a uarum (vleie slovn in Liackers in 1aLle .1) oi rle eak
values o lisreu on rle nexr age.
Ir can Le seen rlar values in excess o rle coue values (=0.30 oi 15 m, 0.22
oi 25 m) veie iecoiueu in rlese resrs. Hovevei, rle oLseiveu Lase sriess levels
veie ounu ro Le less rlan rlose calculareu Ly noimal rleoiy, o rle oiuei o
6S0' oi rle 15 m san anu S2S9' o rle rleoierical values oi a 25 m
san, ossiLly Lecause o rle eecriveness o rle riack anu Lallasr in
uisriiLuring loau.
ûllei anu Dux also uiav arrenrion ro rle laige numLei o eak sriesses, a
riain virl 14S vagons anu ive elecriic locomorives vill aly 622 axle loaus in a
single assage, anu sueiimoseu on rlese vill Le auuirional uynamic sriess
lucruarions. Clirry, Giunuy anu ^c1iei (1990) lave caiiieu our iainlov counrs
(see also Secrion 6.3, Giunuy 19S0, 19S2, Giunuy anu 1el 19S6) on sriesses
measuieu in seven sloir san Liiuges on rle majoi line iom êlLouine ro
AlLuiy (anu Syuney). Giunuy (1996) commenrs on rlis voik, 'Lxrensive sruuies
o a sranuaiu sriingei-giiuei unueiLiiuge on rle sranuaiu gauge line Lerveen
êlLouine anu AlLuiy aileu ro inu imacr acrois exceeuing 20' o live loau ar
any rime. Hovevei, le goes on ro comaie oLseiveu anu calculareu sriesses ar a
covei lare enu anu again inus rlar rle oLseiveu sriesses aie lov. He also
arriiLures rlis 'ro rle loau sieauing eecr o rle iail anu sleeeis.
Ir sloulu Le menrioneu, inirially, rlar mosr measuiemenrs o ioau anu iail
iouglness aie nor iimaiily conceineu virl Liiuges Lur iarlei virl sucl marreis
as velicle iiuing qualiry anu saery, anu virl rle mainrenance o ioaus.
1le Geneial ôrois (G^R) ioau ioilomerei vas ueveloeu in rle 1960s
(Sanglei anu Kelley 1965). 1lis useu a 152 mm ioau-olloving vleel mounreu
on a riailing aim Lenearl rle measuiing velicle. 1le iincile o rle sysrem is
slovn in Iig. .6: rle sensoi vleel is connecreu Ly a siing anu uaslor
sysrem ro a mass, . 1vo measuiemenrs veie maue: a orenriomerei vas useu
ro measuie rle ielarive uislacemenr Lerveen rle vleel anu rle mass, anu an
acceleiomerei mounreu on rle mass gave ieauings o acceleiarion rlar veie
inregiareu rvice virl iesecr ro rime ro give uislacemenr. 1le sum o rle rvo
uislacemenrs gave rle ioau ioile.
Iiguie . slovs rvo lorogials o a ioilomerei rlar vas ueveloeu Ly
OConnoi anu Yoe (Yoe 19S6) ro oeiare on rle same iincile. Ir lau
essenrially rliee comonenrs: a Licycle vleel mounreu on a cenrial iame
ivoreu on an axle, mounreu ar rle ieai o a velicle, rvo siue aims ivoreu on
Table 7.1 Peak values of I
7.3 Road and rail roughness
Fig. 7.6 Diagrammatic view of GMR Profilometer
Fig. 7.7 Profilometer developed by OConnor and Yoe (Yoe 1986)
rle same axle anu suoiring rvo masses vlose cenries o giaviry veie
concenriic virl rle axes o rle Licycle vleel, anu a connecrion uerail seiving rle
same uncrions as rle connecrion in Iig. .6. Iiguie .S slovs a ieviseu
connecrion uerail oi rle Yoe ioilomerei, virl a cenrially mounreu lineai
uislacemenr riansuucei, a concenriic coil siing mounreu Lerveen an uei
isron anu rle suiiounuing cylinuei, anu iovision oi aii uaming. Larei
ioilomereis, sucl as an eaily examle ueveloeu Ly rle Biirisl 1iansoirarion
anu Roau Reseaicl LaLoiaroiy (Srill anu Winnerr 1956, Srill anu ]oiuan
19S0), iely on conracrless sensois o rle ioau ioile, Lur srill use oi air o rle
measuieu uislacemenr an inregiarion o veirical acceleiarion measuiemenrs, rlis
can cause uiiculry in rle selecrion o rle inirial consranrs o inregiarion.
Given rlar longiruuinal (anu also riansveise) ioau ioiles can Le measuieu,
rleie is srill a ioLlem in rle assessmenr anu use o rle iesulring iecoius,
airiculaily in rleii alicarion ro Liiuge uesign. One ioceuuie is ro aly rle
Iasr Iouiiei 1iansoim anu ielace rle iecoiu Ly irs iequency comonenrs.
Fig. 7.8 Later suspension detail for the Yoe profilometer
ROAD AND RAIL ROUGHNESS 197
Anorlei is rle use o a so-calleu quairei-cai mouel rlar is iun eirlei lysically oi
rleoierically along rle Lumy ioau. 1lis consisrs o a siung mass,
suoireu
Ly a siing o sriness,
anu uamei virl a lineai viscous uaming coeicienr

o
on an axle o unsiung mass
iesring on a ryie o sriness,
(as
iooseu inirially Ly Gillesie, Sayeis anu Segel (19S0)). In moie iecenr aeis,
Sayeis (19S9, 1995) las iooseu sucl a mouelrle IRI oi Goluen Cai virl
rle olloving aiamereis:

=6.0 sec
1

=653 sec
2

=63.3 sec
2

=0.15
1lis mouel is iun along rle ioile ar S0 kl, rle roral aLsolure value o rle
veirical movemenr o
is accumulareu, anu rlen uiviueu Ly rle lengrl, (m), o

rle iecoiu. 1le iesulring uimensionless aiamerei, o rle oim o a sloe, vas
accereu in 19S6 as an inreinarional iouglness inuex (IRI).
Ir is nor immeuiarely aaienr lov rlis measuie may Le alieu ro Liiuge
uesign. One suggesrion (maue Ly OConnoi in 1990, Lur unuLlisleu) is ro
oLseive rlar rle quairei-cai mouel las rvo uegiees o ieeuom, virl rvo
coiiesonuing iisr naruial iequencies o viLiarion. Ir is ossiLle ro selecr rle
quairei-cai aiamereis so rlar rlese naruial iequencies coiiesonu ro rlose o
inreiesr in Liiuge uesign. 1le ser in 1aLle .2 envisage
=4000 kg anu lave rleii

iequencies (in Hz) emLouieu in rleii uesignarions.
1le values o
aie sucl rlar, Laseu on a simliieu analysis, an inirial

axle uisruiLance ieuuces ro aLour 0.2rle inirial value in aLour 2.0 cycles. 1le
eecrive classis uaming is less: ro 0.2 in aLour 33.6, 6.2, 10.5 anu 20.6 oi rle
quairei riucks in rle oiuei quoreu, QR 3.5/ is unuameu.
1le suggesreu sriaregy is rlar ioiles Le iareu Ly iunning eacl riuck
rleoierically ovei rle ioile ar closen seeus, iecoiuing ieacrions ar rle avemenr
ro ryie inreiace. Peak values o voulu Le calculareu anu lisrogiams o voulu Le
sroieu, rogerlei virl rle maximum value. 1lese voulu rlen Le examineu, anu an
aioiiare oirion o rle ioile aiounu rle oinr o maximum voulu Le
ker, oi eacl quairei riuck anu seeu. In rlis vay, seciic ioau ioiles anu
seeus, knovn ro cause ligl oi a airiculai aii o iequencies, voulu
Lecome availaLle oi use in analyses oi Liiuge-velicle inreiacrion. 1le IRI
Quairei Cai voulu also Le iun along rle ioiles, ar S0 kl, anu rle Inreinarional
Table 7.2
Roau Rouglness Inuex iecoiueu. Ir is ossiLle rlar a sre o closen size coulu Le
auueu ro rle ioile ar rle oinr o enriy ro rle Liiuge.
1le uiscussion o iail anu vleel iouglness in Secrion .2 is suicienr ro
ioviue a geneial inriouucrion ro mucl o rle ioLlem oi iailvay velicles. 1leie
is, lovevei, anorlei oim o iail iouglness uesciiLeu geneially as iail
coiiugarion. Giassie anu Kalousek (1993) classiy six ryes o coiiugarion:
1. leavy laul, virl a vavelengrl 200300 mm,
2. liglr iail Lenuing, 5001500 mm,
3. uue ro sleeei iesonance, 4560 mm,
4. uue ro conracr arigue, 150450 mm,
5. iurring, 50 mm (riams), 150450 mm (riains), anu
6. ioaiing iails, 25S0 mm, iom an unknovn cause.

1le coiiesonuing iequencies oi a velicle riavelling ar, say 60 kl, aie ligl,
iom rle oiuei o 600200 Hz oi ioaiing iails, ro aLour 10 Hz oi liglr iail
Lenuing. One voulu execr rlar only rle lovei iequencies voulu Le signiicanr
in Liiuge uesign.
1lis secrion uesciiLes rvo classes o analysis oi liglvay Liiuge-velicle
inreiacrion caiiieu our ar rle Univeisiry o Queenslanu unuei rle geneial
sueivision o OConnoi anu P.Svannell. Ir also ieeis Liiely ro some voik on
iailvay Liiuge imacr.
Iielu imacr sruuies Ly Piirclaiu (19S2, OConnoi anu Piirclaiu 19S2,
19S4, 19S5) suggesr rlar imacr in a liglvay Liiuge is velicle ueenuenr, oi ir is
oLseiveu ro vaiy viuely iom velicle ro velicle. 1leie is a giear iange in rle
geomeriies o mouein riucks anu rleii susensions, Lur, in auuirion, ir is ossiLle
rlar susension claiacreiisrics may vaiy Lerveen unirs maue ro rle same uesign.
1le use o a single velicle ro exloie imacr eecrs is laiuly likely ro give
comlere iesulrs, anu rleie aie logisrical uiiculries in using a suicienr numLei
o velicles oi ielu sruuies. Ioi rlis ieason, Slav (1993, Slav anu OConnoi
19S6) exloieu rle olloving sriaregy.

1. LsraLlisl a laLoiaroiy aciliry oi rle iaiu oLseivarion anu iecoiuing o a
riuck susension unir.
2. Recoiu rlis essenrial uara oi a viue iange o commeicial velicles Ly liiing
rlem oi rle sloir rime necessaiy oi rlis rask.
3. Develo a geneial uiose analysis iogiam vlicl can rake rlis uara anu
simulare rle uynamic Lelavioui o rle velicles as rley ass along Lumy
ioaus o seciieu ioile, anu acioss a Liiuge.

Susension ioeiries vlicl aie iequiieu incluue:

7.4 Analyses for bridge-vehicle interaction
ANALYSES FOR BRIDGE-VEHICLE INTERACTION 199
(a) rle geomeriy o rle susension,
(L) rle mass anu mass momenr o ineiria o eacl memLei,
(c) rle oice-uelecrion ielarionslis oi rle siings,
(u) rle oice-uelecrion ielarionslis oi rle ryies ar vaiious ryie iessuies, anu
(e) rle oice-velociry ielarionslis oi rle slock aLsoiLeis.

Some o rlese ioeiries may iequiie calcularion, Lur many may Le measuieu,
oi examle, loau cells Luilr inro rle looi may Le useu ro measuie axle veiglrs
oi rle comlere velicle, oi virl rle classis suoireu Ly an oveileau ciane,
anu a iig coulu Le useu ro aly sraric loaus ro rle siing-ryie assemLly virlour
uismanrling rle velicle. As air o rlis iocess, iuenriicarion numLeis voulu Le
allocareu ro all noues anu memLeis. 1le iogiam ueveloeu Ly Slav alloveu
oi six memLei ryes: rle classis, lumeu masses, iigiu memLeis, slock
aLsoiLeis, siings anu vleel memLeis, ir coulu Le exrenueu ro incluue aii Lags
oi roision Lais. 1le exeiimenral, laLoiaroiy lase o rlis sriaregy las nor
Leen caiiieu our anu is availaLle ro orleis ro use. 1le comurei iogiam las,
lovevei, Leen ully ueveloeu. Ir is useul ro uesciiLe leie irs main earuies anu
some ryical iesulrs.
Lailiei voik vas caiiieu our Ly KunjamLoo on rle susension claiacreiisrics
o a ieai-axle unir iom an Inreinarional ACCO 1S10A riuck (OConnoi,
KunjamLoo anu ilsson 19S0, KunjamLoo anu OConnoi 19S3). 1lis incluueu a
main siing o ouireen leaves, virl an auxiliaiy siing o oui leaves coming inro
lay ar a uelecrion o 0 mm. 1le loau-uelecrion ielarionsli is slovn in Iig.
.9 (a). 1le rvo lases o Lelavioui, virl anu virlour rle auxiliaiy siing, aie
cleaily visiLle. 1leie is also a maikeu seaiarion o rle loauing anu unloauing
cuives. Borl aie non-lineai, Lur lineai aioximarions aie slovn. 1le rvo non-
lineai cuives aie ueineu Ly rle olloving ielarionslis:
loauing cuives:

=0.126S+0.000S93
2
oi 0
=2.5540.090204+0.00342
2
oi >0

unloauing cuives:

=1.90+0.115+0.0005
2
oi 0
=2.S050.1544+0.0033S9
2
oi >0

rle lineai aioximarions aie:

=0.155 oi 0
=2S.44S+0.5639 oi >0

In rlese exiessions, is rle uelecrion, in mm, anu rle oice, in k. 1le
seaiarion Lerveen rle loauing anu unloauing cuives iequiies rlar, i rle siing is
loaueu ro a ceirain oinr anu rlen unloaueu, rleie musr Le an unloauing
riansirion ro connecr rle rvo cuives as slovn in Iig. .9 (L). I (k) is rle
veirical uisrance Lerveen rle cuives ar rle oinr vleie unloauing commences,
rlen KunjamLoo ounu rlar rle loiizonral lengrl, (mm) o rle unloauing
riansirion vas given Ly

=0.535

He exloieu rle use o a lyeiLolic riansirion cuive o rle oim slovn in rle
iguie, virl ielarive cooiuinares, anu
2
Ir sloulu Le emlasiseu rlar, in
rle iesenr conrexr, rle slae o rlese riansirion cuives is o aiamounr
imoirance, oi as a riuck moves along a Lumy ioau, rle loau on rle siing vill
vaiy, anu rle eecrive siing sriness uuiing rlese vaiiarions vill Le ueineu Ly
rle riansirions iarlei rlan rle Lasic loauing anu unloauing cuives. Ioi a mass,
on a siing o sriness,
, rle naruial iequency, is given Ly

=1/

Fig. 7.9 Load-deflection curves for spring and tyre (Redrawn from Kunjamboo and
OConnor 1983)
vleie rle eiiou, is

1le claiacreiisric iequency o rle susension is, rleieoie, laigely inluenceu Ly
rle eecrive sloe o rle riansirion cuives. 1le aiea Lerveen an unloauing anu
loauing riansirion also coiiesonus ro a loss in eneigy anu ioviues a souice o
uaming. Delecrion o a lea siing iesulrs laigely iom sliuing Lerveen rle
leaves. 1le slae o rlese riansirions vill ueenu leavily on inrei-lea iicrion. Ir
is conceivaLle rlar rlis vill vaiy virl rle conuirion anu age o rle siings, so rlar
rle viLiarion iequency o a lea-siing susension sysrem may also vaiy Lerveen
unirs rlar aie nominally iuenrical.
KunjamLoo also oLraineu loau-uelecrion cuives oi rle aii o 9.020
Olymic cioss-ly ryies irreu ro rle Lack axles o rle Inreinarional riuck, one ser
o rlese is also slovn in Iig. .9. He ueineu rle loauing cuive as maue u o an
inirial seconu oiuei olynomial, iom 0 ro rle oinr olloveu Ly a sriaiglr
line, virl all rle goveining aiamereis exiesseu in reims o rle ryie iessuie,
(kPa). KunjamLoos exeiimenral voik useu ryie iessuies iom 4S3 ro 690 kPa,
lis exiessions aie assumeu ro Le valiu oi >400 kPa. As Leoie, rle veirical
oice scale is in k, anu rle uislacemenr, anu orlei loiizonral aiamereis
in mm. 1len:

=9.32+0.01146
=S.1555+0.04S
2
oi
oi

vleie rle coeicienrs anu aie given Ly

=0.309S+0.002
2
2

1lese exiessions ueine rle loauing cuive, rle veirical oiuinare o rle unloauing
cuive is raken as 0.9rlar oi rle loauing cuive. 1le lineai aioximarion slovn
is given Ly
=0.2S55+0.0155
KunjamLoo ounu rlar rle use o rlese lineai aioximarions gave a signiicanr
loss in accuiacy. Slavs iogiam allovs oi rle moie iecise ueinirions, Lur virl
rle coeicienrs ielaceu, i necessaiy, Ly values uereimineu Ly orlei resrs.
Slav ioviueu oi oui ryes o siing suoir. His Lasic lea siing is slovn
in Iig. .10, virl a in ar one enu anu a sliei ar rle orlei vlicl allovs
iicrionless movemenr along rle line joining rle sliei anu rle in.
Iiguie .11 slovs rle sliei rye siing, virl a sliei ar eacl enu. 1le
Louy o rle siing is mouelleu Ly rle ourline slovn. oues 1 anu 2 aie joineu ro
rle enus o rle siing, virl movemenrs ielarive ro rle siing ueineu Ly rle siing
loau-uelecrion cuive. oue 2 is arracleu ro rle siing, anu noue 4 may Le useu
oi an auuirional link connecrion ro rle siing. 1lis siing las Lorl mass anu a
mass momenr o ineiria. Auuirional lumeu masses may Le auueu, ar noues 1 anu
2 oi examle.
1le in-enueu lea siing is slovn in Iig. .12. Heie, Lorl enus aie in-
joinreu ro orlei memLeis o rle susension sysrem Lur aie oiceu ro sliue in arls
ielarive ro rle Louy o rle siing Ly rle slors slovn in rle mouel, so as ro
coiiecrly mouel siing uelecrions. Slavs comLinarion rye lea siing las a in
ar one enu anu a sliei ar rle orlei, as slovn in simliieu oim in Iig. .13. He
also alloveu oi rle inclusion o a lineai, massless siing, ro enaLle comaiisons
ro Le maue virl rlis simle, classical case.
A susension sysrem may also incluue a slock aLsoiLei o rle rye slovn in
Iig. .14 (a). KunjamLoo (19S2) also caiiieu our resrs on a slock aLsoiLei, ro
measuie rle ielarionsli Lerveen longiruuinal oice anu velociry. His
Fig. 7.10 Two-stage leaf spring
Fig. 7.11 Model for slipper-type leaf spring (Shaw 1993)
ielarionslis aie slovn in Iig. .14 (L). Ir can Le seen, as voulu Le execreu, rlar
rle loauing (oi Lounu) anu unloauing (ieLounu) cuives uiei. Borl incluue a
riansirion Lerveen uei anu lovei cuives (
anu
anu
aie rle
Lounu anu ieLounu uei anu lovei oices) ar a riansirion velociry o 200 mm/
sec. His exiessions oi rlese cuives aie as ollovs:

= 0.00650.000012
2
= 0.50S+0.00149
= 0.02010.000030
2
= 1.22S+0.00S2

vleie rle oices aie in k anu rle ielarive velociry, is in mm/sec. Borl uei
cuives aie lineai.
Iiguie .15 slovs Slavs mouel oi rle ^cGiarl Î2B ranuem axle riailei
susension anu illusriares rliee o lis memLei ryes
Fig. 7.12 Model for pin-ended leaf spring (Shaw 1993)
Fig. 7.13 Model for combination-type leaf spring (Shaw 1993)
Fig. 7.14 (a) Model for shock absorber (Shaw 1993); (b) Force-velocity
relationships for shock absorber (Redrawn from Kunjamboo 1982)
Fig. 7.15 Model of McGrath tandem-axle trailer suspension (Shaw 1993)
(a) memLei 1 ieiesenrs air o rle classis, anu is assumeu ro Le iigiu,
(L) memLeis 2, 3 anu 4 aie also iigiu memLeis,
(c) memLeis 5 anu 6 aie Lorl sliei-rye lea siings, anu
(u) memLeis anu S aie ryies.

Anorlei examle is rle lyorlerical ranuem valking Leam unir slovn in Iig.
.16, Laseu on rle Henuiickson R1340 unir.
1le iogiam, lovevei, eimirs rle analysis o many orlei susension
geomeriies. As in a ryical iame analysis iogiam, rle usei may ioceeu Ly
seciying noues, memLeis (oi connecriviry) anu memLei ryes. As menrioneu
eailiei, auuirional lumeu masses may Le incluueu, ayloau may Le auueu, anu
rlis may eirlei Le ixeu ro rle classis oi alloveu ro Lounce (iee) virl a seciieu
coeicienr o iesrirurion. 1leie is iovision also oi rle alicarion o our-o-
Lalance vleel oices.
Slavs uynamic analysis iuns sucl a susension unir ar consranr velociry
along a ioau ioile virl one o rliee slaes:

(a) rle sinusoiual ioile las sinusoiual Lums, seaiareu i uesiieu Ly lar
secrions o ioau,
(L) a seconu rye las a lengrl o ioau o any ioile, seciieu Ly a ser o equally
saceu oiuinares, anu ieeareu inueinirely, anu
(c) rle ioile may Le aiLiriaiily ueineu Ly a ser o numeiical oiuinares.

1le analysis uiviues inro rvo srages:

1. An inirial iogiam calculares rle uislaceu slae o rle susension unuei irs
ovn veiglr anu rle seciieu sraric loaus.
2. 1le susension is rlen moveu ar consranr seeu along a ioau ioile o
seciieu slae. 1lis uynamic analysis allovs oi non-lineai siing, slock-
aLsoiLei anu ryie claiacreiisrics, anu also oi clanges in geomeriy.
Fig. 7.16 Hypothetical rigid walking-beam tandem suspension (Shaw 1993)
In rle eaily srages o rle voik ir vas assumeu rlar rle siing anu ryies
sraireu ar oinrs on rleii loauing cuives (Iig. .9), Lur ir vas larei iealiseu rlar
rlis may Le an uniealisric assumrion. Iiguie .1 slovs lors o siing oice
againsr uislacemenr assuming srairing osirions: (a) on rle loauing cuive, (L)
miu-vay Lerveen rle loauing anu unloauing cuives, anu (c) on rle unloauing
cuives. or only aie rleie uieiences in rle iesulring Lelavioui, Lur rle inal
oinrs aie all aLour miuvay Lerveen rle rvo cuives. Ir vas ueciueu, rleieoie, ro
eimir rle seciicarion o rle inirial srairing osirion Ly rle aiamerei, , vleie

=

vleie

= rle srairing loau
= rle veirical oiuinare ro rle loauing cuive, anu
= rle veirical oiuinare ro rle unloauing cuive

1le cases uesciiLeu Lelov all lave =0.5.
Iiguies .1S (a) anu (L) slov gials o vleel imacr (maximum uynamic/
Fig. 7.17 Curves of spring force/displacement during the movement of a vehicle:
(a) starting from loading curve; (b) starting mid-way between loading and
unloading curves; (c) starting from unloading curve (Shaw 1993)

Fig. 7.18 Curves of impact versus time for: (a) the McGrath MF2B tandem
suspension; and (b) the hypothetical walking-beam tandem suspension, both
travelling over a 10 mm bump at 100 kph (Shaw 1993)
sraric axle loau) oi rle ^cGiarl Î2B anu rle assumeu valking Leam
susension unirs riavelling ovei a 10 mm ligl Lum ar 100 kl. 1le Lum
slae vas sinusoiual, virl a roral lengrl o 2.22 m. Ar 100 kl, rle rime
necessaiy ro riavel 2.22 m is 0.0S seconus. Ir can ieauily Le seen rlar eak axle
imacr values aie o rle oiuei o 1.6S anu 1.61. Hovevei, i rle rvo axle loaus
aie auueu ro give rle iesulranr loau, imacr values aie mucl less: Iigs. .19 (a)
anu (L) lor rle eak vleel anu iesulranr imacr values oi rle rvo susensions
againsr seeu anu Lum leiglr. In Lorl cases, rle maximum iesulranr imacr
oi a seeu o 100 kl anu a 20 mm Lum leiglr is o rle oiuei o 1.4. O rle
rvo, ir is likely rlar rle iesulranr imacr is moie imoiranr in Liiuge uesign. 1le
roral eecr can Le seen as rle iesulranr loau, uiviueu equally Lerveen rle axles,
rogerlei virl a aii o equal anu oosire loaus iom rle axles, saceu ar 1.524
m. 1lese equal anu oosire loaus coulu laiuly Le execreu ro lave a
signiicanr eecr on rle main sriucruie o a Liiuge, alrlougl rley may Le
ielevanr locally, sucl as in rle uesign o rle looi slaL.
Fig. 7.19 Variation with speed of the peak wheel and resultant forces for: (a) the
McGrath MF2B tandem suspension; and (b) the hypothetical walking-beam
tandem suspension (Shaw 1993)
1vo lases o Lelavioui may Le iuenriieu in Iig. .1S. Ioi Lorl susensions
rle iisr 0.5 seconus is claiacreiiseu Ly equal anu oosire axle-oices
sueiimoseu on oices uue ro a geneial classis movemenr. Beyonu 0.5 seconus,
rlese inirial vleel oscillarions aie uameu our, rle axle oices aie equal anu rleii
eiiouic vaiiarion is uue solely ro classis movemenrs. 1le axle-oice vaiiarions in
rle iisr lase aie uue ro vlar is calleu 'axle lo, anu lave iequencies in rle
iange 1012 Hz oi Lorl susensions. In rle seconu lase, rle vleels uo nor
oscillare, rle Lelavioui is calleu 'Louy Lounce, anu las a iequency o aLour 4.4
Hz. Slav oLseiveu rlar, uuiing rle iisr 0.3 seconus (ar =S0 kl), all ryies anu
siings useu rleii loauing anu unloauing cuives (see Iigs. .9 anu .1), vleieas
arei 0.3 seconus, rle ryies anu siings viLiareu only in rleii riansirion zones.
Iiguie .9 (L) sloveu a ryical riansirion, virl a lengrl =0.535 (mm/k).
Slav calleu 0.535 rle BIAC (oi acroi). He caiiieu our uirlei sruuies (ar
=S0 kl) virl BIAC=0.3 anu 0.1, anu sloveu rlar rle iequencies oi Louy
Lounce incieaseu iom 4.4 ro aLour 5. anu 9.5 Hz. In viev o rle signiicanr
ielarionsli Lerveen rle iequency o rle riuck loaus anu rle naruial iequency
o rle Liiuge, rlis vaiiarion is imoiranr. Values o +1 veie nor giearly alreieu.
Anorlei oinr ro norice is rlar, ar 100 kl, a velicle vill rake 1 seconu ro move
2.S m, rle lengrl o a 2.S m san Liiuge. Comaieu virl rlis, rle uuiarion o
0.5 seconus oi rle axle-lo mouel is ielarively sloir, Lur ir is eviuenr rlar
ieeareu Lums coulu cause rle axle-lo moue ro exrenu ovei rle ull rime raken
oi a velicle ro riaveise rle Liiuge.
1lese cases lau a ayloau o 3000 kg. Ar rle rime, rle maximum allovaLle
loau oi eacl axle giou vas 16 ronnes, coiiesonuing ro a ayloau o 6093 kg.
Iiguie .20 slovs rle eecr o ayloau on rle eak iesulranr imacr oi rle
^cGiarl Î2B ranuem susension, oi seeus o 60 anu S0 kl. Ioi rle liglei
seeu, +1 ieuuces iom 1.2S ar 3000 kg ro 1.15 ar 6093 kg, oi a 10 mm Lum
leiglr.
Slav also examineu rle eecrs o a clange in ryie iessuie, ovei rle iange
400 ro 650 kPa, virl a ayloau o 6093 kg, oi seeus o 60 anu S0 kl.
Alrlougl imacr renueu ro inciease virl ryie iessuie, rle eecr vas small, virl
+1 vaiying iom aLour 1.13 ro 1.15 oi rle liglei seeu.
Ar aLour rle same rime, Clan caiiieu our ielareu voik ar rle Univeisiry o
Queenslanu (Clan 19SS, Clan anu OConnoi 19S6, 1990a, 1990L, OConnoi
anu Clan 19SSa, 19SSL). As menrioneu in Secrion .2, one lase o lis voik vas
ro ieear rle imacr sruuy caiiieu our Ly Piirclaiu (OConnoi anu Piirclaiu
19S5) on Six île Cieek Biiuge. 1lese sruuies iecoiueu imacr values calculareu
iom measuieu Lenuing momenrs, ir sloulu Le iealiseu rlar imacr values ar rlis
level oren exceeu rlose virlin rle axle loaus rlar cause rlem. Clans uiose
vas airly ro claiiy rle ieason vly rle values iecoiueu in Lorl sruuies ar Six
île Cieek Biiuge renueu ro Le liglei rlan rlose oLseiveu elsevleie. His iisr
voik (OConnoi anu Clan 19SSa, 19SSL) invesrigareu rle use o Liiuge sriains
ro measuie acrual uynamic loaus. He rlen (Clan anu OConnoi 1990a)
measuieu ielu imacr values oi Six île Cieek Biiuge anu useu rlese ro iuenriy
riucks rlar causeu laigei imacr anu ro analyse rle iequency secria o rle loaus
rley alieu ro rle Liiuge.


He venr on (see also Clan anu OConnoi 1990L) ro ueine a simle velicle
mouel oi liglvay Liiuge imacr,
in vlicl eacl axle loau is assumeu ro consisr o a consranr
comonenr lus a uynamic comonenr vaiying sinusoiually aLour rle
mean. Iacrois sucl as rle ioau iouglness anu iioi excirarion o rle
velicle aie raken ro Le riansmirreu inro rle amliruues anu rle ielarive
lase angles Lerveen rle loaus.
He ueineu a numLei o reims.

1. 1le uimensionless Liiuge acroi is given Ly

vleie
is rle iisr naruial iequency o rle Liiuge anu, oi a unioim giiuei Liiuge,
is given Ly
Fig. 7.20 Effect of payload magnitude on peak resultant impact for McGrath MF2B
tandem suspension, travelling over a 10 mm bump at 60 and 80 kph (Shaw 1993)
vleie
is rle san
rle Lenuing sriness anu
rle mass ei unir lengrl
is rle velociry o rle velicle. Wirlin rle eiiou (1/), rle velicle riavels a
uisrance, . 1len

1o allov exrension o rle voik ro Liiuges o vaiious san, le ueineu rle
Dynamic ômenr Rario,
D^R=maximum uynamic momenrI
vleie
is rle sum o all axle loaus oi a airiculai velicle.
3. He consiueieu rle case virl mulrile axle loaus anu ueineu rle lase virl
iesecr ro rle Liiuge as
=(rle uisrance iom miu-san ro rle neaiesr loau eak Leoie miu-san)/
Ir ollovs rlar, oi =0, a eak uynamic loau occuis virl rle loau ar miu-
san.
4. He also sruuieu rle iisr naruial iequencies o simly-suoireu giiuei
Liiuges anu ounu rlar rley coulu Le exiesseu virl ieasonaLle accuiacy Ly
rle exiessions,
=consranr
=120 oi iesriesseu conciere giiuei Liiuges anu comosire sreel giiuei anu
conciere slaL Liiuges
=60 oi iecasr iesriesseu conciere Lox giiuei unirs
1le value, =120, vas ounu ro agiee quire vell virl values given Ly
Canrieni (19S4a).

Ioi consranr, rle Liiuge acroi, is a uncrion only o . Wirl =120 anu
=20 m/sec (2 kl), =6.0.
Clan ueveloeu rvo iogiams oi rle analysis o a Liiuge unuei rle acrion
o uynamic loaus, incluuing uaming in rle Liiuge. Iiguie .21 slovs rle
vaiiarion o cenrial Lenuing momenr virl san oi a single unir mean loau (k),
a uynamic comonenr o 10', =6.0, a loau iequency
equal ro rle Liiuge

iequency a san o 20 m, anu equal ro 0. Ioi an equivalenr sraric loau, rle
maximum Lenuing momenr voulu Le 5 km. 1le acrual maximum is aLour 6.5
km, giving +1 equal ro 1.3. Similai analyses veie caiiieu our ar =3.0, anu
lases o 0 anu 0.4, rle coiiesonuing values o +1 veie 1.29 anu 1.12. Cleaily,
imacr is aecreu Ly rle lase o rle uynamic loau virl iesecr ro rle Liiuge. Ir is
also aecreu Ly rle eicenrage uynamic loau anu irs iequency, as slovn in Iig.
.22. 1le maximum eecr is vlen
anu oi rlis case is lineaily ielareu ro

rle eicenrage uynamic loau.
Clan also invesrigareu rle eecr o axle gious. Ioi a uouLle axle giou, le
ounu rlar, oi all values o rle lase, rle maximum Lenuing momenr vas alvays
less rlan rlar iouuceu Ly an equivalenr single loau. Accoiuingly, in larei voik,
le ielaceu rvo- oi rliee-axle gious Ly rleii iesulranr. Ioi mulrile axle gious,
eacl ielaceu Ly a single loau, rle voisr comLineu eecr occuis vlen eacl las irs
lase virl iesecr ro rle Liiuge equal ro zeio. A simle case occuis vlen rle loau
sacing, is given Ly

vleie
is an inregei
In rlis case rle lase angle o rle loaus virl iesecr ro rime aie also equal.
Fig. 7.21 Curve of mid-span bending moment against time for single moving load
with dynamic load component of 10% and phase of zero, for span of 20 m and
bridge factor of 6.0 (Redrawn from Chan 1988)
Clan, rleieoie, close ro consiuei velicles:

(a) virl rliee sers o axles, anu equivalenr sraric, axle-giou loaus o 4S, 192
anu 192 k, as in rle Ausrialian 144 riuck (see Secrion 4.),
(L) virl all axle gious laving a uynamic loau comonenr equal ro 10' o rle
mean loau,
(c) virl rle sacings o axle gious all inregial mulriles o anu
(u) virl all axle-giou loaus laving rle same lase, Lorl virl iesecr ro rime
anu rle Liiuge.

He limireu rle axle giou sacings ro rle iange 3.S.5 m, anu rlis imoseu san
limirarions i rle aLove conuirions veie ro Le sarisieu. In lis reiminology, a (1,2)
velicle lau sacings equal ro 1 anu 2. Iiguie .23 slovs rle
maximum sraric anu uynamic Lenuing momenrs oi simly-suoireu Liiuges
virl sans iom .4 ro 51 m anu =6.0, oi a velicle velociry, equal ro 20 m/
sec. 1le signiicance o rle san iesriicrions may Le seen iom rle olloving
examle:
Ioi

=51 m anu =1
=6.0=
(/6.0)
=S.5 m, oi =1.
Fig. 7.22 Effects of magnitude of dynamic load component and ratio of load to
bridge frequency on maximum bending moment (Redrawn from Chan 1988)

Fig. 7.23 Plots of maximum static and dynamic bending moments versus span,
for vehicle with three axle groups, dynamic force component of 10% and speed of
20 m/sec (Redrawn from Chan 1988)
Fig. 7.24 Impact values for Chans simple vehicle (BF=6.0) (Redrawn from Chan
1988)
Ioi longei sans, rlis exiession voulu iequiie >S.5 m. Hovevei, ir musr Le
iememLeieu rlar rlis limirarion is Laseu on rle iequiiemenr rlar rle lase o rle
uynamic loaus is rle same, Lorl virl iesecr ro rle Liiuge, anu virl iesecr ro
rime. 1leie is no ieason vly rle lase virl iesecr ro rle Liiuge may nor Le ker
consranr oi orlei axle sacings, even i rle lase angle virl iesecr ro rime
vaiies.
Ioi rle cases analyseu, maximum values o +1 aie slovn Ly rle oinrs
lorreu in Iig. .24. Relaxarion o rle consriainr on axle-giou sacings
exiesseu in (a) aLove eimirs rle calcularion o +1 oi orlei sans. Clan
ueiiveu rle emiiical aioximarions ro rlese values slovn in 1aLle .3.
Ioi sans iom 30 ro 60 m, a value o 10' gives a ieasonaLle aioximarion
ro some coue iovisions (see Clan anu OConnoi 1990a: Iiguie 1). Ioi sloirei
sans, rle iesulring values o aie ielarively ligl. Hovevei, resr iesulrs oi Six
île Cieek Biiuge (Secrion .2), virl a san o 11.2S m, gave rle maximum anu
mean values o +1 in 1aLle .4.
Ioi a san o 11.2S m, rle ievious exiessions oi give rle olloving
values o +1:

4' uynamic loau +1=1.90
6' uynamic loau +1=2.1S
10' uynamic loau +1=2.9S

Lxiesseu alreinarively, an S.1' uynamic loau is iequiieu ro iouuce rle
maximum value o +1=2.32 ar Six île Cieek.
1lese sruuies uo nor iesolve rle marrei o imacr in liglvay Liiuges, rleii
clie value is rlar rley ocus arrenrion on rle issues rlar aie involveu. In rle case
o Clans voik, oi examle, a uynamic loau o 10' is nor unieasonaLle, rle
clie quesrions aie vlerlei sucl a uynamic loau vill conrinue uuiing rle vlole
rime a velicle is on a Liiuge, anu vlerlei rle axle-giou loaus sloulu Le in
lase. In rle larrei connecrion, lovevei, ir may Le oLseiveu rlar rle iesence o

Table 7.4
Table 7.3
a ixeu Lum, oi a seiies o Lums, consrirures a uisruiLance rlar is in lase
virl locarion on rle Liiuge. 1le orlei majoi acroi rlar las nor Leen auuiesseu
leie, alrlougl ir las Leen, ro some exrenr, consiueieu Ly Clan (19SS), is rle
srarisrical vaiiarion o rlese loaus. Ir is nor ieally suicienr ro uereimine rle
maximum eecr rlar can occui in a ev velicle-ciossings, iarlei one musr
consiuei rle ioLaLiliry o an exrieme evenr rlar may occui virlin rle lie o a
Liiuge.
âny orleis lave consiueieu liglvay Liiuge imacr, sucl as ovak
(1994) anu Wang, Slalavy anu Huang (1993). îllei (19S4), îllei anu
Svannell (19S3) anu Svannell anu îllei (19S) lave uesciiLeu anorlei
Queenslanu analysis oi Liiuge-velicle inreiacrion virl some orlei resr iesulrs
oi Six île Cieek Biiuge. Gura anu 1iaill-asl (19S0) (see also ûlcaly,
Pulmano anu 1iaill-asl 19S3) lave sruuieu imacr eecrs uue ro a velicle
Liaking on a Liiuge, Svearman (19S3, 19S) las also sruuieu susension unirs
oi leavy velicles. Heyvoou (1994) measuieu ligl imacr values on anorlei
Ausrialian Liiuge.
1le ioLlem o imacrive veirical loaus on iailvay Liiuges is essenrially
uieienrin iegaiu ro rle uynamic claiacreiisrics o velicle susensions, rle
geomeriy o rle velicles, anu rle naruie o iail anu vleel iouglness. One useul
ieeience is ILAusr (19S1), anorlei is rle moie iecenr aei Ly Kalay anu
Reinsclmiur (19S9), a rliiu is rle moie geneial sruuy conraineu in IiyLa (1996).
1lis secrion vill look ar some coue iovisions, virl liglvay loaus rieareu iisr,
olloveu Ly iailvay loaus.
1le Biirisl Deairmenral sranuaiu BD3/SS, useu iecenrly oi Liiuge
uesign in rle Unireu Kinguom, makes rle olloving iovision oi cenriiugal
loaus. Ioi liglvay Liiuges caiiying caiiiagevays virl a loiizonral iauius o
cuivaruie less rlan 1000 m, rle cenriiugal loaus aie seciieu (Cl.6.9) as a
seiies o oinr loaus, 50 m aair, in any rvo norional lanes o eacl caiiiagevay,
virl eacl loau given Ly

=40,000/(+150) k

vleie is rle iauius o cuivaruie o rle lane in meries.
Wirl eacl cenriiugal loau rleie slall also Le consiueieu a veirical live loau o
400 k, uisriiLureu ovei rle norional lane oi a lengrl o 6 m (Cl.6.9). Ioi
comaiison, rle noimal HA loauing consisrs o a knie euge loau o 120 k,
rogerlei virl a uisriiLureu loau vlose inrensiry vaiies virl rle loaueu lengrl, .
I equals 50 m, rlis uisriiLureu loau is 24.4 k/m, roralling 4SS k. Wlen rle
knie euge loau is auueu, rle roral loau is 60S k. A value o equal ro 6 m gives
a loau inrensiry o 101.2 k/m, a roral uisriiLureu loau o 60 k, anu a roral
loau o 2 k. Ir ollovs rlar rle veirical loau seciieu oi comLinarion virl
rle cenriiugal loau is somevlar less rlan rle HA loauing, oi equal ro oi less
rlan 50 m.
7.5 Code provisions for horizontal dynamic loads
CODE PROVISIONS FOR HORIZONTAL DYNAMIC LOADS 217
1le Lasis oi rle cenriiugal oice is nor given, Lur can Le ueuuceu as ollovs.
1le 400 k veirical loau las a mass, m, o 40,0 kg. 1le coiiesonuing
cenriiugal oice is given Ly
2
/. I rlis is equareu ro rle seciieu oice,
400
2
/=4010
6
/(+150)
1le assumeu velociry, (m/sec), is rleieoie given Ly

2
=9S1/(+150)

1lese values o rogerlei virl rle iarios o loiizonral/veirical oice, aie lisreu
Lelov oi vaiious values o in 1aLle .5.
1vo conclusions may Le uiavn:
(a) rle comLinarion o loau anu velociry las Leen conriolleu ro some exrenr Ly
rle iauius, anu
(L) rle iario o loiizonral ro veirical oice is laige oi values o less rlan 100
m, ir aioacles as a limir rle value 0.66.

1le coeicienr o iicrion oi a neumaric ryie sliuing iom iesr on a clean, uiy
ioau is ryically o rle oiuei o 0.S1, Lur ieuuces i rle ryie sliues ar seeu.
Gillesie (1992:346, ) lors values ieuucing ro aLour 0.3, 0.56 anu 0.36 ar 60
kl, anu rlen 0.65, 0.4 anu 0.19 ar 100 kl, on uiy aslalr, ver conciere anu
ver aslalr, iesecrively. 1le riansveise sli o a ioraring ryie is, lovevei, a
comlex ioLlem, as also is oveiruining uue ro a cenriiugal oice (see also Gim
19SS, ôoie 195). Ir musr Le iememLeieu rlar a cuiveu ioauvay vill ryically
Le given a riansveise sloe oi canr, anu rlis vill aecr Lorl sliuing anu
oveiruining acrions. One concluues, rleieoie, rlar rle ioLlem is comlex, anu
rle iguies given Ly BD3/SS oim a useul guiue.
1le eailiei BS 5400: Pair 2:19S seciieu rle somevlar smallei value o
=30,000/(+150), virl an associareu veirical loau o 300 k.

BD3/SS also seciies rle olloving longiruuinal loaus iesulring iom
riacrion oi Liaking (Cl.6.10):

(a) oi rle HA loauing, 250 k lus S k ei merie o loaueu lengrl, Lur nor
moie rlan 50 k, acring in one lane only,
(L) 25' o rle veiglr o an HB velicle, oi

Table 7.5
(c) a loiizonral loau o 300 k, acring in any uiiecrion, in associarion virl rle
HA loauing.

Ioi all rlese loaus, raken in associarion virl rle aioiiare veirical loaus, a loau
acroi o 1.25 is alieu in clecking an ulrimare limir srare, oi 1.00 oi a
seiviceaLiliry limir srare. 1le loau acrois oi rle veirical loaus raken alone aie
1.50 oi HA anu 1.30 oi rle HB loauing.
1le veiglr o rle HB velicle ueenus on rle seciieu numLei o HB unirs,
vlicl may vaiy Lerveen 30 anu 45 oi uLlic liglvay Liiuges in Giear Biirain.
1le numLei o axles is oui, virl 10 k ei axle oi one unir o loauing. 1le roral
velicle veiglr vaiies iom 1200 ro 1S00 k, 25' o rlis gives a iange o Liaking
oices iom 300 ro 450 k.
1le HA loauing in one lane consisrs o a 120 k veirical knie euge loau
rogerlei virl a unioimly uisriiLureu loau, k ei merie, exiesseu in reims
o rle loaueu lengrl, .
Ioi 50 m,

=336
0.6

Ioi Lerveen 50 anu 1600 m,

=36
0.1

A comaiison o rle Liaking loau ueineu in (a) aLove, anu rle veirical HA
loauing, is slovn in Iig. .25. 1vo uisconrinuiries occui: ar =50 m, vlen rle
oimula oi rle veirical loau clanges, anu ar =62.5 m, vlen rle roral loiizonral
loau ieacles rle limiring value o 50 k. Desire rlese uisconrinuiries, ir is
eviuenr rlar rle iario o loiizonral ro veirical loau lies Lerveen 0.4 anu 0.5 oi
mucl o rle iange slovn, ir ieuuces oi longei lengrls (Leyonu 50 m) ro 0.25 (rle
value useu oi rle HB loauing) ar aLour =130 m. All lie Lelov rle longiruuinal
iicrion coeicienrs quoreu ieviously oi a ryie skiuuing ar seeu on a uiy
aslalr suiace. One voulu execr, rleieoie, rlar liglei Liaking loaus may
occui in iacrice, ar leasr oi rle sloirei lengrls. Ir musr Le iememLeieu,
lovevei, rlar rle seciieu loaus aie equivalenr sraric loaus, rle ioLlem is a
uynamic one, virl loaus o sloir uuiarion alieu ro a ueck o laige ineiria oi
mass.
1le eailiei BS 5400 (Cl.6.) seciieu a single loiizonral loau 'uue ro
skiuuing equal ro 250 k, vlicl may ieauily Le comaieu virl rle BD3/SS
values slovn in Iig. .25.
Pair 3 o Luiocoue 1 (LV 19913:1995: Cl.4.4.2, 1aLle 4.2) seciies
claiacreiisric values o rle cenriiugal oice,
in reims o rle sum, o rle

veirical loaus acring on rvo axles.
Ioi rle iauius, less rlan 200 m,

=0.2
Ioi Lerveen 200 anu 500 m,

=40

Ioi >1500 m,

=0

1le Lasic veirical loau on eacl o rle rvo axles is 300 k in lane 1, 200 k in
lane 2 anu 100 k in lane 3. 1lese aie mouiieu Ly an aujusrmenr acroi vlicl
may vaiy virl rle class o ioure. Hovevei, assuming rlis acroi is uniry, rle roral
veirical loaus aie 600, 1000 anu 1200 k oi one, rvo oi rliee lanes. I rle
coiiesonuing mass veie rlen =0.102 (kg), anu rle riue exiession
oi cenriiugal loau is

2
/=0.102
2
/

vleie
is rle velociry
As virl BD3/SS, rlis can Le useu ro esrimare rle velociries imlicir in rle coue
oimulae. Ioi Lerveen 200 anu 500 m, rle imlieu velociry is consranr ar
19.S m/sec (1.3 kl). Ioi smallei values o rle velociry, ieuuces, some
Fig. 7.25 A comparison of braking and vertical loads specified by BD37/88
ryical values aie 14.0 m/sec (50.4 kl) ar =100 m, anu 9.9 m/sec (35.6 kl) ar
=50 m, all aie somevlar less rlan rle values calculareu ieviously oi BD3/SS.
Ir is also insriucrive ro comaie rle ielarive values o rle cenriiugal loaus
rlemselves. Some o rlese aie lisreu in 1aLle .6.
Ioi rle mosr air, rle BD3/SS values lie Lerveen 1 anu 2 lanes o
Luiocoue 1.
Luiocoue 1 (Cl.4.4.1) also seciies values oi rle Liaking oice,
incluuing
an uei Lounu o S00 k oi rle ull viurl o rle Liiuge. Ioi a single 3 m viue
lane, virl an aujusrmenr acroi, raken as uniry, anu a loaueu lengrl, giearei
rlan 1.2 m,

=360+2. (k)

Ioi rlis case, rle uei Lounu coiiesonus ro =163 m, virl
vaiying
lineaily iom 360 ro 630 k ovei rle iange =0 ro 100 m, oi 360529 k oi
iom 0 ro 62.5 m. Ioi BD3/SS, as slovn in Iig. .25, rle seciieu Liaking
oice vaiies lineaily iom 250 ro 50 k ovei rlis iange, Lur is alieu only ro a
single lane.
1uining ro rle Unireu Srares, rle 193 AASHO Coue seciieu a
longiruuinal oi Liaking oice o 5' o rle live loau in all lanes caiiying riaic
leaueu in rle same uiiecrion, oi in all lanes oi Liiuges likely ro Lecome one-
uiiecrional in rle uruie. Ioi rlis uiose, rle live loau vas raken as rle lane
loau, virlour imacr. 1lis vas maue u o a concenriareu loau o S0 k,
rogerlei virl a unioimly uisriiLureu loau o 9.34 k/m oi one lane, virl Lorl
mulrilieu Ly a ieuucrion acroi oi mulrile lanes in excess o rvo, virl 100'
alieu in eacl o one oi rvo lanes, 90' in eacl o rliee lanes anu 5' in eacl
o oui lanes oi moie.
Bucklanus commirree (Bucklanu 19S1:1164, 11S) ievieveu rlis loauing
anu iecommenueu rlar rle longiruuinal loau uue ro Liaking in one lane sloulu Le
S0' o rle veiglr o rle uesign riuck, anu ro rlis sloulu Le auueu 5' o rle lane
loau in auuirional lanes, vleie rle ieuucrion acrois oi rlese lane loaus veie 0.
oi rle seconu lane anu 0.4 oi eacl auuirional lane. 1lis aei oeis an
inreiesring commenraiy, rogerlei virl a comaiison o longiruuinal loaus
seciieu in vaiious coues. Ir suggesrs rlar 'rleie is ieasonaLle eviuence rlar rle
Table 7.6 Relative values of centrifugal loads (kN)
Liaking oice vlicl can Le alieu Ly one velicle is ar leasr equal ro rle veiglr o
rle velicle, Lur auueu:

ir is aiguaLle rlar rle uesign riuck may nor Le aLle ro exeir 100'
iicrion Lecause o jack-kniing oi orlei iesriainrs. Ir is unlikely rlar
a laige numLei o velicles vill all Le exeiring rle maximum Liaking
oice on rle Liiuge simulraneously, so some ieuucrion in loau inrensiry
musr Le maue vlen consiueiing moie rlan one velicle. 1le
iecommenueu loauing is a comiomiseLaseu on 'common sense
iarlei rlan on any iim uara.

1le clie ieeience oi some o rlis is a sruuy uLlisleu Ly rle 1iansoirarion
Reseaicl Boaiu in 195, virl rle rirle 'Lecrs o Sruuueu 1iies. Lessei
coeicienrs o iicrion may occui virl un-sruuueu ryies.
Bucklanus coue comaiisons oi Liaking oice oi one lane, 30.5 m long,
aie:

AASH1O 1S.2 k
Biirisl 445
Canauian 449
Iiencl 294
Onraiio 105
ASCL (Bucklanu 19S1) 256

Ir is eviuenr rlar rle 193 AASH1O coue iovision is ielarively veiy lov.
1le 1994 AASH1O (Cl.3.6.3) seciy
rle use o a acroi, oi cenriiugal oice, vleie

=4
2
/(3)

vleie
is rle liglvay uesign seeu anu
is rle iauius o cuivaruie
1le acroi, is alieu ro axle veiglrs o rle uesign riuck (oi ranuem) uesciiLeu
in Secrion 4.3, virl nor less rlan rle value seciieu in AASH1O (1990). 1le
oim o rlis exiession is as in rle coiiecr rleoierical exiession oi cenriiugal
oice, virl rle giavirarional acceleiarion, incluueu ro make rle aujusrmenr
iom velicle veiglr ro mass. 1le veirical loauing seciieu in rlis coue iequiies
rle riuck loau ro Le alieu virl rle lane loau. 1le comLinarion ieiesenrs a
single velicle rlar is leaviei rlan rle uesign riuck, rlis is alloveu oi in rle
numeiical acroi, 4/3. 1le clause allovs also oi a coiiecr vaiiarion o velicle
seeu virl iauius.
1le 1994 AASH1O coue (Cl.3.6.4) seciies a Liaking oice raken as 25'
o rle axle veiglrs o rle uesign riuck oi ranuem, anu gives a rleoierical Lasis
oi rlis exiession. Ioi a velicle o veiglr, rle mass is anu rle kineric
eneigy,
2
/(2). I rle ueceleiarion oice, is assumeu ro Le consranr ovei a
Liaking lengrl, rlen rle voik uone in sroing rle velicle is . Lquaring
rle rvo,
2
/(2)

rlar is,

2
/(2)

1le coue assumes =122 m, anu =90 kl (25 m/sec). 1len, oi =9.S0 m/sec
2
,
Lecomes 0.26, close ro rle seciieu value o 0.25. 1le coiiesonuing rime oi
rle velicle ro come ro iesr is 2.1 sec.
Conceining iailvay Liiuges, Secrion 4.S uiev arrenrion ro rle eaily
iecognirion o rle neeu ro ioviue oi uynamic eecrs, anu quoreu iules seciieu
in many coues oi rle amliicarion o veirical loaus. Ioi many ieasons, rle
naruie o uynamic iailvay loaus uieis iom rlar oi liglvay Liiuges, anu rley
musr Le consiueieu seaiarely.
Desire irs rirle, rle Biirisl Deairmenr o
1iansoir Sranuaiu BD3/SS incluues also ueraileu seciicarions oi iailvay
Liiuge live loaus (Secrion S anu Aenuix D), rlese aie iuenrical virl rlose in BS
5400: Pair 2:19S (see Secrion S anu Aenuix D). 1le Lasic uesign RU anu RL
veirical loaus anu rle coiiesonuing uynamic acrois veie incluueu in Secrion
4.S, virl rle seciieu iovision oi luicling. Ir vas noreu rleie rlar rle RU
loauing vas oi main lines, Lorl in Giear Biirain anu on mainlanu Luioe, vlile
rle RL loauing vas oi lines caiiying only iaiu riansir assengei srock anu liglr
voiks riains. 1leie is also a seciieu nosing loau (Cl.S.2.S), raken as a single
lareial loau o 100 k, alieu ar riack level.
1le Lasic exiession oi cenriiugal oice is:

=(+10)
2
/(12)

vleie
is rle sraric equivalenr unioimly uisriiLureu loau (S0 k/m) oi RU
loauing, oi 40 k/m oi RL loauing,
is rle giearesr seeu envisageu on rle cuive in quesrion in kl, is rle
iauius, anu
is a acroi ueineu as ollovs
vleie
is rle loaueu lengrl
Ioi less rlan 2.SS m, oi less rlan 120 kl, =1.0.
I rle velociry, is exiesseu in m/sec, rlen, oi =1,
consisrenr virl rle coiiecr rleoierical exiession oi cenriiugal oice, Lur virl
rle maximum envisageu seeu incieaseu Ly 10 kl, oi 2.S m/sec. I is
exiesseu in k/m, rlen
vill lave rle same unirs. 1le Lasis o rle acroi, is

nor given, Lur in ielarion ro uynamic veirical eecrs, Aenuix D o rle coue
menrions rlar assengei locomorives may riavel ar seeus u ro 250 kl, anu
liglr, ligl seeu riains u ro 300 kl. Ioi examle, =250 kl anu =2S.S m,

=1(0.135.010.6S)=0.55

Ioi smallei values o oi incieases, ieacling uniry ar eirlei =120 kl, oi
=2.SS m.
Longiruuinal loaus aie seciieu in Clause S.2.10 anu 1aLle 1S o BD3/SS,
seaiarely oi riacrion anu Liaking, as eicenrages o rle veirical loaus on rle
uiiving oi Liakeu vleels, vleie rlese eicenrages aie 30' oi riacrion anu
25' oi Liaking. 1le seciieu veirical loaus aie slovn in Iig. 4.15. Ioi rle
RU loauing, Lorl riacrion anu Liaking oices may Le calculareu uiiecrly iom
rle loauings slovn, oi examle, oi a loaueu lengrl o m, rle roral veirical
loau is 1000 k, giving riacrion anu Liaking loaus o 300 anu 250 k. Ioi rle
RL loauing, rle riacrion anu Liaking loaus aie seciieu oi airiculai loauing
lengrls, some examles aie: u ro S m, S0 anu 64 k, anu iom S ro 30 m, 10
anu S k/m, iesecrively. An uei Lounu o 50 k is seciieu oi rle
riacrion oice, rle maximum Liaking oice is unLounueu, anu exiesseu as
20()+250 k, oi > m. Ir is noriceaLle rlar rle riacrion loaus aie laige.
Ioi Liiuges suoiring Lallasreu riack, u ro one-rliiu o rle longiruuinal loaus
may Le assumeu ro Le riansmirreu Ly rle riack ro ieacrions oursiue rle Liiuge,
ioviueu rlar no iail uisconrinuiries exisr virlin 1S m o eirlei enu o rle
Liiuge.
Luiocoue 1 (LV 199133:1995: Cl.6.3.2) incluues a Loau ôuel 1 oi
veirical loaus rlar is iuenrical virl rle Biirisl RU loauing, rogerlei virl loau
mouels SW/0 anu SW/2 oi use on uesignareu lines rlar caiiy leavy iail riaic.
1le seciieu cenriiugal oices oi Loau ôuel 1 aie rle same as in BD3/SS.
1le longiruuinal oices uiei, anu aie seciieu as ollovs:
riacrion 33 k/m, Lur.1000 k,
Liaking 20 k/m, Lur.6000 k.
Alrlougl rle maximum Liaking oice is laige, ir coiiesonus ro a lengrl o 300
m. Ioi sloirei lengrls, rle values seciieu in BD3/SS aie laigei, Lur virl a
ieuuceu uei Lounu o 50 k oi rle riacrion oice. Ioi a lengrl o 300 m,
BD3/SS seciies a Liaking oice o 6110 k.
Alrlougl nor sriicrly ielevanr, ir is o some inreiesr ro oLseive rlar Luiocoue
1 uoes uiscuss comoir levels oi assengeis in coacles uuiing riavel (Cl.G.3.1.3)
anu links rlis ro veirical acceleiarions as ollovs: oi a veiy goou level o comoir,
rle veirical acceleiarion sloulu nor exceeu 1.0 m/sec
2
, oi goou comoir, 1.3 m/
sec
2
, anu oi acceraLle comoir, 2.0 m/sec
2
. Ioi rlis ieason, rle coue also limirs
rle maximum veirical uelecrion o rle sriucruie, oi examle, oi simly-
suoireu giiueis virl a san o 100 m, rle olloving limirs aly: oi 200
kl, /600, oi =2002S0 kl, /1400.
One examle o Ameiican iacrice vill Le given. Ioi cenriiugal oice, rle
ARLA1990 coue (Cl.1.3.6) seciies a loiizonral loau, alieu 1.S3 m aLove rle
ro o rle iails, equal ro 0.0011S
2
D o rle seciieu axle loau virlour imacr,
vleie S is rle seeu in miles ei loui anu D is rle 'uegiee o cuive. 1le
longiruuinal loau iom riains (Cl.1.3.12) slall Le assumeu as 15' o rle live loau
(virlour imacr), oi rle case vleie rle iails aie nor conrinuous. I rley aie
conrinuous (virl eirlei velueu oi Lolreu joinrs) acioss rle enriie Liiuge iom
emLankmenr ro emLankmenr, rle eecrive longiruuinal loau is seciieu as /36.6
(oi in meries) mulrilieu Ly rle ull longiruuinal loau, Lur virl rlis acroi (/
36.6) raken as nor moie rlan 0.S0.

Chapter 8

Light rail

Liglr Rail 1iansir (LR1) las seen somerling o a ievival in iecenr rimes virl
many ciries inriouucing ir in an eoir ro cuiL iivare moroi velicle use anu
imiove uiLan enviionmenrs. 1le ueinirion o liglr iail is a marrei o ueLare.
1le Liglr Rail 1iansir SuLcommirree o rle US 1iansoirarion Reseaicl Boaiu
(LC^1 1994:14) ueineu LR1 as

a meriooliran elecriic iailvay sysrem claiacreiiseu Ly irs aLiliry ro
oeiare single cais oi sloir riains along exclusive iiglrs-o-vay ar
giounu level, on aeiial sriucruies, in suLvays, oi occasionally, in
srieers, anu ro Loaiu anu uisclaige assengeis ar riack oi cai looi
level.

Unuei rlis ueinirion riamvays aie ueineu as iunning iimaiily in mixeu riaic
vlile LR1 las an exclusive iiglr-o-vay.
1le Luioean Coneience o înisreis o 1iansoir (LC^1 1994:15)
ueineu LR1 as

a iail-Loine oim o riansoirarion vlicl can Le ueveloeu in srages
iom a mouein riamvay ro a iaiu riansir sysrem oeiaring in irs ovn
iiglr-o-vay, unueigiounu, ar giounu level oi elevareu. Lacl srage o
uevelomenr can Le rle inal srage, Lur ir sloulu also eimir
uevelomenr ro rle nexr srage.

1le larrei ueinirion allovs a viuei iange o sysrems ro Le incluueu in LR1. 1o rle
Liiuge engineei rleie is lirrle ro uisringuisl rle velicles vlicl iun in rle vaiious
LR1 sysrems, anu lence rle larrei ueinirion vill Le useu leie. 1le velicles
rlemselves, incluuing riams, vill Le ieeiieu ro as Liglr Rail Velicles (LRV).
LRVs consisr o a single, iigiu oi airiculareu cai. Hovevei, rvo cais may Le
couleu rogerlei anu iun as a single, longei unir uuiing eak eiious. 1ley
LIGHT RAIL 226
lave sreel vleels on Logies iunning on sreel iails anu aie elecriically oveieu
(usually DC). ôuein LRVs oren lave lov loois ro imiove accessiLiliry anu a
ryical LRV is slovn in Iig. S.1. LRVs uiei iom leavy iail in a numLei o
vays. Heavy iail urilises longei riains (seiies o cais oi caiiiages), anu rle srarions
aie usually saceu uirlei aair along rle ioure anu lave liglei laroims.
Heavy iail is nor as lexiLle as liglr iail anu iequiies laigei iauius ruins. LR1 is
nor as lexiLle as Lus riansir anu rlis las imlicarions oi loaus imoseu on
sriucruies Ly LRVs.
Liglr Rail Velicle loauing ryically las nor Leen seciieu Ly Liiuge uesign
coues. 1le AASH1O (1994) LRID Biiuge Design Seciicarions srare rlar 'vleie
a Liiuge also caiiies iail-riansir velicles, rle Ovnei slall seciy rle riansir loau
claiacreiisrics anu rle execreu inreiacrion Lerveen riansir anu liglvay riaic.
I rle iail riansir occuies exclusive lanes rle Liiuge is iequiieu ro lave suicienr
sriengrl ro caiiy liglvay loauing, assuming rlar rle riansir lanes aie nor iesenr.
AUS1ROADS (1996) simly srares rlar 'rle oeiaring Aurloiiry oi rle
uriliry slall Le consulreu ro uereimine rle aioiiare uesign loaus anu loau
acrois. BS 5400:19S anu BD3/SS (Biirisl Deairmenr o 1iansoir 19SS) uo
nor auuiess liglr iail exlicirly. Luiocoue 1 (LV 19913) ieeis rle uesignei ro
rle ielevanr aurloiiry oi rle loauing anu claiacreiisric values o acrions oi
naiiov-gauge iailvays, riamvays anu orlei liglr iails, ieseivarion iailvays,
iack anu inion iailvays anu uniculai iailvays.
1le Sviss Sranuaiu SIA 160 (19S9) uoes nor ieei exlicirly ro liglr iail Lur
las a loau mouel oi iail riaic on naiiov-gauge lines oi uiLan anu suLuiLan
riaic. 1le loau mouel is ieiouuceu in Iig. S.2. 1le loau may Le alieu ro any
rvo riacks Lur auuirional riacks aie unloaueu. 1le uynamic coeicienr is ueineu
Ly rle olloving equarion:

vleie

=uynamic coeicienr, anu
=inluence lengrl (oi san) in meries

Fig. 8.1 Typical Light Rail Vehicle
LIGHT RAIL 227
1le acceleiaring oice is ueineu as 0.3rle veirical loau (virlour rle uynamic
allovance) u ro a maximum o 250 k, anu rle Liaking oice is 0.25rle
veirical loau (virlour rle uynamic allovance) u ro a maximum o 500 k.
Wlen rvo riacks aie loaueu, rle srairing oice is assumeu ro acr on one riack,
vlile rle Liaking oice is assumeu ro acr simulraneously on rle orlei riack in rle
same uiiecrion as rle srairing oice. Ir is a claiacreiisric o iail riaic rlar
luicling, oi rle riansei o loau iom one iail ro rle orlei anu Lack again, vill
occui. 1lis clanges rle veirical loaus on a iail, Lur nor rle roral loau on rle rvo
iails. Oscillarion vill also leau ro lareial loaus on rle iails. SIA 160 seciies rlar
rle lareial oice (nosing oice) geneiareu Ly rlis acrion is ro Le raken as 50 k.
1le cenriiugal oice is assumeu ro acr 1.S m aLove rle ro o rle iails anu is
given Ly rle olloving oimula:

vleie

= ieiesenrarive value o rle cenriiugal oice,

= ieuucrion coeicienr (usually 1.0 oi LRVs),
= uesign seeu in m/sec,
= acceleiarion uue ro giaviry,
= iauius o cuivaruie in m, anu
= ieiesenrarive value o veirical loau uue ro iail riaic virlour uynamic

comonenr

1lis oimula is similai ro rlar given in BS 5400 anu LV 19913:1995 oi
cenriiugal oices on iail (see Secrion .5).
1le lack o guiuance given Ly coues causes some uiiculry ro uesigneis o
Liiuges rlar caiiy liglr iail. BiisLane is cuiienrly uesigning a liglr iail nervoik.
1le iooseu liglr iail ioure ciosses rle Vicroiia Biiuge ovei rle BiisLane Rivei.
1lis las rliee ie-casr, osr-rensioneu, segmenral Lox giiueis joineu Ly casr-in-
siru slaLs, anu casr-in-siru canrilevei oorarls. 1le Liiuge las rliee sans anu a
roral lengrl o 313 m. 1le cenrial san consisrs o a susenueu unir, 2.6 m long,
suoireu Ly rvo canrileveis, eacl o 5.3 m, giving a roral san o 142.2 m. 1le
rvo ancloi sans aie eacl S5.4 m. 1le Liiuge is 15.24 m viue Lerveen keiLs,
suicienr oi ive riaic lanes. Consriucrion o rle Liiuge vas comlereu in 1969
Fig. 8.2 Load Model 3SIA Standard 160 (1989)
LIGHT RAIL 228
anu lence rle uesign loaus veie aLour rliee-quaireis o rle loaus iequiieu Ly
Ausrioaus (1996), vlicl is rle cuiienr Ausrialian coue.
Slav anu Srevens invesrigareu rle neeu ro sriengrlen rle Liiuge oi liglr iail
anu rlis voik vas ieoireu Ly Srevens (199S). 1le caaciry o rle Liiuge is aLour
.2 k/m ei lane, vleieas rle cuiienr coue loaus voik our ar aLour 9.6 k/m
ei lane. A lane o Luses (1 m sacing) imoses 13.3 k/m ei lane, a line o
uesign riucks (144s ar 1 m sacing) imoses 24 k/m anu a lane o ully loaueu
amily cais imoses 3.3 k/m. O lisroiical inreiesr is rle acr rlar anorlei Liiuge
in BiisLane, oeneu in 1932, vas uesigneu oi riams using a lane loau o 24.3 k/
m, anu a uesign oi rle Vicroiia Biiuge in rle 1950s useu a lane loau o 1.2 k/
m oi riams.
Dara on rle masses anu veiglrs o cuiienr LRVs veie assemLleu oi rle
iecenr sruuy anu some o rlese aie incluueu in 1aLle S.1. 1lis slovs rle acrual
lengrls o LRVs anu rleii ciusl loaus, vleie rle ciusl loau o an LRV is ryically
irs ovn veiglr lus rle veiglr o assengeis, calculareu as rle numLei o
assengeis mulrilieu Ly an aveiage veiglr o 00 . 1le numLei o assengeis
is geneially assesseu as rle numLei o sears lus Srle sranuing aiea (in m
2
),
alrlougl some manuacruieis o LRVs use 6 eisons ei m
2
ro calculare rle ciusl
loaus. 1lese veiglrs lave Leen conveireu ro lineai loaus virl velicles enu-ro-enu
anu virl a 1 m sacing Lerveen velicles. âximum axle loaus lave Leen slovn
in rle lasr column vleie availaLle. Ioi comaiarive uioses rle loaus ueineu
Ly SIA 160 (19S9) anu rlose quoreu Ly some orlei ieseaicleis lave Leen
incluueu.
1aLle S.1 inuicares rlar LRVs vaiy in veiglr iom 16.1 k/m ro 2.25 k/m,
alrlougl some o rle vaiiarion may Le uue ro uieiences in rle assumrion o rle
uensiry o rle ciusl loau. 1lis las imlicarions oi rle Liiuge uesignei, inreiesreu
in a uesign lie o 100 oi 120 yeais. Duiing rlis eiiou, a liglr iail riansir oeiaroi
may clange rle rye o velicle Leing useu. One lilosoly voulu Le ro uesign oi
a airiculai velicle rye anu ro sriengrlen rle Liiuge vlen a leaviei velicle is
auueu ro rle leer. 1lis lilosoly las rvo uiavLacks. Iiisr, ir voulu iequiie rle
LR1 oeiaroi ro ieei all uecisions iegaiuing leer uiclases ro rle Liiuge ovnei,
rlis may oi may nor laen anu voulu ceirainly Le seen Ly rle LR1 oeiaroi as
a seiious consriainr on lis aLiliry ro oeiare rle sysrem eicienrly. Seconu, ir is
usually moie exensive ro auu sriengrl larei ro a Liiuge, iarlei rlan uuiing irs
inirial consriucrion. ôie seiiously, ir may nor Le ossiLle ro sriengrlen a Liiuge
ar all. 1leie may also Le orlei limirarions iesriicring rle rye o velicle vlicl can
Le useu in rle uruie.
1le alreinarive sriaregy is ro uesign rle Liiuge so rlar ir vill caiiy all velicles
likely ro Le uiclaseu Ly rle LR1 oeiaroi ovei rle lie o rle Liiuge. 1lis
lilosoly is consisrenr virl rlar auoreu oi liglvay loaus. In rle case o
Vicroiia Biiuge ir vas ueciueu ro use 24 k/m as rle uesign loau oi lanes
caiiying liglr iail. Ausrioaus (1996) seciies a loau acroi o 2.0 oi noimal
riaic loaus anu 1.6 oi iailvay loaus oi rle ulrimare limir srare. 1le acroi o
1.6 ielecrs rle lovei ioLaLiliry o oveiloauing. Since rle ioLaLiliry o
oveiloauing on a LRV is also lov, a acroi o 1.6 vas useu. Ausrioaus (1996)
seciies a uynamic loau allovance o 0.2 oi geneial riaic anu 0 oi iailvay
riaic on a Liiuge virl a naruial iequency o 0.6 Hz. A acroi o 0.05 vas
LIGHT RAIL 229
selecreu oi rle LRVs vlose claiacreiisrics uiei iom leavy iail, anu 0.2 oi
geneial riaic.
Conracr vas maue virl aurloiiries in êlLouine anu Syuney. Alrlougl rleie
vas some vaiiarion in rleii aioacl ro loauing, ir vas geneially agieeu rlar rle
LRV lanes sloulu Le ully loaueu ovei rle ciirical lengrl o rle Liiuge, anu rlar, i
rvo LRV lanes veie iesenr, rlen Lorl lanes sloulu Le ully loaueu. 1lis is
consisrenr virl rle secrion o rle Ausrialian coue on iailvay loauing anu orlei
inreinarional coues. Having uereimineu a loauing oi rvo LRV lanes on Vicroiia
Biiuge, rle quesrion rlar iemaineu vas vlar oirion o rle riaic loauing on rle
iemaining rliee lanes sloulu Le consiueieu ro acr virl rle LRV loaus. Ioi ive
riaic lanes, Ausrioaus (1996) seciies rlar rle noimal riaic loauing in all ive
lanes is ro Le mulrilieu Ly a acroi o 0.6 anu oi rliee lanes rle acroi is 0.S. 1le
roral live loauing on rle Liiuge vas calculareu inirially using rvo lanes o LRVs
virl no lane ieuucrions, rogerlei virl rliee riaic lanes eacl virl a lane
mouiicarion acroi o 0.S. 1lis vas consiueieu ro Le rle uei Lounu o rle mosr
likely loauing. Similaily, a loauing calculareu Ly alying a acroi o 0.6 ro all ive
lanes vas closen inirially as a lovei Lounu. A loau o rvo lanes o LRVs anu
rliee lanes o aveiage riaic as uereimineu Ly suivey vas ounu ro Le liglei rlan
rle larrei case anu Lecame rle nev lovei Lounu. Invesrigarion o rle Liiuge vas
evenrually caiiieu our using lane mouiicarion acrois o 1.0 oi rle rvo LRV
lanes anu 0.6 oi rle iemaining rliee riaic lanes. 1le seiviceaLiliry limir srare
Table 8.1 Comparison of Light Rail Vehicle loads
òvak anu Giouni 19S3.
LIGHT RAIL 230
vas uereimineu using LRV loaus equal ro 5/6 o rle ciusl loaus ro ieiesenr moie
noimal loaus. Local eecrs veie cleckeu using an axle loau o 12000 kg, a
uynamic loau allovance o 0.4 anu an ulrimare loau acroi o 1.6.
In oiuei ro maximise irs exisring sriengrl, rle Liiuge vas measuieu in uerail
anu rle iesulrs o conciere resring caiiieu our ar rle rime o consriucrion veie
oLraineu. 1lis ievealeu rlar rle Liiuge vas aLour 2' leaviei rlan rle uesign
raiger. 1le ancloi sans veie ounu ro Le rle ciirical secrions o rle Liiuge.
Hovevei, as rle Liiuge is an ancloi-canrilevei rye, ir is rle uieience Lerveen
rle ueau loaus on rle canrilevei anu rle ancloi sans vlicl uominares. Baseu on
rle ueraileu measuiemenrs, ir vas uereimineu rleie vas negligiLle imLalance
Lerveen rle eicenrage eiiois in rle sel-veiglr o rle Liiuge on eirlei siue o rle
ieis. 1leieoie rle coue iguies o 1.0 oi avouiaLle ueau loaus anu 1.2 oi
unavouiaLle ueau loaus veie ieuuceu ro 1.0 anu 1.05 iesecrively. 1le 1.05
alloveu oi some loau imLalance, unoieseen sriess uisriiLurions anu mouelling
eiiois. An analysis o Vicroiia Biiuge Laseu on rle ieceuing assumrions sloveu
rlar rle Liiuge iequiieu sriengrlening in oiuei ro caiiy liglr iail riansir anu irs
accomanying riack slaL. 1lis sriengrlening is anriciareu ro Le caiiieu our Ly
uirlei iesriessing rle Liiuge virl exreinal renuons Lerveen rle Lox giiueis anu
Ly insralling veirical iesriessing Lais ro inciease sleai iesisrance. Ir sloulu Le
noreu rlar a limiring acroi in rle loau-caiiying caaciry o rle Liiuge is rle
movemenr caaciry o rle cenrial joinr.
1le aLove examle uemonsriares rle issues acing a Liiuge uesignei in rle
aLsence o guiuance iom uesign coues. 1lis lack o guiuance leaus ro uieiing
aioacles Ly uesigneis anu iesulrs in uesigns virl uieiing ieliaLiliry inuices.
ovak anu Giouni (19S3) invesrigareu rle imacr o rlese uieiing aioacles
Ly examining ive riansir sysrems, as noreu in 1aLle S.1. 1ley oLseiveu rlar
riansir guiuevays veie geneially uesigneu using liglvay anu iailvay Liiuge
uesign coues. 1lis vas rle ioceuuie auoreu in rle examle aLove. 1ley noreu
uirlei rlar rleie aie signiicanr uieiences Lerveen Liiuges suoiring liglvay
oi iailvay loaus anu rlose suoiring riansir loaus. 1leii voik vas Laseu on
elevareu riansir guiuevays (Liiuges) oi rle exclusive use o LRVs anu lence rle
quesrion o riaic mix uiu nor aiise.
ovak anu Giouni (19S3) consiueieu ulrimare anu seiviceaLiliry limir srares,
incluuing arigue anu ciacking. 1ley assumeu a loau anu iesisrance acroi coue
oimar, anu calculareu ieliaLiliry inuices oi rle guiuevay sriucruies. 1le
ieliaLiliry inuex oi rle ulrimare limir srare vas ueineu as ollovs:

vleie
anu
aie rle mean iesisrance anu irs sranuaiu ueviarion, anu
anu
aie rle mean loau eecr anu irs sranuaiu ueviarion

1le ieliaLiliry inuex is uesciiLeu moie ully in Secrion 3.3. ReliaLiliry inuices veie
also calculareu oi rle conciere ciacking anu arigue seiviceaLiliry limir srares.
LIGHT RAIL 231
1le mean-ro-nominal value anu rle coeicienr o vaiiarion veie uereimineu
oi eacl loau aiamerei Laseu on ievious ieseaicl oi engineeiing juugemenr.
1le nominal loau caaciries o rle sriucruies veie calculareu using AASH1O,
anu rle mean-ro-nominal values anu coeicienrs o vaiiarion veie uereimineu oi
iesisrance in lexuie anu sleai using Lasic uara aLour rle unceirainries in mareiial
ioeiries, uimensions, aLiicarion anu analysis. Ioi rle seiviceaLiliry cases a
mean ciacking sriess anu rensile sriess anu coiiesonuing coeicienrs o vaiiarion
oi rle conciere veie nominareu.
Sers o loau acrois oi rle ulrimare limir srare veie uereimineu sucl rlar oi
eacl loau comonenr rle ioLaLiliry o exceeuence vas rle same. Ir vas also
assumeu rlar loau acrois oi similai loau comonenrs veie rle same. 1liee loau
comLinarions veie consiueieu oi rle ulrimare limir srare:
1. rle oeiarional conuirion, virl ueau anu live loaus anu rle laigesr eecr o
suoir serrlemenrs, remeiaruie, vinu, eairlquake, ice anu snov,
2. rle non-oeiarional conuirion, virl an emry velicle lus vinu, anu
3. an oeiarional conuirion virl a ueiaileu velicle.

1le iisr rvo comLinarions veie also useu oi rle seiviceaLiliry limir cases.
1liiry-rliee guiuevay sriucruies in rle ive riansir sysrems veie examineu. 1le
values o
anu
veie uereimineu oi eacl sriucruie oi eacl loau comLinarion.

Ioi lexuie in rle ulrimare limir srare, rle iesisrance acroi vas raken as 0.95. 1le
nominal iesisrance vas uereimineu Ly summing rle acroieu loaus in eacl
comLinarion anu uiviuing Ly . 1le mean iesisrances veie rlen calculareu Ly using
rle nominal-ro-mean iarios. 1le ieliaLiliry inuices veie suLsequenrly calculareu
using rle mean iesisrances anu rleii coiiesonuing sranuaiu ueviarions, anu
anu
uereimineu ieviously. 1le ieliaLiliry inuex vas also calculareu Laseu on

AASH1O loau acrois anu rle acrual caaciries o rle sriucruies.
A raiger ieliaLiliry inuex o A=4 vas closen, comaieu virl a value o 3.5 oi
liglvay Liiuges. 1le ieliaLiliry inuices Laseu on rle acrual caaciries vaiieu
suLsranriallyLerveen aLour 5 anu S. 1le loau acrois oi AASH1O anu rle
iecommenueu ser aie slovn in 1aLle S.2. 1le ieliaLiliry inuices Laseu on rle
AASH1O loau acrois vaiieu Lerveen 5.6S anu 6.S, vleieas rle iecommenueu
ser iesulreu in ieliaLiliry inuices vaiying iom 3.69 ro 4.26. 1le iecommenueu ser
o loau acrois vas useu ro calculare rle ieliaLiliry inuices oi sleai, =0.5 vas
ounu ro give values closesr ro rle raiger value o 4.

Table 8.2 Load factors for ultimate limit state
LIGHT RAIL 232
A similai exeicise vas caiiieu our oi rle seiviceaLiliry limir srare using
loau acrois o 1.0. An uei limir on rle rensile sriess in rle conciere o rle
oim vas assumeu, vleie is a consranr. A value o =2 vas ounu ro
give ieliaLiliry inuices closesr ro rle raiger values o A=2.5 oi ciacking anu
A=2.0 oi arigue. ovak anu Giouni concluueu rlar rle AASH1O
seciicarion is conseivarive oi rle uesign o riansir guiuevay sriucruies anu
rlar rle ser o iecommenueu loau anu iesisrance acrois, alrlougl less
conseivarive, ioviueu sarisacroiy levels o saery.
A commirree o rle Ameiican Conciere Insrirure (Dolan 19S6) las also
uLlisleu a guiue virl iecommenuarions oi rle analysis anu uesign o ieinoiceu
anu iesriesseu conciere sriucruies suoiring riansir guiue vays (liglr iail).
Lsrimares oi mosr loau aiamereis, loau anu iesisrance acrois anu loau
comLinarions aie given in rle guiue. One ulrimare sriengrl comLinarion is
incluueu in 1aLle S.2 oi comaiarive uioses.
o sranuaiu velicle loau is given, Lur rle uynamic loau allovance is given
Ly:

Ioi conrinuous san sriucruies,

vleie

=naruial iequency
musr Le 0.1 oi conrinuously velueu iail anu 0.3 oi joinreu iail.
Longiruuinal oices (acceleiarion anu Liaking) aie given as 30' o rle
veirical live loau oi emeigency Liaking anu 15' oi noimal Liaking. 1le nosing
loaus aie seciieu as S' o rle veirical live loau oi non-sreeiaLle axles anu 6'
oi sreeiaLle axles.
1o sum u, liglr iail riansir is exeiiencing a ievival anu many ciries aie
inriouucing nev sysrems in an eoir ro imiove rleii enviionmenrs anu
uiscouiage iivare cai usage. Biiuges suoiring rle riackvoik oi rlese
sysrems vill mosr likely Le uesigneu on rle Lasis o exisring liglvay anu
iailvay Liiuge uesign coues. Ir las Leen common ro uesign rlese Liiuges on rle
Lasis o a airiculai liglr iail velicle. Liglr iail velicles lave an execreu
economic lie o 10 ro 15 yeais, lence ielacemenr velicles can Le execreu
uuiing rle lives o rle Liiuges. 1leieoie rle iacrice o uesigning Liiuges oi
seciic velicles seems unnecessaiily limiring oi uruie exansion o rle
nervoik. ovak anu Giouni (19S3) lave uirlei uemonsriareu rlar rle
LIGHT RAIL 233
alicarion o cuiienr liglvay anu Liiuge coues ro riansir guiuevays oi Liiuges
suoiring liglr iail riansir leaus ro inconsisrenr levels o ieliaLiliry. In viev o
rle iesui-gence in liglr iail riansir ir is elr rlar rleie is a neeu ro couiy rle
uesign o Liiuges oi rlese sysrems i communiries aie ro lave economical
sysrems o acceraLle ieliaLiliry.

Chapter 9
9.1 Nature of pedestrian loading

Pedestrian and cycle loads
Ir is usual ro riear cycle loaus anu euesriians rogerlei. 1le euesriian loauing
uominares uue ro irs moie moLile anu comacr naruie. 1le uieience Lerveen
cycle anu euesriian Liiuges lies in rle geomeriical iequiiemenrs, mainly in reims
o viurl anu Laiiiei leiglrs. Hence rlis Clarei vill ieei ro euesriian loauings
only, Lur rle cases iesenreu covei cycle Liiuges roo.
Peuesriian loauing encomasses a numLei o oims. 1le sraric loauing uue ro
a airiculai uensiry o euesriians is vell knovn. 1le loaus laceu on lanuiails
Ly gious o eole oi Ly a ciusl o eole iequiie consiueiarion. Loaus on
lanuiails vill Le consiueieu in Clarei 10. Less oLvious loaus aie uue ro a single
eison. A vanual, oi gious o vanuals, coulu aly unusual loaus ro rle
sriucruie, vlicl coulu uamage ir. Due ro rle lexiLiliry o oorLiiuges, viLiarion
o rle Liiuge uue ro a single eison valking ovei ir oi uue ro ueliLeiare acriviry Ly
some eole musr also Le consiueieu. ViLiarion may occui in eirlei rle veirical oi
loiizonral uiiecrions, ir can cause uiscomoir oi some secrions o rle communiry
anu rlis musr Le guaiueu againsr.
Consiueiarion musr Le given ro rle likely usage o a oorLiiuge anu irs
mainrenance. I a oorLiiuge is in a iemore sire, e.g. a aik, ir is unlikely ro suei
loauing iom a ciovu o eole. Hovevei, ir may Le useu Ly a velicle
mainraining a aik, ro access all aieas o rle aik. Lirlei rlis musr Le consiueieu
in rle uesign oi secial sres musr Le raken ro ievenr use o rle oorLiiuge Ly
velicles. In rle case o a majoi, laige san oorLiiuge, ciossing a iivei in a cenrial
ciry aiea, liglei usage o rle Liiuge sloulu Le execreu. 1le Liiuge may Le useu
oi secial evenrs sucl as vieving iievoiks oi iegarras on a iivei. âinrenance o
rlis rye o Liiuge is also likely ro Le a majoi consiueiarion as ir is unlikely rlar
rle Liiuge can Le mainraineu Ly any means orlei rlan iom rle Liiuge irsel.
Vaiious uensiries o euesriian loauing aie slovn icroiially in Iigs. 9.1 ro
9.5. Lacl iguie slovs eole sranuing in an aiea 22 m squaie anu rle uensi

Fig. 9.1 1.5 kPa pedestrian load: 8 persons in a space, 4 m
2
Fig. 9.2 2 kPa pedestrian load: 11 persons in a space, 4 m
2

2
2
NATURE OF PEDESTRIAN LOADING 237
2
(Courtesy Brisbane
City Council staff)

ries assume rlar eacl eison veigls an aveiage 00 . A loau o 1.5 ro 2 kPa is
iegaiueu as a uomesric loauing, 3 ro 4 kPa is usually a commeicial loauing anu 5
kPa is a 'ciovu loauing. A ciovu loauing usually occuis in secial ciicumsrances,
sucl as oi access ro a soirs srauium oi a Liiuge, vlicl can Le useu as a vanrage
oinr Ly secrarois. Ir is usual ro seciy a lovei sraric loauing oi oorLiiuges o
longei lengrl, uue rle lovei ioLaLiliry o laving rle Liiuge ully loaueu ovei irs
ull lengrl.
1le Ausrialian Biiuge Design Coue (Ausrioaus 1996) iequiies oorLiiuges
anu oorvays inueenuenr o rle ioau Liiuge sueisriucruies ro Le uesigneu oi 5
kPa oi loaueu aieas u ro S5 m
2
, anu 4 kPa oi loaueu aieas aLove 100 m
2
. A
lineai vaiiarion is assumeu oi loaueu aieas Lerveen S5 m
2
anu 100 m
2
. Ioi
oorvays arracleu ro ioau Liiuge sueisriucruie, rle coue seciies 5 kPa oi
loaueu aieas u ro 10 m
2
anu 2 kPa oi loaueu aieas ovei 100 m
2
. A lineai
vaiiarion is assumeu oi loaueu aieas Lerveen 10 m
2
anu 100 m
2
. Wleie ir is
ossiLle oi a velicle ro mounr rle oorvay oi a oorLiiuge rle coue iequiies rle
aciliry ro Le uesigneu oi a concenriareu loau o 20 k.
1le AASH1O LRID Biiuge Design Seciicarions (1994) seciies a
euesriian loau o 3.6 kPa on siuevalks giearei rlan 600 mm in viurl. Biiuges
exclusively oi euesriians oi Licycles aie ro Le uesigneu oi 4.1 kPa, access Ly
mainrenance velicles is ro Le consiueieu.
BS 5400:19SS seciies a uesign loau o 5 kPa oi sans u ro 30 m.
PEDESTRIAN AND CYCLE LOADS 238
1lis loau is ieuuceu oi sans giearei rlan 30 m accoiuing ro rle olloving
oimula:

vleie HA UDL is rle unioimly uisriiLureu comonenr o rle HA riaic loauing
uesciiLeu in Secrion 4.2. 1le coue conrains rle ioviso rlar vlen rle loaueu
lengrls exceeu 30 m, secial consiueiarion sloulu Le given ro cases vleie
excerional ciovus may Le execreu. A oorLiiuge seiving a soirs srauium is
given as an examle. Wleie rle oorLiiuge oi cycle Liiuge is nor iorecreu iom
access Ly velicles, rle coue iequiies rlar rle Liiuge Le uesigneu oi any oui
vleels o 25 unirs o HB loauing acring in any osirion. Ir is unueisroou rlar
BD3/SS ieiesenrs rle uesign iacrice in rle UK rouay. Ir seciies 5 kPa oi
loaueu lengrls (L) u ro 36 m, oi loaueu lengrls giearei rlan rlis rle loau is
ieuuceu in accoiuance virl rle olloving oimula:

Pair 3 o Luiocoue 1 (LV 19913) seciies a uesign loau o 5 kPa oi oor oi
cycle Liiuge sans u ro 10 m. Ioi sans,
giearei rlan 10 m, rle loauing,
is ieuuceu in accoiuing virl rle olloving oimula:

Ioi a oorvay on a ioau Liiuge rle uesign loau is 2.5 kPa in comLinarion virl
orlei loaus, oi 5 kPa vlen alieu on irs ovn oi in comLinarion virl ciovu
loauing on rle caiiiagevay. A concenriareu loau o 10 k acring on a squaie o
siues o 0.1 m is seciieu oi local eecrs. I rle Liiuge is ro Le uesigneu oi a
mainrenance velicle rlen rlis is useu oi rle uesign iarlei rlan rle concenriareu
loau.
1le uLlisleu Ly 1iansir ev Zealanu (1994) nominares a
loau o Lerveen 2 kPa anu 5 kPa, as ueineu Ly rle exiession 6.2S/25, vleie
is rle loaueu lengrl. 1lis rianslares ro Liiuges virl sans u ro 30 m Leing
uesigneu oi 5 kPa, anu Liiuges virl sans ovei 105 m Leing uesigneu oi 2 kPa.
I a ciovu loauing can Le execreu, sucl as on a Liiuge leauing ro a soirs
srauium, oi vleie a Liiuge can Le useu as a vanrage oinr ro viev a uLlic evenr,
rlen 5 kPa sloulu Le useu.
1le loaus seciieu Ly rle vaiious coues oi euesriian oi cycle Liiuges aie
summaiiseu in 1aLle 9.1.
PERIODIC AND IMPULSIVE LOADS 239
Ioi ioau Liiuges, eiiouic oi imulsive loaus aie likely ro Le uue ro uynamic
loauing Ly velicles. 1le uynamic iesonse o rle Liiuge sloulu Le uereimineu
anu rle viLiarion assesseu oi acceraLiliry (see Clarei oi rle uynamic
viLiarion o Liiuges uue ro velicles).
IoorLiiuges, lovevei, aie usually o liglr consriucrion. 1lis Liings virl ir
secial consiueiarions, in rlar rle naruial iequencies o oorLiiuges may all in
rle iange excireu Ly a single euesriian. Coues aioacl rlis ioLlem in rvo
vays. 1le simlesr vay is ro uereimine rle naruial iequencies o rle oorLiiuge
anu ensuie rlar rley lie oursiue rle iange o euesriian movemenr. 1le seconu
vay is ro mouel a euesriian valking oi iunning acioss a Liiuge oi juming on
rle Liiuge anu uereimine rle maximum iesonse o rle Liiuge.
BS 5400:19S iequiies no uirlei clecks on viLiarion ar seiviceaLiliry i rle
unuamenral naruial iequency o rle unloaueu Liiuge exceeus 5 Hz. Wleie rle
naruial iequency
is 5 Hz, rle maximum acceleiarion slall Le limireu ro

. 1le maximum acceleiarion may Le calculareu Ly assuming rlar a
euesriian exeirs a sraric loau o 00 anu las a uynamic comonenr equal ro
1S0 sin (2
), in . is rle rime in seconus anu rle euesriian is assumeu ro Le

moving ar a seeu equal ro 0.9
m/sec. Ioi values o
giearei rlan 4 Hz rle

calculareu maximum acceleiarion is ro Le ieuuceu Ly an amounr vaiying lineaily
iom 0.0 ar 4 Hz ro 0' ar 5 Hz.
BS 5400 gives an alreinarive merlou oi ueiiving rle maximum veirical
acceleiarion (m/sec
2
):

=4
2
0
2

vleie
is rle unuamenral naruial iequency in Hz,
is rle sraric uelecrion in meries uue ro a euesriian imosing a sraric oice

o 00 ar rle cenrie o rle main oi cenrie san,
Table 9.1 Comparison of code pedestrian loads for bridges
9.2 Periodic and impulsive loads
is rle coniguiarion acroi ielecring rle numLei o conrinuous sans anu
ielarive san lengrls, anu
is rle uynamic iesonse acroi ueenuenr on rle uegiee o uaming iesenr
in rle Liiuge
BD3/SS conrains rle same iovisions oi rle assessmenr o viLiarion as a
seiviceaLiliry limir srare. Ar rle rime o viiring, Luiocoue 1 lau nor uLlisleu
aioiiare mouels oi valking, iunning anu juming euesriians. 1le AASH1O
(1994) is silenr on viLiarions uue ro euesriians.
Ausrioaus (1996) seciies rlar ioau Liiuges virl oorvays slall Le
invesrigareu Ly calcularing rle maximum sraric uelecrion uue ro a 144 velicle
virl rle uynamic loau allovance. 1lis uelecrion is nor ro exceeu rle seciieu
limir inuicareu Ly a iguie. 1lis limir ueenus on rle iisr moue lexuial iequency
o rle Liiuge anu ieuuces as rle iequency incieases. IoorLiiuges aie ro Le
invesrigareu oi a euesriian veigling 00 ciossing rle sriucruie ar 1.5 ro 2.5
ooralls ei seconu. 1le commenraiy inuicares rlar no uirlei clecks aie
iequiieu i rle unuamenral naruial iequency o rle oorLiiuge exceeus 5 Hz.
IoorLiiuges virl a unuamenral naruial iequency in rle iange o 1.5 ro 3.5 Hz
aie noreu as Leing susceriLle ro signiicanr viLiarions. I a ueraileu assessmenr o
rle uynamic iesonse o rle oorLiiuge is iequiieu, rle ieauei is ieeiieu ro voik
Ly ].L.Wleelei.
Wleelei (19S0, 19S2) mouelleu 21 oorLiiuges in Peirl, virl analyrical
ieuicrions rlar comaieu avouiaLly virl exeiimenral iesulrs. Peuesriian loaus
veie Laseu on a sraric loau o 00 anu veie mouelleu Ly a Iouiiei seiies ar
valking seeus. 1le slaes o rle oice-rime lisroiies veie Laseu on iecoiueu
euesriian loaus. Ar jogging anu iunning seeus rle euesriian loau vas mouelleu
as a lal sine vave, rle aiamereis o vlicl veie given gialically anu ueenu
on rle numLei o ooralls ei seconu. His sriucruies veie mouelleu using lumeu
masses anu analyseu using moual analysis merlous.
Rainei, Peinica anu Allen (19SS) measuieu rle uynamic iesonses uue ro
euesriians valking, iunning anu juming anu uereimineu equivalenr Iouiiei
seiies. 1le eak acceleiarion iesonse, (in m/sec
2
), is uereimineu as ollovs:

vleie
is rle sriness o rle san ar rle cenrie,
is rle sraric loau uue ro a euesriian,
is rle unuamenral naruial iequency o rle san,
is rle Iouiiei coeicienr, anu
is rle uynamic amliicarion acroi, vlicl ueenus on rle uaming in
rle sriucruie anu rle numLei o cycles o loauing occuiiing on rle san.
Values o aie given as 0.41 oi valking, 1.1 oi iunning anu 1. oi juming. 1le
aLove equarion vas ounu ro give goou agieemenr virl exeiimenral iesulrs
PERCEPTION OF VIBRATION 241

9.3 Perception of vibration
unlikely ro Le voiking oi sranuing on a Liiuge uuiing a sroim. 1le Lase cuive oi
veirical viLiarions (iequenr evenrs) las Leen conveireu iom ims acceleiarion ro
eak acceleiarion anu lorreu in Iig. 9.6.
Ausrioaus (1996) seciies a eak uislacemenr limir oi a given naruial
iequency o viLiarion anu is ueicreu gialically. 1le limirs aeai ro Le Laseu
on voik Ly KoLoii anu Kajikava (194), vlo seciy 'unleasanr limirs o
1.4
=3 mm/sec oi sranuing euesriians, anu =24 mm/sec oi valking
euesriians. 1le symLol ieiesenrs rle eak uislacemenr anu is rle naruial
iequency o viLiarion in iauians ei seconu. 1lese eak uislacemenrs lave Leen
conveireu ro eak acceleiarions anu lorreu in Iig. 9.6. Ioi comaiarive uioses
rle eak acceleiarion limir seciieu Ly BS 5400 las also Leen
lorreu in Iig. 9.6. 1le sieau slovn in Iig. 9.6 inuicares rle suLjecriviry o rle
limirs, vlicl musr Le alieu cauriously.
I a oorLiiuge sloulu Lelave unsarisacroiily unuei uynamic excirarion rle
ioLlem can Le auuiesseu Ly mouiying rle mass, sriness oi uaming. Reuuceu
mass oi incieaseu sriness vill inciease rle naruial iequencies o rle sriucruie,
vlile incieaseu uaming vill ieuuce irs iesonse. 1le use o a runeu uamei, i.e.
a mass arracleu ro rle sriucruie rliougl a siing o a airiculai sriness virl oi
virlour a slock aLsoiLei, las ioveu successul in auuiessing uynamic ioLlems.
Goougei anu Kolourek (1990) anu 1illy, Cullingron anu Lyie (19S4) lave
uiscusseu rle use o runeu mass uameis (1^Ds) ro ieuuce rle imacr o
Fig. 9.6 Limits for human response to vibration of footbridges
PERCEPTION OF VIBRATION 243
viLiarions in oorLiiuges. 1^Ds can Le useu ro slir rle naruial iequencies o rle
oorLiiuge inro rvo smallei iequencies, oi ro aLsoiL rle eneigy alieu ro rle
sriucruie Ly rle euesriian. 1illy er al. (19S4) suggesr rlar an auuirional mass
equal ro 5' o rle sueisriucruie mass is iequiieu oi a iequency slirrei,
vleieas a mass o only 0.5' is iequiieu ro uamen viLiarions. 1le use o caLles
arracleu ro rle miuule o rle san o rle oorLiiuge las also Leen iooseu ro
inciease rle iequency o viLiarion anu inciease uaming o rle sriucruie.
Alrlougl rle ievious uiscussion las concenriareu on veirical acceleiarions
uue ro euesriians, consiueiarion sloulu also Le given ro orlei moues o
viLiarions. Ioi examle, a euesriian oveiass incoioiaring iams on canrilevei
lanuings las Leen oLseiveu ro exliLir unacceraLle loiizonral movemenrs o rle
Liiuge. Resolurion o rle uynamic ioLlem in rlis case involveu mouelling rle
sriucruie as an inveireu enuulum anu incieasing rle sriness o rle columns.

Chapter 10
10.1 Vehicle barriers

Barrier and railing loads

Velicle Laiiieis aie an essenrial air o a Liiuge, ioviuing saery Lorl oi
velicles, as vell as oi eole in rle case o an eiianr velicle. Baiiieis may Le
iequiieu ro iorecr assengeis in rle velicle, orlei useis o rle Liiuge oi eole in
rle neai viciniry, anu sriucruies aujacenr ro rle Liiuge iom collase rlar may
cause injuiy oi uearl. In uerailing Laiiieis, arrenrion musr Le uiiecreu ro ensuiing
rley uo nor Lecome lazaius rlemselves uuiing a ciasl. 1le oLjecrives o a velicle
Laiiiei aie as ollovs.

1. Baiiieis sloulu oei a level o iorecrion commensuiare virl rle level o iisk
involveu.
2. Baiiieis sloulu minimise rle ueceleiarion o an eiianr velicle anu irs
occuanrs. Colosimo (1996) suggesrs a limir o 5 oi 50 m/sec
2
.
3. Baiiieis sloulu ieuiiecr an eiianr velicle in a uiiecrion aiallel virl rle
Laiiiei oi inrenueu uiiecrion o riavel. ReLounuing o rle velicle Lack inro
riaic musr Le avoiueu in oiuei ro ievenr a seconu eilas moie lerlal
acciuenr. Colosimo (1996) suggesrs rle exir angle sloulu Le less rlan lal rle
imacr angle.
4. Baiiieis sloulu lave suicienr sriucruial sriengrl ro ievenr airs Lecoming
seaiareu as ueLiis, vlicl may eneriare rle velicle, causing injuiy oi uearl
ro irs occuanrs.
5. Baiiieis sloulu Le caaLle o iaiu ieaii oi ielacemenr.
6. Velicle Laiiieis sloulu nor uamage rle Liiuge sriucruie vlen imacreu Ly an
eiianr velicle.
. 1le Laiiiei sloulu nor ueriimenrally aecr siglr lines ro anu iom velicles
anu euesriians.
S. Baiiieis sloulu Le comariLle virl rle Liiuge, alloving rle iequiieu rleimal,
live loau anu long-reim movemenrs o rle Liiuge.
VEHICLE BARRIER 245
9. Baiiieis sloulu make a minimal conriiLurion ro rle lyuiouynamic oices
acring on a Liiuge sloulu ir Lecome suLmeigeu uuiing a loou.
10. Baiiieis on Liiuges sloulu Le comariLle virl rlose on rle Liiuge aioacles
anu ueairuies.
11. Baiiieis sloulu uesiiaLly conriiLure ro rle aesrlerics o rle Liiuge.

Designing a Laiiiei is ieuominanrly an exeicise in aLsoiLing rle kineric eneigy
o an eiianr velicle. Iiguie 10.1 slovs sucl a velicle (a) jusr iioi ro, anu (L) jusr
arei imacring a Laiiiei. 1le velicle is assumeu ro Le riavelling ar a seeu m/
sec anu ar an angle ro rle Laiiiei. 1le cenrie o rle mass o rle velicle is
assumeu ro Le ar a uisrance o meries along rle velicle anu meries acioss rle
velicle iom rle oinr o imacr. 1le eneigy o rle velicle aiallel ro rle Laiiiei
is o no inreiesr as rle oLjecrive is ro lalr movemenr o rle velicle in a lareial
uiiecrion. 1le kineric eneigy o rle velicle in rle lareial uiiecrion is

vleie is rle mass o rle velicle in kg.
Duiing imacr ir is assumeu rlar rle Laiiiei anu velicle vill suei a
comLineu ueoimarion (ciumle) o meries anu rlar rle velicle vill Le
ieuiiecreu ro a uiiecrion aiallel ro rle Laiiiei, as slovn in Iig. 10.1 (L). 1le
eneigy aLsoiLeu Ly ueoimarion o rle velicle anu Laiiiei is given Ly rle iouucr
o rle aveiage oice o rle imacr, anu rle uisrance rlar rle cenrie o mass
riavels Leoie Leing Liouglr ro iesr lareially. 1le uisrance riavelleu Ly rle cenrie
o mass is

sin cos sin (cos 1)

Lquaring rle inirial lareial kineric eneigy virl voik uone Ly rle Laiiiei anu
velicle uuiing imacr (lareially) gives

Fig. 10.1 Vehicle impact on a crash barrier
BARRIER AND RAILING LOADS 246
1leieoie,

()=( sin )
2
/(2( sin (cos 1)))
anu rle aveiage ueceleiarion, (m/sec
2
), is given Ly

=( sin )
2
/(2 ( sin (cos 1)))

1lese oimulae aie iuenrical ro rlose given in BS 69: Pair 1:1992. Ir sloulu Le
noreu rlar rle oimulae give rle aveiage imacr oice anu ueceleiarion uuiing rle
ciasl. 1le coue inuicares rlar rle acrual imacr oice oi a velicle imacring on a
meral Laiiiei is likely ro lave ligl inirial anu inal eaks. Using =0.6 m, =2.44
m, =0.64 m anu =20, vlicl aie iesenreu as ossiLle values in rle Sranuaiu,
anu assuming a velicle o 2000 kg mass riavelling ar a seeu o 120 kl (33.3 m/
sec), rle aveiage imacr oice is ounu ro Le 91 k. 1le coiiesonuing
ueceleiarion is 45.5 m/sec
2
oi 4.6 g.
Iiguies 10.2 ro 10.5 slov rle eecrs o vaiying aiamereis in rle equarion
oi velicle imacr oice Laseu on rle aLove Lasic values. Iiguie 10.2 slovs rlar
rle imacr oice incieases lineaily, as execreu, virl incieasing mass o rle
velicle. 1le oices geneiareu Ly laige velicles aie quire laige, alrlougl ir sloulu
Le Loine in minu rlar rle uimensions o rle velicle anu rle likely giearei ciumle
uisrance voulu clange rle ourur o rle oimula. Iiguie 10.3 slovs rlar rle
imacr oice incieases virl rle squaie o rle velicle seeu. Iiguie 10.4 slovs
velicle imacr incieasing in a non-lineai aslion virl rle angle o imacr. In rle
limir, as Lecomes 90,

2
/(2)

Ioi rle examle given in Iig. 10.4 rlis value is 49 k. Ir sloulu Le noreu,
lovevei, rlar rlis value assumes rlar rle velicle coulu srill sin aiounu anu enu
u aiallel virl rle Laiiiei. I rlis is nor rle case, rle aveiage imacr oice is
given Ly

2
/(2)

Ioi rle examle given, rlis oice Lecomes 136 k.
Iinally, Iig. 10.5 slovs rle ieuucrion in imacr oice virl incieasing ciumle
uerl. 1lis uemonsriares rle value o lexiLle Laiiieis in ieuucing imacr oices,
anu lence velicle uamage anu eisonal injuiy. 1leie is also a inire imacr oice
oi a ciumle uerl o zeio meries, rlis Leing rle mean oice iequiieu ro ie-
oiienrare rle velicle aiallel ro rle Laiiiei virlour uamage ro rle velicle oi
Laiiiei. 1lis is a rleoierical value only, as some uamage ro rle velicle anu Laiiiei
voulu Le execreu, uue ro rle oice irsel. Ir uoes, lovevei, inuicare rlar eneigy is
aLsoiLeu in ioraring rle velicle as vell as in rle ueoimarion (ciumle) o rle
Laiiiei anu velicle.
1le ieceuing analysis o a velicle ciasl on a Laiiiei is mosr alicaLle ro a
meral Laiiiei, usually consisring o a seiies o osrs linkeu Ly a numLei o loi
Fig. 10.2 Impact force on barrier versus vehicle mass
Fig. 10.3 Impact force on barrier versus vehicle speed

Fig. 10.4 Impact force on barrier versus vehicle impact angle
Fig. 10.5 Impact force on barrier versus crumple depth
VEHICLE BARRIER 249
izonral iails. 1ley aie noimally uamageu uuiing imacr anu iequiie ieaii.
Damage ro rle eiianr velicle voulu also Le execreu. 1le lareial uislacemenrs
o Laiiieis can iesenr a ioLlem in laces o limireu ioom. 1lese consriainrs leu
liglvay aurloiiries ro exeiimenr virl iigiu conciere Laiiieis. Ir is nor knovn
exacrly vlen conciere Laiiieis veie iisr useu Lur sucl a Laiiiei vas ieoireu ro
Le in use in Calioinia in rle miu-1940s. Ir vas ueveloeu ro minimise rle numLei
o velicles eneriaring rle Laiiiei anu ro minimise rle cosr anu neeu oi Laiiiei
ielacemenr in locarions virl ligl acciuenr iecoius. 1le iesence o naiiov
meuians vas also a consiueiarion.
1le olloving Liie lisroiy o rle ev ]eisey Laiiiei is Laseu on inoimarion
in a Lookler, iouuceu Ly rle Cemenr anu Conciere
Associarion o Ausrialia. Higlvay aurloiiries in ev ]eisey iisr insralleu a iigiu,
conciere Laiiiei in 1955 seciically ro auuiess rle ioLlem o naiiov meuians.
1le iisr Laiiiei vas Lasically a lov vall virl keiLs on eirlei siue. Baseu on
exeiience anu ciasl resring, rle slae ueicreu in Iig. 10.6 (a) vas ueveloeu. In
1963, Geneial ôrois USA ueveloeu a Laiiiei veiy similai ro rle ev ]eisey
Laiiiei in slae, oi use on Liiuge aiaers. 1esring vas also uiiecreu ar
ueveloing a meral iail on ro o rle Laiiiei ro conrain velicles uuiing ligl-
seeu, viue-angle imacrs. Unlike lexiLle Laiiieis, vlicl aLsoiL eneigy rliougl
ueoimarion o rle Laiiiei anu velicle, iigiu Laiiieis aLsoiL eneigy Ly
comiession o a velicles susension sysrem. CiaLLing o rle vleels anu iicrion
ar rle ryie-ioau inreiace uissiares auuirional eneigy. Ir is a earuie o rlese
Laiiieis rlar quire oren rle eiianr velicle uoes nor susrain uamage ro irs
Louyvoik. Velicles renu ro lug rle Laiiieis iarlei rlan ieLounu Lack inro rle
riaic srieam, anu oveiruining is ieuuceu. 1le Laiiiei las Leen successul in
ieuiiecring laige riacroi-riaileis. 1le ev ]eisey success las seen similai Laiiieis,
as slovn in Iig. 10.6 (L), auoreu in coues sucl as Ausrioaus (1996). 1le
Fig. 10.6 Rigid barrier profiles
10.1.1 High-level containment barriers
uniying earuies o rle rvo slaes aie rlar rle lovei sloeu ace is ar 55 ro rle
loiizonral anu rle uei sloeu ace ar S4.
Baiiieis aie noimally classiieu Ly rle level o conrainmenr (lov, meuium anu
ligl) rlar rley oei. Lov-level Laiiieis aie uesigneu ro conrain liglr velicles sucl
as saloon cais, meuium-level ro conrain meuium-sizeu riucks anu Luses, anu ligl-
level Laiiieis ro conrain laige riucks anu riacroi-riaileis. 1le level o conrainmenr
iequiieu usually ueenus on rle level o iisk eirinenr ro a airiculai siruarion.
Alrlougl coues o iacrice may give guiuance on rle uesign o Laiiieis, mosr
iequiie ciasl resring o Laiiieis Leoie accerance.
Ausrioaus (1996) auvises rlar Laiiieis neeu nor Le ioviueu ar lov-level
Liiuges suLjecr ro loouing, vleie

(a) rle iovision o Laiiieis voulu ievenr rle assage o ueLiis anu/oi Le
iequenrly uamageu Ly leavy ueLiis,
(L) riaic volumes aie less rlan 150 velicles ei uay,
(c) rle Liiuge is ovei varei noimally less rlan 1.2 m uee, oi is less rlan 1.5 m
aLove giounu,
(u) rleie is an essenrially sriaiglr aioacl ioau anu Liiuge alignmenr
(iauius>1500 m), anu vleie rle aioacles lave suicienr siglr uisrance
(>sroing uisrance),
(e) rle viurl Lerveen keiLs is nor less rlan 6.6 m oi a rvo-lane Liiuge oi 4.2 m
oi a single-lane Liiuge,
() aioiiare signosring is eiecreu, vaining rlar rle Liiuge is suLjecr ro
iequenr loouing, anu
(g) conrinuous keiLs nor less rlan 250 mm ligl aie ioviueu on rle ueck.
Casrellareu keiLs may Le useu vleie alux is ciirical, vleie eimirreu Ly rle
Aurloiiry.

Colosimo (1996) auus rle olloving conuirions:

(a) in iuial locarions virlour anriciareu euesriian riaic,
(L) virl a Laiiiei oser ar leasr 1.2 m iom rle euge o rle riaic lanes, anu
(c) vleie rle lanu Lenearl rle sriucruie is lov-iisk, rlar is, i conuirions unuei
rle Liiuge musr nor inciease rle level o iisk ro occuanrs o a velicle leaving
rle Liiuge.

All rle aLove conuirions musr Le sarisieu i a Laiiiei is ro Le omirreu.
AASH1O (19S9) anu Colosimo (1996) inuicare merlous oi selecring rle
aioiiare level o Laiiiei, Laseu iimaiily on riaic volume, numLeis o
commeicial velicles anu level o iisk.
Higl-level Laiiieis sloulu Le ioviueu in ligl-iisk locarions. Ausrioaus (1996)
ieeis ro rlese as Level 1 Laiiieis anu suggesrs rley sloulu Le ioviueu oi:
VEHICLE BARRIER 251
(a) Liiuges ovei orlei majoi ioauvays,
(L) Liiuges ovei iailvays,
(c) Liiuges ovei louses, acroiies, erc,
(u) veiy ligl Liiuges,
(e) Liiuges ovei uee varei,

oi in orlei siruarions as uiiecreu Ly rle Aurloiiry.
Assessmenr o rle level o lazaiu is ro rake inro accounr rle volume anu ryes
o velicles, roral riaic volumes, ioau alignmenr, Liiuge viurl, anu rle
consequences o Laiiiei ailuie. o uesign ciireiia aie seciieu, Lur rle Laiiiei
sloulu Le aLle ro conrain velicles iuenriieu Ly rle assessmenr ar rle ievailing
seeu o rle ioau oi imacr angles u ro 15. 1le saery slae slovn in Iig. 10.6
(L) is suggesreu as a Lasis.
Colosimo (1996) suggesrs rlar a ligl-level Laiiiei sloulu Le caaLle o
conraining a van-rye riacroi-riailei velicle virl a mass o 44 ronnes ar seeus o
90 kl, ar imacr angles u ro 15. An ulrimare uesign conrainmenr oice o 900
ro 1200 k, anu a minimum Laiiiei leiglr o 1300 ro 1500 mm aie nominareu.
Since rle ligl-level Laiiiei is uesigneu oi leavy velicles, Colosimo suggesrs sucl
a Laiiiei may Le iequiieu vlen commeicial velicle volumes on Lusy, majoi
ioauvays exceeu 500 ei uay in iuial aieas anu 2000 ei uay in uiLan aieas. I
rlese volumes aie exceeueu, ligl-level Laiiieis sloulu Le seciieu in rle
olloving siruarions:

(a) Liiuges ovei majoi ioauvays virl an AAD1 o S000 oi moie velicles ei
uay,
(L) Liiuges ovei elecriiieu iailvays oi goous lines caiiying laige quanriries o
eirlei noxious oi lammaLle suLsrances,
(c) Liiuges ovei varei moie rlan 2 m uee,
(u) Liiuges ovei louses, acroiies, erc,
(e) Liiuges moie rlan 10 m ligl,
() Liiuges on loiizonral cuives virl a iauius o 600 m oi less.

BS 69: Pair 2:1991 seciies rlar a ligl-level Laiiiei is ro iesisr eneriarion
iom a 30-ronne iigiu rankei virl cenrie o mass 1.S m aLove rle giounu,
riavelling ar 64 kl ar an imacr angle o 20. Pairs 1 anu 3 o rle Sranuaiu
seciy a similai velicle excer rlar rle leiglr o rle cenrie o mass is 1.65 m. 1le
Biirisl Sranuaiu is uiviueu inro rliee airsBS 69: Pair 1:1992 coveis meral
Laiiieis, anu iequiies rlar meral Laiiiei consriucrion Le resreu uynamically iioi
ro accerance oi use, BS 69: Pair 2:1991 seciies rle uesign o Laiiieis o
conciere consriucrion, anu BS 69: Pair 3:1994 seciies rle uesign o comLineu
meral anu conciere Laiiieis.
Ioi ligl-level conciere Laiiieis vleie sleai riansei Lerveen anels is
ioviueu, BS 69: Pair 2 seciies rlar Laiiieis Le uesigneu oi a nominal
Lenuing momenr, geneiareu Ly alying a oice o (1S0+40) k ei anel ar rle
ro o rle anel, vleie is rle lengrl o rle anel (1.5 ro 3.5 m). Wleie sleai
riansei Lerveen anels is nor ioviueu, rle oice is (210+40) k. 1le oice is
ro Le alieu unioimly along rle ro o rle anel in a loiizonral uiiecrion. Ioi
10.1.2 Medium-level containment barriers
sleai uesign, rle ielevanr oices aie (90+50) k ei anel anu (110+50)
k ei anel iesecrively, vleie is rle leiglr o rle Laiiiei anu rle sleai oice
is ro Le iesisreu Ly any riansveise secrion o rle anel. 1le minimum leiglr o rle
Laiiiei is 1.5 m. BS 69: Pair 3:1994 seciies a nominal loau o 320 k oi
comLineu conciere anu meral anels, anu rle uesign o a numLei o elemenrs o
rle Laiiiei is Laseu on rlis loau. 1le nominal sleai oice ei anel is 3S0 k
vleie sleai riansei rakes lace Lerveen anels, anu 440 k vleie ir uoes nor.
Loau acrois lave ro Le alieu ro rle nominal values.
AASH1O (19S9) uesignares rle ligl-level Laiiiei as PL-3, caaLle o
conraining a 22-ronne riacroi-riailei ar S0 kl ar an imacr angle o 15.
AASH1O (1994) inuicares rlar PL-3 Laiiieis aie noimally useu oi ieevays o
vaiiaLle cioss sloes, ieuuceu iauii o cuivaruie, ligl leavy-velicle conrenr anu
ligl seeus. 1leie aie rvo auuirional, liglei eioimance Laiiieis, rle PL-4 anu
PL-41, caaLle o conraining 36-ronne riacroi-riaileis anu 36-ronne rankeis
iesecrively. 1lese Laiiieis aie iequiieu only ar sires vleie sucl velicles aie
ievalenr.
PL-3 Laiiieis aie uesigneu oi a riansveise oice o 516 k, a longiruuinal
loau o 13 k anu a veirical loau o 222 k uovnvaiu. 1le riansveise anu
longiruuinal loaus neeu nor Le consiueieu simulraneously virl rle veirical loau,
vlicl ieiesenrs rle veiglr o rle velicle iesring on rle Laiiiei. 1le riansveise
(imacr) oice anu longiruuinal (iicrional) loaus acr ovei a uisrance o 2.44 m,
rle lengrl o velicle iesring on rle Laiiiei is assumeu ro Le 12.2 m. 1le coue
gives guiuance oi rle uesign o iailing-rye Laiiieis anu rle uesign o conciere
Laiiieis using yielu line analysis, Lur iequiies all Laiiieis ro Le resreu iioi ro
accerance.
Hiiscl anu IaiiLanks (19S5) lave uesciiLeu rle uesign anu resring o a iigiu
conciere Laiiiei ro conrain 36-ronne rankeis ar seeus o S0 kl ar an imacr
angle o 15.
êuium-level Laiiieis sloulu Le ioviueu in meuium-iisk locarions. Ausrioaus
(1996) ieeis ro rlese as Level 2 Laiiieis anu suggesrs rley Le ioviueu vleie
Level 1 Laiiieis aie nor iequiieu Lur conuirions exceeu rlose alicaLle oi Level
3 Laiiieis (see Secrion 10.1.3). 1le sranuaiu accers rle conciere Laiiiei, slovn
in Iig. 10.6 (L), anu a sreel osr anu iail sysrem (2 oi 3 iails) as conoiming ro rlis
level. 1le Laiiiei is ro Le uesigneu oi an ulrimare loiizonral uesign oice o 90
k oi leiglrs u ro S50 mm. Ioi leiglrs giearei rlan S50 mm, rle loau is
incieaseu Ly mulrilying Ly (1+(S50)/450), vleie is rle leiglr o rle
conciere aiaer oi rle ro iail. Colosimo (1996) auvises rlar 'rlis iequiiemenr is
Lasically rle riauirional seciicarion ro uiiecr a 2-ronne assengei velicle (cai) ar
100 kl anu 25 imacr angle. 1leie is an inconsisrency Lerveen rlis
seciicarion anu rle raiger velicles oi Level 2 Laiiieis.
Colosimo (1996) nominares rle meuium-level conrainmenr Laiiiei as caaLle
o conraining a 33-ronne riacroi-riailei (van rye) ar a seeu o S0 kl anu an
VEHICLE BARRIER 253
10.1.3 Low-level containment barriers
imacr angle o 15. An ulrimare uesign conrainmenr oice o 500 k anu a
minimum Laiiiei leiglr o 1000 mm aie nominareu. 1lis Laiiiei sarisies rle
Lase iequiiemenrs oi liglvays anu ieevays.
BS 69: Pairs 1 anu 2 seciy rlar a noimal-level Laiiiei musr Le caaLle o
iesisring eneriarion Ly a 1.5-ronne saloon vlose cenrie o mass is 0.6 m aLove
rle giounu, riavelling ar 113 kl ar an imacr angle o 20. BS 69: Pair 3
seciies a similai velicle, excer rlar rle leiglr o rle cenrie o mass is 0.53 m.
Pair 2 seciies a nominal loau o 50 k alieu loiizonrally ovei a lengrl o 1.0
m ar rle ro o rle vall oi Lenuing, anu a nominal oice o S0 k/m oi sleai.
Pair 3 seciies a nominal loau o 50 k oi rle uesign o comLineu meral anu
conciere anels anu a nominal sleai oice o 50 k ei anel, virl rle minimum
leiglr o rle Laiiiei 1000 mm.
AASH1O (19S9) uesignares irs meuium Laiiiei as PL-2, caaLle o
conraining a 2.4-ronne velicle ar 100 kl ar an imacr angle o 20, anu an S-
ronne iigiu velicle ar S0 kl ar an imacr angle o 15. Ir is cuiienr iacrice in rle
USA ro use rlis as rle Lase level Laiiiei on all liglvays, rlougl some aurloiiries
iecommenu rle PL-2 Laiiiei as ir is only maiginally moie exensive rlan rle PL-
1. PL-2 Laiiieis aie uesigneu oi a riansveise (imacr) loau o 240 k, a
longiruuinal (iicrional) loau o S0 k anu a veirical uovnvaiu loau (velicle
veiglr) o S0 k. Requiiemenrs oi rle uesign anu resring o rlese Laiiieis aie
similai ro rle ligl-level PL-3 Laiiieis, virl rle excerion rlar rle riansveise anu
longiruuinal loaus aie alieu ovei a lengrl o 1.0 m anu rle lengrl o rle
velicle iesring on rle Laiiiei is 5.5 m.
Lov-level Laiiieis sloulu Le ioviueu in lov-iisk locarions. Ausrioaus (1996)
ieeis ro rlese as Level 3 Laiiieis anu suggesrs rley Le ioviueu in rle olloving
siruarions:

(a) Liiuges on ioaus virl lov riaic volumes (<500 velicles ei uay),
(L) Liiuges on ioaus virl lov volumes o velicles virl a ligl cenrie o mass
(<100 velicles ei uay),
(c) Liiuges ovei slallov varei (<1.2 m uee),
(u) Liiuges virl lov leiglr aLove giounu oi varei (<4 m),
(e) Liiuges virl an essenrially sriaiglr alignmenr (iauii>1500 m),
() Liiuges virl viurl Lerveen Laiiieis nor less rlan 6.6 m oi a rvo-lane oi 4.2
m oi a single-lane Liiuge.

Ausrioaus (1996) nominares rle lexiLle sreel W-Leam guaiuiail as an examle o
a Level 3 Laiiiei, caaLle o conraining cais ar rle ievailing seeu ar an imacr
angle o 15.
Colosimo (1996) ieeis ro rle lov-level Laiiiei as a iegulai Laiiiei caaLle o
conraining a 2-ronne velicle riavelling ar a seeu o 100 kl ar an imacr angle o
25. 1le ciirical velicle, lovevei, is a 2.4-ronne velicle riavelling ar 100 kl ar
10.2 Pedestrian and bicycle barriers
an imacr angle o 20. An ulrimare uesign conrainmenr oice o 200 k anu a
minimum Laiiiei leiglr o S00 mm aie nominareu. A ryical conciere Laiiiei
voulu Le as slovn in Iig. 10.6, oi rle sreel osr anu iail rye, geneially useu oi
iuial liglvays anu majoi uiLan ioaus. Colosimo also ieeis ro a 'lov-level
Laiiiei ioviuing less conrainmenr rlan rle iegulai level. Ir coiiesonus
aioximarely ro rle AASH1O PL-1 level anu coulu Le a sranuaiu ioausiue
Laiiiei mouiieu in sriness oi Liiuge use.
BS 69: Pair 1:1992 seciies rlar a lov-level Laiiiei is ro iesisr eneriarion
iom a 1.5-ronne saloon cai virl cenrie o mass 0.6 m aLove rle giounu,
riavelling ar S0 kl ar an imacr angle o 20.
AASH1O (19S9) uesignares irs lov Laiiiei as PL-1, caaLle o conraining a
2.4-ronne velicle ar 0 kl ar an imacr angle o 20. PL-1 Laiiieis aie uesigneu
oi a riansveise (imacr) loau o 120 k, a longiruuinal (iicrional) loau o 40 k
anu a veirical uovnvaiu loau (velicle veiglr) o 20 k. 1le riansveise anu
longiruuinal loaus aie alieu ovei a lengrl o 1.22 m anu rle lengrl o rle
velicle iesring on rle Laiiiei is 5.5 m. Requiiemenrs oi rle uesign anu resring o
PL-1 Laiiieis aie similai ro rlose oi ligl-level PL-3 Laiiieis.
1le uiose o a euesriian Laiiiei is oLviously ro iesriain eole iom alling o
a Liiuge vlicl may Le ligl oi aLove a varei lazaiu. 1le neeu miglr aiise as a
iesulr o cliluien laying oi isling on rle Liiuge, oi euesriians Leing knockeu
iom rleii eer vlile rle Liiuge is in loou, oi iom iessuie iom a ciovu
ciossing rle Liiuge. 1le uesign o a euesriian Laiiiei musr Le a comiomise. An
oen uesign may ieuuce loauing on rle Liiuge uue ro srieam anu ueLiis oices
uuiing a loou, Lur roo laige an oening vill ail ro ievenr cliluien iom alling
o rle Liiuge. 1le size o oenings musr Le caieully closen ro ievenr
enriamenr o Louy airs.
1le mosr common oim o Laiiiei is osr-anu-iail, virl rvo oi rliee iails
seciieu in oiuei ro ievenr eole alling rliougl gas in rle Laiiiei. 1lis rye
las rle uisauvanrage rlar ir is climLaLle Ly cliluien, vlo may eicl on rle ro
iail anu oveiLalance. An alreinarive rye is a Lalusriaue consisring o many
veirical Lais closely saceu anu suoireu Lerveen a ro anu Lorrom iail,
oeiing a giearei uegiee o saery, Lur ar an incieaseu cosr. A soliu Laiiiei oeis a
sae solurion, Lur voulu imose laige srieam oices on rle Liiuge uuiing a loou.
Bicycle Laiiieis aie usually uesigneu oi loaus similai ro rlose oi euesriian
Laiiieis. 1le uieience is usually one o geomeriy, rle leiglr o rle Laiiiei Leing
incieaseu ro coe virl rle liglei cenrie o giaviry o rle cyclisr.
BS 5400:19S iequiies a euesriian aiaer ro Le uesigneu oi a nominal
loau o 1.4 k/m, acring ar a leiglr o 1.0 m aLove rle oorvay. BD3/SS, Biirisl
Deairmenr o 1iansoir (19SS), ierains rle loauing seciieu in BS 5400, noring
rlar rle loau is ro Le alieu concuiienrly virl rle euesriian loauing. LV
19913:1995 seciies a line loau o 1.0 k/m, acring veirically oi loiizonrally
on rle ro o rle aiaer.
LIGHT RAIL BARRIERS 255
AASH1O (1994) nominares rle minimum leiglr o rle iail as 1060 mm oi
euesriians anu 130 mm oi cyclisrs, anu allovs Lorl loiizonral anu veirical
elemenrs. 1le maximum sacing o rle iails is 150 mm, excer vleie veirical
elemenrs aie also iesenr, in vlicl case rle maximum sacing may Le incieaseu
ro 3S0 mm oi rlar air o rle iailing aLove 6S5 mm. Lacl iail is ro Le uesigneu
oi loaus o 0.3 k/m, acring veirically anu riansveisely simulraneously. Lacl
iail also las a concenriareu loau o 0.S9 k, acring in any uiiecrion, ar any oinr,
simulraneously virl rle oimei loaus.
Ausrioaus (1996) seciies a seiviceaLiliry uesign loau o 0.5 k/m acring
veirically anu loiizonrally on eacl iail. Posrs aie ro Le uesigneu ro iesisr rle loau
iom one Lay (i.e. rle line loau rimes rle sacing o rle osrs). 1le uelecrion
limirs aie given as /S00 oi iails vleie is rle san o rle iail Lerveen osrs
anu /500 oi osrs, vleie is rle leiglr o rle ro iail. Geomeriic ioeiries o
rle iails aie as ollovs:

(a) a ieeiieu leiglr o 1.1 m (1.0 m minimum),
(L) Lalusreis slall Le saceu nor moie rlan 130 mm cleai oi rle saery o
cliluien,
(c) veirical Lalusreis virlour climLing oorlolus slall Le ioviueu (in ieeience
ro a seiies o loiizonral iails), anu
(u) vleie cyclisrs may use rle valkvay, rle ieeiieu iailing leiglr is 1.2 m (1.1
m minimum).

Ausrioaus (1996) iaises rvo orlei issues ro Le consiueieu Ly uesigneis. Any iail
arracleu ro a velicle Laiiiei ro acr as a euesriian iail is ro Le ueraileu so rlar ir
cannor Lecome loose uuiing a velicle ciasl anu seai inro rle velicle. Seconu,
vleie rle euesriian Laiiiei is aLove an elecriiieu iailvay line, rle Railvay
Aurloiiry may iequiie a secial, ossiLly liglei, Laiiiei, vlicl may also neeu ro
Le elecriically isolareu ro avoiu rle ossiLiliry o irs Lecoming claigeu.
Since Liglr Rail Velicles (LRVs) aie guiueu velicles, rle ioLaLiliry o eiianr
velicles is ieuuceu. Hovevei, ueiailmenr can occui uue ro a sreeiing meclanism
ailuie, a aulr oi veai in rle iail, oi velicle collision. In rle larrei case, collision
can occui Lerveen LRVs oi, in rle case o 'srieer iunning, virl a ioau velicle.
1le suoir sriucruie neeus ro Le uesigneu oi rle veirical loau imoseu Ly rle
LRV in irs ueiaileu locarion, anu Laiiieis ro conrain rle LRVs neeu ro Le uesigneu
oi rle aioiiare collision oices. Dolan (19S6) auvises:

1le magniruue anu line o acrion o a loiizonral ueiailmenr loau on a
Laiiiei vall is a uncrion o a numLei o vaiiaLles, among vlicl aie
rle uisrance o rle riacks iom rle Laiiiei vall, rle velicle veiglr anu
seeu ar ueiailmenr, rle lexiLiliry o rle vall, anu rle iicrional
iesisrance Lerveen velicle anu vall. In lieu o a ueraileu analysis, rle
10.3 Light rail barriers
10.4 Railway barriers
Laiiiei vall sloulu Le uesigneu ro iesisr a lareial oice equivalenr ro
50 ei cenr o a sranuaiu velicle veiglr uisriiLureu ovei a lengrl o 15
r (5 m) along rle vall anu acring ar rle axle leiglr.
An imacr acroi o 1.0 (i.e. sraric loau sloulu Le uouLleu) sloulu Le incluueu in
rle vleel loaus vlen assessing rle sriengrl o rle ueck slaL. 1le locarion o rle
ueiaileu velicle sloulu Le as close ro rle Laiiiei vall as ossiLle.
Discussion o iailvay Laiiieis musr auuiess rle associareu quesrions o
ueiailmenr anu collision loaus on Liiuge suoirs. 1le issues aie similai ro rlose
oi liglr iail, excer rlar rle oices aie giearei.
Ausrioaus (1996) srares rlar rle likeliloou o a riain Leing ueiaileu ueenus
on rle riack anu rle olloving comonenrs in uecieasing oiuei o ioLaLiliry:

1. carcl oinrs anu ueiaileis,
2. slis (riack comonenr),
3. acing ruinours,
4. uiamonus,
5. riailing ruinours,
6. cuiveu riack (airiculaily on uescenrs anu esecially ar rle Lorrom o a long
uescenr), anu
. sriaiglr riack on a uescenr (esecially ar rle Lorrom o a long uescenr).

I a riain leaves rle riack comlerely, sucl as in a ir vill riavel
in a rangenr ro rle riack. I only one oi rvo Logies leave rle riack
rle riain vill riavel aiallel ro rle riack.
Consiuei iisr rle case o a Liiuge suoiring a iailvay. In rle evenr o a
minoi ueiailmenr, rle riain vill leave rle riack Lur iemain close ro rle riacks.
1leieoie rle Liiuge musr Le cleckeu oi rle loaus Leing alieu aujacenr ro rle
riacks. In rle evenr o a majoi ueiailmenr, rle riain vill conrinue rovaius rle
euge o rle Liiuge anu iemain eicleu on rle Liiuge. Damage ro rle Liiuge may
Le accereu Lur roral collase sloulu noimally Le avoiueu.
BS 5400:19S iequiies rlar iailvay Liiuges Le uesigneu so as nor ro 'suei
excessive uamage oi Lecome unsraLle in rle evenr o a ueiailmenr. 1liee
conuirions aie seciieu. Conuirion (a) is vleie a riain sueis a minoi
ueiailmenr. 1le coue iequiies rlar no eimanenr uamage Le causeu oi rle
seiviceaLiliry limir srare. Conuirion (L) is also vleie rle riain sueis minoi
ueiailmenr, anu in rlis case collase o any majoi elemenrs is avoiueu anu local
uamage accereu as an ulrimare limir srare. Conuirion (c) is a majoi ueiailmenr
o a locomorive anu one vagon. 1le locomorive anu vagon aie assumeu ro Le
locareu on rle aiaer o rle Liiuge, anu no oveiruining oi insraLiliry is
accereu, Lur uamage may occui.
RAILWAY BARRIERS 257
Ioi uesigns using rle RU loauing, BS 5400:19S seciies rle olloving:
A aii o aiallel veirical line loaus o 20 k/m eacl, 1.4 m aair,
aiallel ro rle riack anu alieu anyvleie virlin 2 m eirlei siue o rle riack
cenrieline, oi an inuiviuual concenriareu veirical loau o 100 k anyvleie virlin
rle viurl limirs seciieu oi rle oimei loauing,
Liglr inuiviuual concenriareu loaus eacl o 1S0 k, aiiangeu on
rvo lines 1.4 m aair, virl eacl o rle oui loaus 1.6 m aair on line, alieu
anyvleie on rle ueck,
A single veirical loau o S0 k/m alieu along rle aiaer oi
oureimosr euge o rle Liiuge, limireu ro a lengrl o 20 m anyvleie along rle
san.
Ioi uesigns using rle RL loauing, BS 5400:19S seciies rle olloving:
A aii o aiallel veirical line loaus o 15 k/m eacl, 1.4 m aair,
aiallel ro rle riack anu alieu anyvleie virlin 2 m eirlei siue o rle riack
cenrieline (oi virlin 1.4 m eirlei siue o rle riack cenrieline vleie rle riack
incluues a suLsranrial cenrie iail oi elecriic riacrion oi orlei uioses), oi an
inuiviuual concenriareu veirical loau o 5 k anyvleie virlin rle viurl limirs
seciieu oi rle oimei loauing,
Ioui inuiviuual concenriareu loaus eacl o 120 k, aiiangeu ar
rle coinei o a iecrangle o lengrl 2.0 m anu viurl 1.4 m, alieu anyvleie on
rle ueck,
A single veirical loau o 30 k/m, alieu along rle aiaer oi
oureimosr euge o rle Liiuge, limireu ro a lengrl o 20 m anyvleie on rle san.
LV 19913:1995 las a geneial iiuei rlar, in rle evenr o a ueiailmenr, uamage
ro rle Liiuge is ro Le limireu anu rlar oveiruining oi collase o rle sriucruie is ro
Le avoiueu. In rle evenr o a minoi ueiailmenr, collase o majoi elemenrs is ro Le
avoiueu Lur local uamage may Le roleiareu. 1le loau oi rle ulrimare srare
consisrs o rvo veirical line loaus o 50 k/m eacl ovei a lengrl o 6.4 m anu
saceu 1.4 m aair. 1le ourei exriemiry o rle loau is locareu a maximum o
1.5rle riack sacing on eirlei siue o rle cenrieline o rle riack. I a vall is
locareu closei rlan 1.5rle riack sacing, rle loau is ro Le locareu againsr rle
vall. In rle evenr o a majoi ueiailmenr, rle Liiuge musr nor oveiruin oi collase.
1le loau oi rlis case consisrs o a single, veirical line loau o S0 k/m ovei a
lengrl o 20 m anu locareu a maximum o 1.5rle riack sacing on eirlei siue o
rle cenrieline o rle riack. 1le loau is ro Le locareu againsr a vall oi ar rle euge
o rle Liiuge i rlese elemenrs aie closei ro rle riack cenrieline.
Ausrioaus (1996) seciies rlar, in rle evenr o a minoi ueiailmenr, rle
sriengrl o rle Liiuge is ro Le cleckeu oi rvo alreinarive loaus, using an ulrimare
loau acroi o 1.2. 1le iisr alreinarive is rle 300-A-12 loauing, alieu as vleel
loaus aiallel ro rle riack anu locareu virlin a uisrance,
iom rle riack

cenrieline. 1le seconu alreinarive is a single oinr loau o 200 k locareu virlin
a uisrance,
iom rle riack cenrieline. 1le uisrance
is raken ro Le 2.0 m oi
sranuaiu gauge lines anu 1.5 m oi naiiov gauge lines. A minoi ueiailmenr is
consiueieu ro Le vlen rle riain uoes nor move uirlei rlan 1.3 m lareially iom
rle riack. Ir is execreu rlar majoi sriucruial elemenrs vill nor suei moie rlan
sueiicial uamage. In rle case o a majoi ueiailmenr, rle sriengrl anu sraLiliry o
rle Liiuge is ro Le cleckeu oi a veirical line loau o 100 k/m, ovei a lengrl o
20 m, locareu on rle euge o rle Liiuge. 1le ulrimare loau acroi is 1.0. Ir is
execreu rle Liiuge vill nor Le uamageu Leyonu economic ieaii anu rlar ir vill
iemain sraLle.
ov consiuei rle case o a iail ovei-Liiuge, vleie rle Liiuge caiiies some
orlei riaic ovei rle iailvay. 1le oLjecrive in rlis case is ro ievenr rle collase o
rle ovei-Liiuge on ro rle ueiaileu riain, virl a ligl orenrial oi loss o lie. 1leie
aie many uocumenreu cases vleie loss o lie las occuiieu unuei rlese
ciicumsrances, oi examle, ar Gianville (Secrion 2.4). 1le iisr aioacl is ro
avoiu rle use o suoir columns close ro riackvoik, rle seconu is ro use Laiiieis ro
iorecr rle columns, rle rliiu is ro uesign rle columns ro iesisr rle imacr oices.
1le column sloulu Lelave in a uucrile vay anu a Llaue column may oei rle Lesr
solurion. ALiliry ro ieaii rle column sloulu Le consiueieu. Iinally, consiueiarion
may Le given ro uesigning rle Liiuge ro suoir irs ovn veiglr anu a oirion o rle
live loau virl rle column iemoveu.
BS 5400:19S oeis no guiuance on uesign loaus oi collisions againsr columns
anu ieeis rle uesignei ro rle ielevanr aurloiiry. A similai aioacl is auoreu Ly
LV 19913:1995. Ausrioaus (1996) auvises rlar Liiuges sloulu lave cleai sans
Lerveen aLurmenrs. Hovevei, i columns aie necessaiy anu locareu virlin 5.5 m o
rle cenrieline o rle riack, rley musr Le uesigneu oi 2000 k aiallel ro rle iails,
acring simulraneously virl 1000 k noimal ro rle iails. 1lese aie ulrimare loaus,
alieu loiizonrally ar a leiglr o 2.0 m aLove rle iails. 1le coue auvises rlar 'a
soliu conciere ull leiglr iei, 600 mm oi moie rlick anu 4 m oi moie viue, virl
1' veirical sreel anu virl auequare connecrion ro rle sueisriucruie sloulu sarisy
rlese loau conuirions in mosr cases.
1le inal roic unuei rlis leauing conceins rle iequiiemenrs oi iailvay
Laiiieis. As voulu Le execreu, given rle lov ioLaLiliry o a riackeu velicle
colliuing virl oLsracles, rleie is lirrle guiuance given. BS 5400:19S anu LV
19913:1995 aie silenr in rlis iegaiu. Ausrioaus (1996) srares rlar rle loaus
seciieu oi rle uesign o ieis aujacenr ro iailvays aie ro Le useu oi rle uesign o
ciasl iesisranr valls. A loau acroi o 1.5 is alieu oi rle ulrimare limir srare.

Chapter 11
11.1 Introduction

Stream loads

Srieam lov is a comlex suLjecr, vlose ioei sruuy exrenus vell Leyonu rle
scoe o rlis Look. 1le inreiacrion Lerveen a Liiuge anu srieam may Le uiviueu
inro rvo airs.
1leie is, iisr, rle eecr o rle Liiuge on rle srieam. 1le Liiuge ryically
causes some consriicrion o rle vareivay, iesulring in oi rle elevarion o
loou levels usrieam iom rle Liiuge. 1lis alux musr Le conriolleu, anu rle
selecrion o Liiuge sans anu rle uivision o rle Liiuge Lerveen emLankmenrs
anu oen vareivay is oren uereimineu Ly rlis acroi. In auuirion, rle ieuucrion
in vareivay Liings aLour an inciease in rle velociry o rle srieam Lenearl rle
Liiuge, rlis may cause scoui, vlicl is unuesiiaLle in irsel anu also leaus ro rle
ueosirion o mareiial in rle Leu uovnsrieam. ôieovei, rle couise o rle srieam
may Le uiveireu. 1o quore iom (Ausrioaus 1994:14),
'mouiicarion ro eiennial iiveis |rlose virl a eimanenr lov] 'can Le quire
exrensive, lovevei rle uynamic eecrs o iiveis in aiiu anu semi-aiiu iegions
can Le even moie exrensive anu uiamaric. 1le uisruiLance causeu Ly a Liiuge
may cause majoi vaiiarions in rle couise o a iivei, sucl as one virl meanueis.
Seconu, rleie is rle eecr o rle srieam on rle Liiuge, anu rlis incluues sucl
marreis as lov loaus on Liiuge ieis anu aLurmenrs, rle oices alieu ro rle
Liiuge Ly loaring oLjecrs anu ueLiis, scoui o rle kinu rlar may unueimine anu
veaken rle ounuarions, anu ossiLle inunuarion.
Ir is ioLaLly aii ro say rlar rlese eecrs o srieam lov lave Leen rle mosr
common cause o Liiuge ailuie. Some examles may Le given. 1le Roman Liiuge
acioss rle Guauiana Rivei ar êiiua in cenrial Sain srill seives as rle ciry Liiuge
(OConnoi 1993:106, Secrion 2.1). Ir las lau, lovevei, a clequeieu lisroiy.
Wlen iisr Luilr, ossiLly Ly Augusrus aLour 25BC, ir lau 36 aicleu sans, virl a
roral lengrl o aLour 260 m, o vlicl S0.5 m veie raken u Ly rle ieis, leaving
19.5 m, oi 69', as vareivay. 1lis ioveu insuicienr,
STREAM LOADS 260
anu a loou cur rliougl rle noirlein aioacl, leauing ro rle auuirion o a
uirlei 10 sans, virl a roral lengrl o aLour 129 m, o vlicl S1.S m, oi 64'
vas vareivay. 1lis again vas insuicienr, oi a larei loou cur rliougl rle
sourlein aioacl. 1le Liiuge vas uirlei exrenueu, ossiLly aLour rle eiiou
AD9S11, ro Lecome rle longesr o all Roman srone Liiuges, virl aLour 62
sans anu a roral lengrl o aLour 55 m (virl 64' vareivay). Casauo (n.u.: 33)
las a lorogial o rlis Liiuge, in rle loou o 1942, virl rle varei ieacling in
laces ro rle ueck. Anorlei majoi Roman Liiuge caiiieu rle Via Ilaminia ovei
rle eia Rivei ar aini: OConnoi (1993: Iionrisi ece, S) las a
ieconsriucrion. Ir vas oiiginally aLour 160 m long, virl a maximum leiglr
aLove noimal varei level o 30 m anu oui sans, 19.6, 32.1, 1S anu 16 m. O
rlese, only san 1, o 19.6 m, is nov inracr, Lur iei 3 (Lerveen sans 3 anu 4)
also sranus. Piei 2 is also slovn as sranuing in some eaily lorogials, Lur las
nov allen. Ir is o some imoirance ro nore leie rle naruie o irs ailuie, oi ir ell
usrieam, cleaily as a iesulr o local scoui Lenearl irs usrieam ace. A rliiu
Roman Liiuge is rle Pons IaLiicius in Rome, ciossing rle ler Liancl o rle 1iLei
ro rle Isola 1iLeiina, oi rle islanu in rle 1iLei (OConnoi 1993:65). Ir srill sranus
as an imiessive examle o Roman aclievemenr, virl irs comlerion uare,
62BC, caiveu inro irs srones. Ir is slovn in Iig. 11.1. A glance is suicienr ro
ieveal rle auuirional sronevoik ueosireu aiounu rle single cenrial iei: eviuence
o a conrinuing Larrle againsr scoui, anu also o rle concuiienr incieaseu iisk o
uamage uue ro laigei srieam velociries in rle imeueu vareivay.
Fig. 11.1 The two-span Roman Pons Fabricius in Rome, showing rock protection
around central pier (OConnor photograph)
INTRODUCTION 261
1vo uirlei examles lave Leen given in Secrion 2.4: rle ailuie o air o
rle 1asman Liiuge uue ro sli imacr, anu rle eecrs o rle exriaoiuinaiy ueLiis
mar ueosireu Ly loou againsr rle galimLiu Rivei in rle Solomon Islanus, 'a
soliu vall o rimLei some 200300 m viue, sranuing 34 m aLove rle varei
suiace (Boyce 19S, 19S9), rlar uemolisleu ceirain sans anu causeu rle srieam
ro Lyass rle Liiuge anu cur rliougl irs aioacles.
Only some o rlese marreis vill Le uiscusseu leie: a Liie inriouucrion inro
rle Lasic lenomena, a Liie look ar scoui, anu rlen a sliglrly ullei accounr o
some o rle loaus alieu ro a Liiuge. A rloiougl riearmenr o Liiuge
lyuiaulics may Le ounu in rle iecenr Look o rlis name Ly Hamill (1999).
Basic eaily voik in rlis aiea vas rlar Ly Biauley (1960, 19S). Orlei Looks
incluue Ausrioaus (1994), Iaiiauay anu Clailron (19S3), eill (193) anu
RoLinson (1964). A classic eaily sruuy o rle lyuiaulics o oen clannels vas
Ly Baklmere (1932), orlei voiks aie Ly Clanson (1999), Clov (1959),
Iiencl (19S5), Hamill (1995), Henueison (1966) anu ônres (199S). 1le
esrimarion o srieam lovs, oi lyuiology, las Leen rle suLjecr o many Looks,
sucl as rlose Ly Linsley er al. (19SS) anu Wilson (19S3). In Ausrialia, rle
classic ieeience voik is (ILAusr 19S),
ueenuenr on iainall uara uLlisleu Ly rle vaiious srares (oi examle,
'Queenslanu Srieam Ilov Recoius oi 199, Queenslanu Warei Resouices
Commission 19S0). Similai uara sloulu Le availaLle oi orlei geogialic
iegions. '1le Riveis HanuLook, euireu Ly Calov anu Perrs (1992) iesenrs a
viuei viev. An emlasis on scoui ar Liiuge sires may Le ounu in Anuieski
(19S), Bieuseis anu Rauukivi (1991), Hokins er al. (195), Lauisen (1960,
1963), eill (1964), Simons anu Levis (191), US Ieueial Higlvay
Auminisriarion (1993) anu êlville (B.W., 'Scoui ar Biiuge Sires,
3262 in Cleiemisino er al. 19SS Vol.2). Iuirlei ieeiences on seciic
suLjecrs vill Le cireu in rle olloving secrions.
Iinally, ir sloulu Le noreu rlar rle Iiencl engineei, Peiioner, vas one o rle
iisr ro iecognise rle neeu ro minimise laimul inreiacrions Lerveen a Liiuge anu
a srieam, as illusriareu inirially Ly lis Liiuge ar euilly, o 12, Luilr in rle uays
o srone, Leoie viouglr iion anu sreel came inro viuesieau use. 1le sres le
rook veie:

(a) ro kee rle iei rlickness ro a minimum, virl a iario o rlickness ro cleai
san o 0.104 ar euilly,
(L) ro use slenuei, segmenral srone aicles so as ro kee rle level o rleii
siingings as ligl as ossiLle, anu
(c) ro Level rle unueisiue o rle aicles neai rle siingings, so as ro imiove lov
Lenearl rle Liiuge.

Desciirions o lis Liiuges may Le ounu in geneial voiks on rle lisroiy o
Liiuges, anu also in lis ovn voik,
8
uLlisleu oiiginally in 1S2, anu ieissueu in 19S virl rlis rirle Ly lLcole
arionale ues Ponrs er Claussees.
STREAM LOADS 262
1le Lasic oimula useu ro uesciiLe noimal srieam lov in a clannel o consranr
cioss-secrion is rlar given Ly ânning:

vleie
is lov (m
3
/sec),
is cioss-secrional aiea (m
2
) o rle lov,
is lyuiaulic iauius (m),
is verreu eiimerei (m),

is lyuiaulic sloe (m/m), anu,
is rle ânning iouglness coeicienr
1yical values o rle ânning coeicienr, aie:

iegulareu vareivay 0.035
culrivareu lanu 0.040
scarreieu riees anu Liusl 0.00
vooueu aieas 0.1000.120
vooueu aieas virl loou ieacling Liancles 0.1200.160

Iiguie 11.2 (a) slovs rle cioss-secrion o a srieam in loou (raken iom Ausrioaus
1994:50). Wirl iesecr ro some uarum, rle suiace level is ar an elevarion o 35 m,
rle loou srage is saiu ro Le 35 m. 1le roral cioss-secrional aiea is 261.4 m
2
, virl a
verreu eiimerei (lovei suiace) o 104.4 m. 1le oveiall lyuiaulic iauius is 2.50
m. Hovevei, rle naruie o rle looueu suiace vaiies, anu virl ir, rle ânning
coeicienr. Ir is assumeu, rleieoie, rlar rle roral cioss-secrion may Le uiviueu u,
as slovn, inro seven airs. Ioi eacl o rlese, rle verreu eiimerei is rle lengrl o
rle unueilying suiace. 1le lyuiaulic sloe is assumeu in rlis exeicise ro Le
0.00042 m/m, vleie rlis iguie is rle same oi all segmenrs o rle cioss-secrion.
1le lov oi eacl segmenr may rlen Le calculareu, anu rlese auueu ro give rle roral
lov. Ioi examle, oi segmenr 4, rle aiea is 4.3 m
2
, virl a verreu eiimerei o
11.0 m. 1le lyuiaulic iauius is 4.30 m, anu rle lov,

1le roral lov, oi all seven segmenrs, is 220 m
3
/sec.
Conveisely, rle mean velociry,
1
, is given Ly

1
=
=220/261.4
=0.S4 m/sec
11.2 Stream flows
STREAM FLOWS 263
I rle roral lov, is seciieu, rlen rle loou leiglr may Le uereimineu Ly riial
anu eiioi, oi, oi vaiious values o loou leiglr, rle uisclaige, may Le lorreu
againsr leiglr oi srage.
Suose rlar ir is necessaiy ro ass rle loou lov o 220 m
3
/sec rliougl rle
Liiuge oening slovn in Iig. 11.2 (L). I rle suiace level iemains ar 35 m, rle
cioss-secrional aiea is 9S.9 m
2
, virl an aveiage varei velociry,
2
=2.22 m/sec.
Suose rlar rle Liiuge las no ieis. 1le Liiuge oening coiiesonus
aioximarely ro iegions 3, 4 anu 5 o rle unoLsriucreu vareivay. 1lese iegions
lave a roral aiea o 101.5 m
2
, anu rleii conriiLurion ro rle roral uninreiiureu
Fig. 11.2 Cross-section of stream in flood: (a) natural flow; (b) effects of bridge
(Redrawn from Austroads 1994)
STREAM LOADS 264
lov is 109.S m
3
/sec. I rle oiiginal lov is suLuiviueu inro
rliougl iegions 1
anu 2,
rliougl iegions 35, anu
rliougl iegions 6 anu , rlen rle Liiuge

oening iario, is ueineu as
In rlis case, =109.S/220=0.50.
1le kineric eneigy coiiesonuing ro a srieam velociry, las rle oim
2
/
2, vleie is rle varei uensiry (mass ei unir volume). 1le coiiesonuing
orenrial eneigy is sucl rlar a iessuie leau, voulu cause rle velociry,
. Lquaring rle rvo,
2
/2

ôie riuly, rle velociry vill vaiy acioss rle secrion. 1le ievious calcularion
gave
4
, rle inirial lov in iegion 4, as 3.2 m
3
/sec, rliougl a iegional aiea o
4.3 m
2
. 1le aveiage velociry in rlis iegion is 1.54S m/sec., comaieu virl rle
oveiall aveiage o 0.S4 m/sec. Ir is aioiiare, rleieoie, ro mulrily rle
exiession oi equivalenr leau Ly a acroi,

vleie

=lov rliougl a segmenr,
=velociry rliougl a segmenr,
=roral lov,
=roral aveiage velociry

In rlis case,
1
=1.59.
A similai acroi,
2
, exisrs oi lov rliougl rle consriicreu aiea Lenearl a
Liiuge. Heie, Lecause o rle consriicrion, rle velociry is also non-unioim.
Ausrioaus (1994), Laseu on rle oLseivarion o lovs Lenearl exisring Liiuges,
suggesrs rle use o a gial linking
2
ro
1
anu . An equivalenr exiession is

2
=1.0+(
1
1)

In rle iesenr case, oi
1
=1.59, anu =0.5,
2
=1.30.
Iiguie 11.3 (a) slovs a lan o rle lov, anu iuenriies oui locarions oi
secrions. Secrions 2 anu 3 aie ar rle usrieam anu uovnsrieam aces o rle Liiuge
emLankmenrs, secrion 1 is usrieam, anu secrion 4 vell uovnsrieam. ALove
secrion 1, rle srieam lov is unioim, virl aiallel lov lines. Berveen secrion 1
anu rle consriicreu secrion 2, rle ourei lovs o rle srieam aie uiiecreu invaius
ro rle oening. 1lese secrional locarions aie also slovn in Iig. 11.3 (L), vlicl is
a longiruuinal secrion rliougl rle cenrie o rle srieam. Ir slovs rle sloing Leu,
STREAM FLOWS 265
anu a line maikeu WS (oimal Warei Suiace), inuicaring rlar Lelov rle
Liiuge, ar secrion 4, rle loou uerl is rle same as ir voulu lave Leen i rle Liiuge
veie nor rleie. 1le uiaving assumes rlar rle uesign o rle Liiuge is sucl rlar, ar
secrion 2, rle loou uerl also ieacles WS, Lur ar secrion 1, rleie is an elevarion
in varei uerl, Ly rle alux,
1
. Biauley (1960, 19S) ueveloeu merlous oi rle
esrimarion o
1
(see also Ausrioaus 1994 anu Hamill (1999). A iisr
aioximarion is:

Fig. 11.3 Flow beneath a bridge (based on Austroads 1994)
STREAM LOADS 266
1
=
2
2
/2

vleie
2
is rle aveiage velociry in rle consriicreu aiea,
2
is rle coiiesonuing eneigy coiiecrion reim, anu
is rle Lackvarei coeicienr.

Values o rle coeicienr,
veie uereimineu exeiimenrally Ly Biauley (1960,

19S) as uncrions o rle Liiuge oening iario, ^, anu aie iesenreu in Iig. 11.4
(see also Ausrioaus 1994: Iig. 5.13, Hamill 1999:145). Ioi rle iesenr case,
=0.50. 1le iesulring value o
is aLour 1.2. Ir ollovs rlar a iisr

aioximarion ro
1
is

1
=1.21.32.22
2
/(29.S1)
=0.39 m

1lis esrimare musr Le coiiecreu oi a numLei o ieasons: oi rle clange in kineric
eneigy Lerveen secrions 4 anu 1 (Iig. 11.3), oi eneigy losses uue ro ieis in rle
lov, oi eccenriiciry in rle lov
anu oi skev, vleie rle ciossing is nor

Fig. 11.4 Backwater coefficient (Bradley 1978)
STREAM FLOWS 267
noimal ro rle srieam lov. êrlous ro calculare rlese coiiecrions may Le ounu
in rle cireu ieeiences, Lur in rle iesenr case, rle eecr on
1
is small.
1leie is, lovevei, anorlei assumrion useu in rlis illusriarion. Ilovs
uesciiLeu Ly rle ânning Ioimula aie calleu suLciirical lovs. Ioi sreeei Leu
sloes, anorlei rye o lov, sueiciirical lov, may uevelo, virl laigei srieam
velociries anu smallei uerls oi rle same uisclaige. 1iansirion iom suLciirical
ro sueiciirical lov occuis ar a ciirical uerl oi ciirical velociry, vleie eirlei
coiiesonu ro a unir value o rle uimensionless aiamerei, calleu rle Iiouue
numLei,

is rle velociry rlar is iegaiueu as 'claiacreiisric oi rle cioss-secrion anu is
rle claiacreiisric uerl. In rle iesenr case, may Le raken (virl some
aioximarion) as rle aveiage velociry, anu calleu also rle lyuiaulic uerl, as
rle aveiage uerl.
Ioi rle consriicreu lov slovn in Iig. 11.2 (L), rle roral aiea is 9S.9 m
2
, virl
a suiace viurl o 30.6 m. 1le coiiesonuing value o is:

1lis is less rlan 1.0, anu in rlis case all iegions o rle lov (secrions 14 in Iig.
11.3) aie suLciirical.
1o rake a simlei case, consiuei a iecrangulai clannel, o viurl, virl a
varei uerl, . 1len,

Ioi

Reaiianging,

1lis value o is, rleieoie, rle ciirical uerl. Ar rlis uerl,

vlicl is rle ciirical velociry oi a uisclaige rliougl a iecrangulai clannel o
viurl .
STREAM LOADS 268
Ioi small sloes, rle lov is as uesciiLeu Ly rle ânning Ioimula. Ioi eirlei
a iecrangulai oi comlex cioss-secrion ir is ossiLle ro uereimine Lorl rle aveiage
velociries, anu uerls, oi a airiculai uisclaige as rle srieam sloe is
incieaseu, virl rle coiiesonuing values o . Ciirical lov vill occui (ar leasr
aioximarely) vlen =1. Ir is nor iooseu ro consiuei leie rle ioLlem o
sueiciirical lov.
1lis riearmenr las consiueieu rle eecrs o a airiculai uisclaige, . 1le
uirlei ioLlem is ro selecr an aioiiare value o oi Liiuge uesign. One musr
iecognise, iisr, rlar srieam uisclaiges oi lovs may vaiy viuely, Lorl iom
monrl ro monrl, anu iom yeai ro yeai. Iiguie 11.5 is a uisranr viev o rvo
Liiuges acioss rle Buiuekin Rivei ar âciossan in oirl Queenslanu. Borl lave
six main sans, eacl o 6.2 m, rle iisr vas laceu in seivice in 1S99, ir vas
ielaceu Ly rle seconu in 1964 Lur srill sranus. 1le uesign o rle iisr vas
uesciiLeu in a aei Ly ]ackson (1900). 1le cleai leiglr is aLour 26 m aLove rle
iivei Leu. As can Le seen, rle lov ar rle rime o rle lorogial is small, Lur rle
uesign assumeu a loou uerl o 23.5 m. ]ackson srares:

1le liglesr iecoiueu loou occuiieu in rle yeai 1S0 virl a iainall o
15.S incles |0.401 m], vlicl gave a cioss-secrional aiea o S1,244
squaie eer |54S m
2
] occuieu Ly loou-varei, rle oLseiveu suiace
velociry Leing 9 miles ei loui |4.02 m/sec].

I 4.02 m/sec is assumeu ro Le rle aveiage velociry, rlen mulrilying rlis Ly rle
oLseiveu cioss-secrional aiea gives a uisclaige o 30,000 m
3
/sec. Ioi comaiison,
mouein srieam lov iecoius oi rlis sire, ovei rle eiiou 19469 (Qlu W.R.C
Fig. 11.5 Macrossan bridges over Burdekin River, Queensland (OConnor
photograph)
STREAM FLOWS 269
19S0), give a maximum loou o 23,300 m3/sec., in âicl 1950. 1lis is nor
claimeu ro Le rle maximum loou evei iecoiueu, Lur rle oiuei o magniruue lenus
suoir ro rle lov given Ly ]ackson. Similaily, ]ackson quores a uiainage aiea o
'14,000 squaie miles (36,260 km
2
), comaieu virl rle moie iecenr iguie o
36,390 km
2
, eecrively rle same. 1lese similaiiries lenu suoir ro ]acksons
esrimares o loou leiglr anu loou velociry o 4.02 m/sec.
Reeiiing again ro rle moie iecenr iecoius, rle iguie o 23,300 m
3
/sec is a
'monrlly maximum insranraneous lov. 1le seconu laigesr lov in rle iecenr
iecoius is 19,200 m
3
/sec in âicl 1956. 1o assess lov vaiiaLiliry, ir is
aioiiare ro look oi rle minimum value o rle monrlly-maximum lov rlar
occuiieu Lerveen rlese rvo maxima. Ioi rle oui-monrl eiiou iom ]uly ro
OcroLei 1952, rle lov vaiieu Lerveen zeio anu 0.1S m
3
/sec. 1vo conclusions
may Le ieacleu:

1. A lov rliougl a vareivay, 500 m
2
in cioss-secrional aiea, 23.5 m uee,
virl a iecoiueu velociry o 4.02 m/sec, is imiessive.
2. 1le lov rliougl rlis sire is mosr vaiiaLle.

1lis sire ar âciossan (oi Sellleim) is 29 km iom rle iivei mourl. Iiguie 11.6
is a lorogial o rle Liiuge Lerveen Home Hill anu Ayi, Luilr in 1955 ro cioss
rle Buiuekin 23 km iom irs mourl. Ir las 10 majoi sans, eacl o 6.2 m. 1lis
roral lengrl o 62 m coiiesonus ro rle uisrance Lerveen rle vegerareu Lanks o
rle iivei. Berveen is a majoi sanuy Leu, virl rle srieam lov caiiieu Ly naiiov,
Fig. 11.6 Burdekin Bridge between Home Hill and Ayr, Queensland (OConnor
photograph)
STREAM LOADS 270
meanueiing clannels. In rimes o loou, rle iivei iises aLove rlese Lanks, rle
cuiienr Liiuge ioviues a roral vareivay viurl o 1091 m. 1le giearesr iecoiueu
loou uerl in 1950 vas 12. m aLove rle aveiage uiy vearlei lov-varei level.
Heie, iecoius oi rle eiiou 1921 ro 195S give a maximum value o rle
monrlly insranraneous lov o 40,390 m
3
/sec, somevlar moie rlan ar
âciossan. Ir occuiieu in âicl 1946. 1leie vas anorlei laige lov, o 30,400
m
3
/sec in âicl 1950. Berveen rlese vas a eiiou o rliee monrls, iom OcroLei
ro DecemLei 194S, virl rle maximum monrlly lovs iecoiueu as 0.09, 0.00 anu
0.00 m
3
/sec. Again rleie is eviuence o an exrieme vaiiarion in rle iare o lov.
Ir is noriceaLle rlar rle rvo sires uiei giearly. Some naruial iock is visiLle in
rle iivei Leu ar âciossan, anu rlis sloulu ioviue a saeguaiu againsr eiosion.
On rle orlei lanu, rle Liiuge ar Home Hill is ounueu in uee sanu, cleaily
vulneiaLle ro scoui. Irs ounuarions consisr o caissons caiiieu uovn ro a uerl o
aLour 30 m Lelov rle iivei Leu. ]usr visiLle ar rle iiglr o Iig. 11.6 is rle lov-
level Liiuge, laceu in seivice in 1913. Ir is ryical o lov-level Liiuges Luilr in
Queenslanu aLour rlar rime anu eailiei (Biauy 1S96). Alrlougl rlese veie
commonly ur our o seivice Ly loouing in rle ver season, ir vas ounu Lerrei,
virl rle unus rlen availaLle, ro lace rlem lov, ro ieuuce rle iisk o uamage
causeu Ly loaring ueLiis rlar vas ickeu u anu rlen asseu ovei rlem ar liglei
srages o rle loou.
Secrion 5.1 inriouuceu anu ueineu 'iecuiience inreival anu quoreu iom
lyuiological iacrice, rle reim 'aveiage iecuiience inreival (ARI) is nov
ieeiieu ('Ausrialian Rainall anu Runo, ILAusr 19S:). In Ausrialian
Liiuge uesign (Secrion 4.), an ulrimare limir srare las Leen ueineu as one virl
a 5' clance o occuiience in a Liiuge lie o 100 yeais. 1le coiiesonuing
norional Aveiage Recuiience Inreival is 2000 yeais. Ir neeus ro Le seen i rle
evenr virl rlis ARI can Le ieuicreu using cuiienr srarisrical ioceuuies.
Secrion 3.3 inriouuceu rle oimal DisriiLurion anu also uiscusseu rle
Lognoimal DisriiLurion, vleie rle logaiirlm o a uncrion, is noimally
uisriiLureu.
1le noimal ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurion (Iig. 3.1) is symmeriical. I is
rle vaiiaLle vlose ioLaLiliry is lorreu, rlen rle mean, q is also rle value virl
rle liglesr ioLaLiliry o occuiience. 1le meuian oi moue o is rle value
sucl rlar rle roral numLei o occuiiences less rlan
equals rle roral numLei

giearei rlan
. Ioi a symmeriical uisriiLurion q
. Similaily, oi a lognoimal
uisriiLurion, eirlei oi =log
10
rle gial o againsr is symmeriical,
virl q
. Hovevei, in rlis case, rle gial o veisus is nor symmeriical, Lur is

skeveu, as slovn in Iig. 3.4, virl rle iiglr lanu rail
longei rlan rlar ro

rle ler. 1lis skev is saiu ro Le osirive. Ir is geneially ounu (see, oi examle,
Wilson 19S3:220) rlar lisrogiams o loou iecoius, sucl as rle maximum annual
loous, aie skeveuir is imossiLle, oi examle, in mosr srieams (Lur nor all) ro
lave a negarive loou. As a iesulr, a lognoimal lor vill give a Lerrei
aioximarion ro iecoiueu loous rlan a noimal uisriiLurion. Hovevei, sucl a
lor is srill geneially unacceraLle. 1le so-calleu log-Peaison 1ye III uisriiLurion
vas auoreu in 19 Ly Ameiican agencies anu las come ro Le useu geneially
('Ausrialian Rainall anu Runo, ILAusr 19S, Linsley er al. 19SS:34, Wilson
19S3:220).
STREAM FLOWS 271
1le use o rlis merlou can Le uesciiLeu as ollovs.

1. Suose rlar rle maximum annual lovs, lave Leen iecoiueu. 1len, oi
eacl calculare =log
10
.
2. Calculare rle mean,
anu sranuaiu ueviarion,
o rlese values o .
3. An esrimare o rle uegiee o skevness o is ounu Ly calcularing rle skev
coeicienr,

vleie
is rle numLei o values
Ioi laige, rle value (1)(2)/ aioacles .

4. Ioi a airiculai aveiage iecuiience inreival (ARI), rle annual ioLaLiliry o
exceeuence is (1/ARI). Ioi rlis value o ARI, rle coiiesonuing loou is given Ly

vleie is a uncrion o rle uisriiLurion, anu ueenus on ARI anu . Values
o veie calculareu Ly Peaison (1930). ôie iecenr raLles may Le ounu in
rle souices quoreu aLove, in Hairei (1969) anu guiuelines uLlisleu Ly rle
US Inreiagency Auvisoiy Commirree on Warei Dara (19S2). Some values o
aie lisreu in 1aLle 11.1.

1le values o oi =0 aie as oi a noimal uisriiLurion. Ioi examle, a value o
ARI=50 yeais coiiesonus ro a ioLaLiliry o exceeuence o 0.02, oi o non-
exceeuence, 0.9S. 1aLulareu aieas o rle sranuaiu noimal uisriiLurion lisr a value o
0.9S ar a oinr rlar is 2.054rle sranuaiu ueviarion aLove rle mean, rle same as rlar
lisreu. 1le naruie o rle log-Peaison III uisriiLurion can Le gaugeu Ly comaiing rle
iovs in rle aLove raLularion virl rlar oi =0 (lognoimal)(see Iig. 3.4).
Ir is o some inreiesr ro oLseive rle iario o rle ieuicreu 500-yeai anu
100-yeai evenrs. ILAusr (19S) lisrs lovs oi an Ausrialian srieam on rle

Table 11.1 Values of K
STREAM LOADS 272
miu-noirl coasr o ev Sourl Wales (rle Sryx Rivei). 1le maximum annual
loous, Lerveen 1954 anu 1966 vaiieu iom S.2 ro SS m
3
/sec. 1le mean
value o (oi log
10
) vas 2.0, virl a sranuaiu ueviarion o 0.4S. 1le
coeicienr o vaiiarion,
vas, rleieoie 0.231. Ioi rle iesenr uioses,

consiuei a srieam virl
0.25 anu
=1. Ioi equal ro 2.0 anu an ARI o 500

yeais, is 5.215, giving =2.304, anu =201.3. 1le coiiesonuing mean lov,
is 10. A similai calcularion oi an ARI o 100 yeais gives =9., rlar is, rle
ieuicreu 500-yeai loou is 2.53rle 100-yeai loou. 1le coiiesonuing iarios oi
orlei values o aie: (1.0, 1.S5), (0, 1.3), (1.0, 1.09) anu (2.0, 1.00), virl
eacl aii given in rle oiuei, rlen rle iario o rle 500-yeai ro rle 100-yeai
loou . In Ausrialian iacrice, ir is ounu rlar negarive values o aie
common. eveirleless, ir is o some concein rlar oi values o iom 0 ro +1.0,
rlis iario vaiies iom 1.3 ro as mucl as 2.53. Ausrialian iacrice is ro avoiu
exriaolarions Leyonu 100 yeais.
1leie aie orlei vays o esrimaring loou lovs. 1le simlesr is Ly uiiecr
oLseivarion o rle maximum lisroiical loou leiglr, eirlei iom lysical riaces
sucl as ueLiis leiglrs, oi iom conremoiaiy iecoius. 1le Biirisl Sranuaiu, BS
36S0: Pair 5:1992 (rle same as ISO 100:1992) uesciiLes rle 'sloe aiea merlou
o esrimarion, essenrially using rle ânning Ioimula in rle vay uesciiLeu
ieviously, virl suiraLle esrimares o rle coeicienr anu rle sloe esrimareu
'iom loou maiks on rle clannel Lanks.
Iloou lovs may also Le esrimareu iom iainall iecoius using lyuiological
merlous. One alicarion o rlese merlous allovs rle use o iegional iainall anu
sroim iecoius ro esrimare rle PioLaLle âximum Iloou (PÎ: see ILAusr
19S:21, Linsley er al. 19SS:36, Wilson 19S3:22S). 1lis may Le useu ro
esrimare rle 1 in 2000-yeai loou in rle mannei slovn in Iig. 11., rle veirical
scale ieiesenrs rle uisclaige, Q, on a naruial scale, virl rle Aveiage Recuiience
Inreival (ARI, yeais) lorreu loiizonrally ro a log
10
scale. 1le ioceuuie is as
ollovs.

1. Use rle log-Peaison III ioceuuie ro esrimare lovs oi ARI=20, 50 anu 100
yeais.
2. Lsrimare rle PÎ.
3. Ioi rlis PÎ, assume a ieruin eiiou (leie slovn as 10
6
yeais).
4. By lineai inreiolarion, esrimare rle uisclaige oi ARI=2000 yeais.

Some geneial ieeiences on rle suLjecr o scoui veie lisreu in Secrion 11.1. Scoui
causeu Ly a Liiuge is geneially classeu as (a) consriicrion scoui, causeu Ly
incieaseu srieam velociries iesulring iom a ieuuceu vareivay aiea, anu (L) local
scoui, neai ieis anu aLurmenrs. 1le aioacl conuirions also aecr rle scoui.
scoui occuis vlen rleie is no movemenr o rle Leu mareiial
usrieam iom rle Liiuge. Conveisely, scoui laens vlen rle Leu
mareiial usrieam is moving. An examle o rle larrei is rlar illusriareu in
11.3 Scour
SCOUR 273
Iig. 11.6, in rle Buiuekin Rivei ar Home Hill, vleie in rimes o loou rle sanuy
Leu renus ro move uovnsrieam.
Lauisen (1960) gave rle olloving equarion oi consriicrion scoui:

vleie
rle seconu reim is omirreu oi cleai-varei scoui,
1
,
1
anu
1
aie rle aveiage uerl, lov anu Lorrom viurl in rle usrieam
main clannel, anu
2
,
2
anu
2
aie rle coiiesonuing reims ar rle Liiuge oening
Fig. 11.7 Use of the Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) to estimate flood flows for
particular recurrence intervals
STREAM LOADS 274
Ir ollovs rlar (
2
1
) is rle aveiage scoui uerl. Ir is imoiranr ro oLseive rlar,
usrieam, only rle reims iom rle main clannel sloulu Le incluueu. Ioi examle,
in rle usrieam cioss-secrion slovn in Iig. 11.2 (a), rle main clannel coiiesonus
only ro iegion 4 anu rle Lanks aie vegerareu, oi rle Liiuge cioss-secrion slovn in
(L), rleie is no consriicrion o lov. On rle orlei lanu, oi rle Buiuekin Rivei
ciossing ar Home Hill (Iig. 11.6), i rle Liiuge veie caiiieu on emLankmenrs rlar
enreieu rle sanuy Leu, rleie voulu Le consriicrion. Ioi many Liiuges, rleieoie,
rleie is no consriicrion scoui ieuicreu Ly Lauisens equarion.
Consiuei rle case vleie rleie is, rlen ir is necessaiy ro assume vlerlei rleie
is live-Leu oi cleai-varei scoui. 1le all velociry, (m/sec), o rle Leu mareiial in
varei can Le esrimareu iom irs meuian uiamerei,
(Ausrioaus 1994: Iiguie

6.10). Some examles aie:
=0.01 mm, =1.410

4
m/sec
=0.1
mm
, =S.510
3
=1 mm, =0.16 m/sec

vleie all aie aioximare.
1le sleai velociry in rle usrieam secrion is ueineu as

vleie
is rle lyuiaulic sloe
1len,

oi
less rlan 0.5 =0.59,

oi
Lerveen 0.5 anu 2.0 =0.64,

oi
giearei rlan 2.0 =0.69.

Ioi examle, i
=1 mm, rlen
=12.5, anu rle seconu reim in rle Lauisen

equarion Lecomes (
1
/
2
)
0.69
. Ioi
1
/
2
=(say) 0.5 (Iig. 11.2), rlis equals 0.62,
anu inclusion o rle seconu reim ieuuces rle esrimareu scoui. Omission o rle
seconu reim is, rleieoie, a conseivarive assumrion anu may Le uone on rle
Lasis o oLseivarions o rle srieam anu irs Leu. 1o conrinue virl Lauisens
equarion, oi =0.62 anu, oi examle,
2
=2
1
, rlen
2
=1.13 oi (
2
1
)=0.13
1
.
Hovevei, ir is ossiLle ro esrimare rle conuirions rlar cause inirial seuimenr
movemenr (Bieuseis anu Rauukivi 1991:13, Iaiiauay anu Clailron 19S3: 35).
1le Reynolus umLei (a uimensionless aiamerei) is

vleie is rle kinemaric viscosiry o varei, equal ro 1.1410
6
m
2
/sec oi varei ar
15C.
SCOUR 275
1le uimensionless airicle size, is ueineu as

1len airicle movemenr vill occui:
oi
<1, vlen 2.15
oi
Lerveen 1 anu 10, vlen 2.5
4/5
,
oi
>10, vlen 3.S
5/S
.
1lese conuirions may Le solveu ro give rle ciirical airicle size,
oi a
airiculai velociry,
Ioi examle, oi
=2., =9.S1 m/sec

2
anu =1.1410
6
m
2
/sec,

=S190
=23412

I

=3.S
5/S
(i.e.
>10)
=19690
5/S

1len

3/S
0.S41
5/S
=0.6301
5/3
.

Alreinarively, rle ciirical sleai velociry is

=1.319
3/5

Ioi

=0.05 m/sec
=0.0042 m=4.2 mm
virl
=1SS
Similaily, oi

1<
<10
=S220V
S
4
=0.105
1/4

Ioi

=0.015 m/sec
=0.000416 m=0.415 mm
virl
=5.4
STREAM LOADS 276
Ioi a meuium sanu,
is o rle oiuei o 0.4 mm (Bieuseis anu Rauukivi

1991:S). Ir ollovs rlar a sanu o rlis size may Le lireu Ly a ciirical velociry,
=0.015 m/sec. 1lis velociry is quire lov. Ar rle commencing lase o a loou,
velociries vill inciease virl rime, anu a ieviously sraLle Leu may Le lireu. Ar a
airiculai locarion rleie may Le nev Leu mareiial coming uovn iom usrieam
ro ielace rlar vlicl is losr, Lur rlis vill ueenu on rle suly. Scoui in a loou is
a non-sreauy srare lenomenon anu neeus ro Le rieareu as sucl. eveirleless, rle
ounuarions o a Liiuge may Le rlieareneu Ly conuirions rlar voulu aiise even i
rle Liiuge veie nor rleie.
1leie aie orlei naruial conuirions rlar may rliearen. Iiguie 11.S (a) is a
cioss-secrion o rle BiisLane Rivei ar Inuooiooilly, ar rle sire o rle AlLeir
iailvay Liiuge. 1le iisr Liiuge leie vas oeneu in 1S6 anu vasleu avay in
1S93 (Sranley 1S9S). 1le sire is ar a maikeu Lenu in rle iivei (Iig. 11.S (L)), virl
a sree iocky Lank ro rle noirl anu a sanuy Leacl oimeu commonly ar rle enu
o rle eninsula ar rle sourl. Duiing laige loous, a majoi euuy is causeu ro rle
srieam lov Ly rle Lenu, virl laige velociries ar rle noirl Lank, anu usrieam
lovs oimeu neai rle sourl. In 1S93, rlese usrieam lovs causeu scoui ro a
maximum uerl 'ovei 40 eer (12.2 m, Sranley 1S9S:2S9), leauing ro rle ailuie
o one o rle ieis. 1le Liiuge vas ielaceu in 1S95 Ly rle Seconu AlLeir Liiuge,
virl rvo 100. m sans anu a single iivei iei.

Fig. 11.8 Scour at First Albert bridge, Indooroopilly, Brisbane, as influenced by the
bend in the river
SCOUR 277
Ar a moie local scale, ir is rle oimarion o euuies oi voirices rlar conriiLures
giearly ro scoui ar a Liiuge iei. 1le cylinuiical iei oims rle simlesr case, anu
is slovn in Iig. 11.9 (a). 1liee uisrincr voirex ryes occui. Ar rle leauing euge,
rleie is a uovnlov leauing ro voirices virl a loiizonral axis, anu rle locus o
rlese axes oims vlar may Le seen as a loisesloe aiounu rle iei rley aie
calleu loisesloe voirices. A veirical slar in a loiizonral lov vill sleu voirices
virl a veirical axis iom alreinarive siues o rle riailing euge. 1leie aie also
voirex comonenrs virl a loiizonral axis in rlis aiea, acring as exrensions o rle
loisesloe voirices.
Scoui uue ro rlese eecrs renus ro Le giearesr in ionr o rle leauing euge o
rle iei, vleie a uee lole may Le oimeu, as in Iig. 11.9 (L). 1le uerl o scoui
ueenus nor only on rle srieam velociry anu airicle size, Lur also on rle slae
anu giauing o rle airicles (Bieuseis anu Rauukivi 1991:61). 1le iguie (also
raken iom rlis souice) slovs ryical scoui uerls, oi vaiious values o rle
aveiage velociry uiviueu Ly rle ciirical sleai velociry
oi enriainmenr o
airicles, Laseu on laLoiaroiy resrs uone Ly Rauukivi ar rle Univeisiry o
Aucklanu, using unioim seuimenrs, vleie a airicle size, less rlan aLour 0.
mm is classeu as a 'iile-oiming seuimenr, anu oi giearei rlan 0. mm, as a
'coaise seuimenr. 1le coaise seuimenrs vill lave a laigei ciirical velociry Lur, as
slovn in rle iguie, may lave giearei uerls o scoui. Ioi
cleai-varei
scoui vill occui, virl live-Leu scoui ar
. Ioi rle coaise seuimenr, rle

maximum scoui uerl occuis ar a airiculai iange o velociries, aLour
,
anu may Le as mucl as 2.3rle iei uiamerei. Ioi rle smallei seuimenrs, rle scoui
uerl is less, Lur renus ro inciease virl ro aLour 2rle iei uiamerei ar laige
velociries.
1le scoui uerl vaiies also virl rle iei slae. Alrlougl oimulae lave Leen
iooseu oi ieuicring uerl, ir aeais rlar rlese ieuicrions may nor Le
ieliaLle (Bieuseis anu Rauukivi 1991:65). eill (193) suggesreu rle iguies oi
scoui uerl,
slovn in 1aLle 11.2 oi lov aiallel ro a iei o viurl .

1le value o 1.5 oi a cylinuiical iei is somevlar less rlan some o rle
values slovn in Iig. 11.9. Scoui is also aecreu Ly iei alignmenr, anu may Le
signiicanrly incieaseu oi ieis virl a signiicanr angle o arrack, oi examle, Ly
a acroi as mucl as 2, oi an angle o 15 iom rle iei ro rle srieam lov
(Bieuseis anu Rauukivi 1991:2, 3). Orlei cases aie also uiscusseu in rle
lireiaruie, oi examle, ile gious, anu lov aiounu emLankmenr riaining valls.
1le mosr common merlou o iorecring againsr scoui is ro uum srones on
rle iivei Leu aiounu a iei oi in orlei ciirical locarions. Bieuseis anu Rauukivi
(1991:91) suggesr rlar rle viurl o iorecrion sloulu Le aLour rliee oi

Table 11.2
Fig. 11.9 (a) Eddy formation around a cylindrical pier; (b) scour depths (Redrawn
from Breusers and Raudkivi 1991)
FLOW LOADS ON PIERS AND BRIDGES 279
oui rimes rle iei rlickness. 1ley give rle olloving emiiical ielarionsli
Lerveen ciirical mean velociry,
anu iock size:

vleie is rle uiamerei o rle equivalenr sleie in meries. 1le assumeu ielarive
uensiry o rle iock is 2.6.
ûcl o rle voik on lov loaus on Liiuges las Leen uone Ly Aelr anu orleis
(see Aelr 1960 anu 19S6, Aelr anu Isaacs 196S anu Aelr anu Pioievicz 19S6,
also ]emson er al. 199a, L) ar 1le Univeisiry o Queenslanu: ir is cireu, oi
examle, Ly Iaiiauay anu Clailron (19S3:44) anu Ausrioaus (1994:26). Ir
commenceu virl voik uone Ly ^cKay anu Aelr (eisonal communicarion:
C.].Aelr) olloving rle ailuie o rle iailvay Liiuge acioss rle Pioneei Rivei ar
îiani in 1956 uue ro loou loaus on a iei. 1lis Liiuge vas comlereu in 1913
virl riuss sans o 1S.6, 36.9 anu 1S.6 m. A uirlei loou in IeLiuaiy 195S
uesrioyeu ieis o rle ielacemenr Liiuge, one o vlicl lau Leen comlereu ro
ull leiglr anu orleis veie close ro comlerion. Inirial mouel sruuies on a nev
iei uesign veie caiiieu our Ly G.R.^cKay, anu rlen Aelr. Hovevei, some less
suLsranrial eailiei voik lau Leen uone ar rlis Univeisiry in 1951 Ly ].OConnoi
on lyuiaulic mouel sruuies on a iooseu cenrial iivei iei oi anorlei iailvay
Liiuge ar Inuooiooilly.
Wirl iegaiu ro loou loaus on Liiuge ieis, rvo simle cases may ieauily Le
visualiseu. A single cylinuiical iei vill cleaily exeiience laige oices
alieu uovnsrieam in rle uiiecrion o rle srieam lov. On rle orlei lanu,
consiuei a lar, lare-like iei, iecrangulai in cioss-secrion, virl eirlei riiangulai
oi iounueu enus. 1len, i rle axis o rle iei is inclineu in lan ro rle uiiecrion o
rle iei lov, oLseivarion may uisclose rlar rle level o rle varei in conracr virl
one ace o rle iei is liglei rlan ar rle orlei ace. I rlis leiglr uieience is
rlen one voulu execr an our-o-Lalance unioim iessuie alieu riansveisely ro
rle iei (a oice) o rle oiuei o vleie is rle varei uensiry.
Iiguie 11.10 slovs cioss-secrions o ieis resreu Ly Aelr anu Isaacs (196S) in
lyuiaulic mouel sruuies. Ioi rle iisr case, virl rvo seaiare cylinuiical ieis, values
o rle lir anu uiag coeicienrs,
anu
aie lorreu in Iig. 11.11 (a) againsr rle

angle o arrack, . 1le lir anu uiag oices, anu can Le calculareu iom,

vleie
is rle varei uensiry,
is rle aveiage varei velociry ovei rle iei leiglr,
is rle uerl o lov, anu
is rle cylinuei uiamerei
11.4 Flow loads on piers and bridges
STREAM LOADS 280
1le lir coeicienr uoes nor vaiy giearly virl rle cylinuei sacing anu ieacles a
maximum o aLour 0.6 ar =10. A giearei vaiiarion is aaienr in
vlicl, as
rle oveiall iei lengrl, is incieaseu iom 2.625 ro 5 rimes rle cylinuei uiamerei,
incieases iom aLour 0.9 ro 2.0 ar =10. Ioi comaiison, oi a single ciiculai
cylinuei,
is given as 1.1. A viuely saceu aii o unconnecreu cylinueis las

values o a comLineu
rlar aioacl rvice rlis value oi laige values o . On

rle orlei lanu, oi closely saceu cylinueis ( =2.625) ar small rle comLineu
is as lirrle as 0..
Iiguie 11.11 (L), virl a uieienr veirical scale, lors
anu
oi uumLLell
ieis, Lur exiesseu in reims o rle oveiall lengrl, . 1lar is,

Consiuei rle case virl rle cenrie-ro-cenrie sacing o rle cylinueis equal ro
1.625 oi =2.625. 1len, ar =10,
=0.6 anu
=0.16. 1le ieviseu values,

calculareu in reims o rle cylinuei uiamerei insreau o aie
=1.6,
=0.42.
As comaieu virl rle aii o seaiare cylinueis,
is incieaseu anu
ieuuceu.
Lir anu uiag coeicienrs oi rle lare iei (in reims o rle oveiall lengrl,
=6.52) aie slovn in Iig. 11.11 (c), virl, oi comaiison, values oi a lar lare
(o small rlickness). 1ley aie aLour equal, anu rle same may Le saiu i a
comaiison is maue virl values oi rle longesr uumL-Lell iei ( =5). 1lese lir
anu uiag coeicienrs aie Laseu on mouel resrs virl rle olloving values o rle
Iiouue anu Reynolus umLeis:

Aelr anu Isaacs (196S:2S) suggesr rlar rle coeicienrs quoreu leie sloulu Le
suicienrly accuiare ro aly ro ull scale lov, ar leasr oi rle uiose o comaiing
iei ryes, anu oi making 'a ieliminaiy esrimareo rle lyuiouynamic
Fig. 11.10 Pier cross-sections (Redrawn from Apelt and Isaacs 1968)
Fig. 11.11 Lift and drag coefficients for flow loads on bridge piers (Redrawn from
Apelt and Isaacs 1968; used with permission)
STREAM LOADS 282
oices execreu in rle ull scale siruarion, in oiuei ro uereimine vlerlei, in a
airiculai case, 'a ueraileu mouel sruuy sloulu Le caiiieu our. 1leie veie also
'lucruaring (oice) comonenrs sueiimoseu on rle aveiage values (oLseiveu in
rlese resrs). 1lese lucruaring comonenrs veie leasr oi rle lare iei. 1le
lucruaring comonenrs exeiienceu Ly rle rvin cylinuei anu uumL-Lell ieis
veie geneially quire laige anu comlex.
1le AASH1O LRID Coue (1994) consiueis lov loaus on Liiuge ieis,
exiesseu in rle oim

(oi
)=5.1410
4

(oi
)
2

vleie
anu
aie iessuies in ^Pa, anu

is rle 'uesign velociry o varei oi rle uesign loou
1le iessuie,
is alieu ro rle ace aiea o rle iei ( l oi rle lare iei o Iig.
11.11 (a)) anu
ro 'rle iojecreu aiea exoseuro longiruuinal srieam iessuie

( in Iig. 11.11 (a)).
Ioi lare rye ieis, rle olloving values o
aie seciieu:

semi-ciiculai noseu ieis 0.
squaie enueu ieis 1.4
veuge noseu iei, virl nose angle 90 oi less 0.S

1le values o
given Ly Aelr anu Isaacs oi rlis case anu slovn in Iig. 11.11
(c) aie Laseu on rle iei lengrl, =652. Ioi comaiison, rley musr Le mulrilieu
Ly 6.52, oi, alreinarively, rle AASH1O value o
oi a iei viurl virl a semi-

ciiculai nose, musr Le uiviueu Ly 6.52, giving 0./6.52=0.11. 1le AASH1O
iguie is, rleieoie, consisrenr oi rle case virl =0, Lur Aelr anu Isaacs give
values o
also oi 0, anu rlese may Le consiueiaLly liglei rlan rle

AASH1O value.
Ioi rle lir oice, AASH1O (1994) lisrs rle values o rle coeicienr
given
in 1aLle 11.3.
1lese agiee virl rle values Ly Aelr anu Isaacs anu lenu suoir ro rle use o
rleii values in iororye sriucruies.
Aelr anu Pioievicz (19S6) lave also ieoireu on 'Lieaking vave oices

Table 11.3
DEBRIS AND SHIP-IMPACT LOADS 283
on veirical cylinueis, vlicl may Le ielevanr in some cases. 1leie las also Leen
voik ieoireu Ly Aelr (19S6) anu ]emson, (see ]emson anu Aelr 1995 anu
]emson er al. 199a) on loou loaus on suLmeigeu anu semi-suLmeigeu Liiuge
sueisriucruies. 1lis is imoiranr, Lur vill nor Le incluueu leie. Inunuarion o a
Liiuge aecrs nor only Liiuge loaus Lur also alux (Ausrioaus 1994:45).
1le AASH1O LRID Coue (1994) also ieeis ro ueLiis loauing on ieis, virl a
iessuie, =5.1410
4
1.4
2
, alieu ro rle aiea o a ueLiis iar lougeu againsr rle
iei, as seen iom usrieam. Ir quores, oi guiuance, a uiar ev Zealanu
Higlvay Biiuge Design Seciicarion vlicl seciies a riiangulai aiea, o viurl
anu uerl vleie is rle Lase anu rle leiglr o an inveireu riiangle laceu
symmeriically on rle iei cenrieline. 1le viurl is 14 m, oi lal rle sum o rle
rvo aujacenr sans i rlis is less. Heiglr is 3 m, oi one lal o rle varei uerl,
vlen rlis is less. 1le majoi viurl o rle iar is assumeu ro Le ar rle varei
suiace, virl rle uimension exrenuing uovnvaius. 1le aiea is, rleieoie, /
2. 1le ev Zealanu coue seciies
=0.5, insreau o rle iguie o 1.4 in

AASH1O (1994), iesumaLly ro allov oi some oiosiry in rle ueLiis mar.
Boyce (19S, 19S9) uesciiLeu rle ueLiis mar rlar causeu a loou ro uamage
anu Lyass rle galimLui Liiuge in rle Solomon Islanus in 19S6, as menrioneu in
Secrion 2.4. 1le Liiuge lau ive 21 m sans, virl a conciere ueck acring
comosirely virl sreel joisrs, 0.6 m uee. Ir vas uesigneu oi a ueLiis mar 1.2 m
uee Ly 10 m long on eacl iei. 1le assumeu aveiage srieam velociry vas 3.3 m/
sec oi rle 100-yeai loou. 1le miu-srieam velociry vas assumeu ro Le 1.5 rimes
rlis, leauing ro a uesign ueLiis loau o 152 k acring ar rle leausrock level o
eacl iei. 1le acrual ueLiis vas uesciiLeu as 'a soliu vall o rimLei some 200
300 m viue sranuing 34 m aLove rle varei suiace anu Leaiing uovn ar aLour
20 km/li (5.5 m/sec). 1vo o rle sans veie vasleu avay anu rle loou also cur
rliougl Lorl Liiuge aioacles.
]emson er al. (199L) caiiieu our mouel sruuies ro esrimare oices alieu ro
a Liiuge iei Ly assumeu ueLiis mars. 1lese veie assumeu ro rake rle oim eirlei
o a iecrangulai, lar lare (ace veirical) oi a segmenr o a cone virl a iougl
suiace, cenrieu on rle iei virl irs aex uovnvaius, so rlar irs slae as vieveu
iom rle usrieam siue vas as in rle ev Zealanu mouel. Ilov aiounu rle ueLiis
mar vas ounu ro cause nor only a uiag oice in rle uiiecrion o rle cuiienr, Lur a
veirical oice virl a iesulranr some uisrance in ionr o rle ace o rle Liiuge,
leauing ro a momenr aLour rle Liiuge ace. Dara given in rle aei allovs rlese
oices ro Le esrimareu.
Anorlei asecr o rle ioLlem is rlar logs, oi orlei loaring oLjecrs, may Le
Liouglr uovn ar consiueiaLle velociry anu sriike eirlei rle Liiuge oi irs ieis.
Sucl moving oLjecrs ossess consiueiaLle kineric eneigy, air oi all o vlicl is
uissiareu in rle imacr. I rvo Louies rlar aie comlerely iigiu sriike eacl orlei,
rlen rle imacr oice is rleoierically ininire. ôie riuly, yielu vill occui in one
oi Lorl o rle Louies anu, also, rle oinr o imacr may nor lie on a line aiallel
11.5 Debris and ship-impact loads
STREAM LOADS 284
ro rle ielarive velociry anu assing rliougl rle cenries o giaviry o rle Louies.
1le imacr oices may cause angulai acceleiarions ro one oi Lorl o rle Louies,
vlicl, in rle iesenr conrexr, voulu Le aLour a veirical axis.
1le Ausrialian AASRA (1965) as
quoreu Ly Iaiiauay anu Clailron (19S3:4), suggesreu rlar rle uesignei allov
oi rle oice iesulring iom a 2 r log, riavelling ar rle noimal srieam velociry,
aiiesreu virlin a uisrance o 5 mm oi a soliu iei. I is rle moving mass,
irs velociry, an assumeu consranr conracr oice, anu rle ielarive movemenr,
rlen

2
/2=

oi, oi examle, oi

=3.0 m/sec
2
/2=20003
2
/(20.05) =120 k

Iaiiauay anu Clailron quore some UK iims as uesigning oi a mass o 10 r,
aiiesreu in 5 mm. 1le ioLlem is consiueieu moie ully Ly Anuieski (19S: Pair
II).
Iaiiauay anu Clailron also uiscuss rle ioLlem o sli imacr, quoring iom
Iianusen anu Langso (19S0), înoisky (1959), Osrenelu (1965) anu Saul anu
Svensson (19S2). 1leie is also an AASH1O
(1991). Some o rlis
voik iesulreu iom rle collase o air o rle 1asman Liiuge, in 1asmania, in
195, iom sli imacr, as uesciiLeu in Secrion 2.4. 1le ioLlem las rvo airs:
(1) rle esrimarion o rle ioLaLiliry o sli imacr ar a airiculai sire, anu (2)
esrimarion o rle imacr oices.
Lssenrially rle aim is ro ensuie rlar rle sli ails, iarlei rlan rle Liiuge. 1le
ueoimarion o a sli aLsoiLs eneigy rlar is closely ielareu ro rle volume o
ueoimeu sreel, (m
3
), in rle uamageu aiea (Saul anu Svennson 19S2:31, quoring
iom înoisky 1959):

(^m)=4+32

vleie in many cases, virl laige rle consranr reim (32) on rle iiglr lanu siue
may Le ignoieu. 1le kineric eneigy, associareu virl a moving sli is

2
/2

vleie
is rle slis velociry,
is irs mass (oi uislacemenr), anu
is a coiiecrion ro incluue a mass o varei moving virl rle sli,
esrimareu ro Le aLour 1.05
DEBRIS AND SHIP-IMPACT LOADS 285
Iianusen anu Langso (19S0:S) ieoir voik Ly Woisin, vlo caiiieu our resrs
virl mouels o sli Lovs iun uovn inclines anu rlen loiizonrally inro srarionaiy
ieacrive sysrems. He ounu rlar rle aveiage imacr oice,
q
vas aioximarely
consranr oi mosr o rle ueoimarion, Lur virl sloir-reim maximum values,
equal ro aLour rvice rle aveiage value, sloirly arei imacr. He also ounu rlar
rlese iesisrance oices renueu ro Le inueenuenr o rle imacr velociry, Lur vaiieu
virl rle ronnage anu lence rle uerails o consriucrion o rle equivalenr sli. As
an aioximarion ro rlis oLseiveu Lelavioui le gave

vleie
DW1 is rle slis caiiying caaciry in ueau veiglr rons
(1DW1=2240 lL=1016 kg=1.016 r)
1lis can Le useu ro esrimare rle exrenr o uamage ro a sli. Consiuei rle case
vleie a sli lirs a iigiu iei, virl rle aioacl ar iiglr angles ro rle iei ace.
Ler Le rle lengrl o sli, iom irs Lov, rlar is ciusleu in rle imacr. 1le
olloving is an examle raken iom Saul anu Svennson (19S2:36), vlo give,
iisr, gials ielaring ro rle uislacemenr oi mass o mouein slis, in ronnes ro rle
DW1. Ioi examle, oi Lulk caiiieis, aioximarely

=1.25 DW1

1ley rake rle case o a rankei, virl a uislacemenr o 45,000 r anu a DW1 o
3S,000, rlar is, virl =1.1S DW1. Iiom rle aLove exiession,

(^)=12S6 ^

1le aveiage imacr oice is

Ioi an aioacl velociry o 3 m/sec, rle kineric eneigy o rle aioacling sli is

=1.05
2
/2=1.05(453
2
)=213 ^m

1le uamage lengrl is

=213/(S643)=1.65 ro 4.95 m

1le uara slovn in rlis examle coiiesonus ro rlar oi an acrual sli imacr,
vlen a rankei o 45,000 r uislacemenr lir a massive main iei o rle evoir
Biiuge, Rloue Islanu in IeLiuaiy 19S1. 1le iei vas essenrially unuamageu, Lur
rle slis Lov vas larreneu oi a lengrl o 3.5 m.
STREAM LOADS 286
1le rime, ovei vlicl rle oice
q
is alieu ro rle iei may also Le
esrimareu. 1le mean ueceleiarion equals
q
i.e. 45/(S643)=0.35 ro 1.05 m/
sec
2
. 1le rime is, rleieoie, 3/(0.35 ro 1.05)=S.6 ro 2.9 secs. 1le maximum
oice,
is riansienr, anu occuis only oi a sloir air o rlis rime, quoreu as 0.1
ro 0.2 secs. Analyses aie availaLle also oi rle case o oLlique imacr (Saul anu
Svennson 19S2).
Ioices uue ro sli imacr may Le veiy laige, anu may iequiie secial iei
iorecrion (see, oi examle, Iianusen anu Langso 19S0). Iiguie 2.1S slovs rle
Boven Liiuge, HoLair, Luilr usrieam iom rle 1asman Liiuge in rle eiiou
olloving irs ailuie in 195 (Secrion 2.4). Boven Liiuge vas comlereu in 19S4
virl ren majoi sans, incluuing eiglr o 109 m. 1le iei Lase las oinreu enus,
uesigneu so as ro uelecr oi sink rle sli.
Lsrimarion o rle ioLaLiliry o sli imacr may Le uiiculr. Iianusen anu
Langso (19S0) lisr ouireen cases o Liiuges sriuck Ly a sli Lerveen 1965 anu
196, vlen somerimes rle Liiuge sueisriucruie vas sriuck, iarlei rlan rle
ieis. Woisins voik on sli imacr oices incluueu a iooseu ioLaLiliry
uensiry uisriiLurion rlar may Le useu in srarisrical analyses.
Orlei oims o imacr aie ossiLle, sucl as Lerveen a ueiaileu locomorive
anu caiiiages, anu a iailvay Liiuge oveiass. 1le consequences o rlis may Le
majoi, sucl as in rle Gianville Liiuge uisasrei in Syuney in 19, vleie rle
uesriucrion o a iei Ly a ueiaileu locomorive causeu rle leavy conciere
sueisriucruie ro all onro ciovueu caiiiages, virl giear loss o lie. In sucl
cases, rle iovision o uelecring sriucruies ro iorecr rle Liiuge ieis is
essenrial.
Iaiiauay anu Clailron (19S3:46, Aenuix B) ioviue a useul inriouucrion ro
rlis ioLlem anu quore voik uone in Canaua anu rle Sovier Union. 1le
rloiougl aei Ly eill (196) ielecrs Canauian exeiience, ir las an
exrensive iange o ieeiences (see also eill 19S1). HoLLs (194) las rle rirle
.
ônrgomeiy anu Liserr (19S0) lave uesciiLeu Lorl exeiimenral anu
analyrical sruuies o ice oices on a iei o rle ArlaLasca Rivei Liiuge ar Honuo
in AlLeira. A ryical ice oice lisroiy is iesenreu oi a rime o 24 sec anu an ice
rlickness o 0.91 m. Ir slovs eak oices u ro S00 k ieeareu ar inreivals o
aLour 3 ro 6 sec, sueiimoseu on a ielarive lov Lase level ianging iom aLour
0 ro 50 oi S0 k. 1le icruie is cleaily one o ice iacruiing againsr rle inclineu
usrieam ace o rle iei, vlicl vas aLour 22 iom rle veirical, anu ir aeais
rlar rlis is oren rle case. Inueeu rle coiiecr mouein aioacl ro uesign
aeais ro Le ro slae rle ieis so as ro iacruie rle ice.
An examle o rlis, anu an illusriarion o rle magniruue o rle ioLlem,
may Le seen in rle Coneueiarion Biiuge acioss oirlumLeilanu Sriair ro
Piince Luvaiu Islanu, air o easrein Canaua, oeneu in 199 virl a roral
lengrl o 12.9 km, ovei a vareivay rlar is commonly clokeu virl ice in vinrei.
11.6 Effects of ice
EFFECTS OF ICE 287
1luisron (199S) seaks o ir as a 'Canauian-Luilr-anu-uesigneu maivel o colu
ocean engineeiing, anu uesciiLes rle ice iiuges rlar may Le oimeu o 'laige
masses o comiesseu ice iuLLle, u ro 6 oi m ligl aLove rle suiace, anu
exrenuing u ro 20 m uee Lelov. 1le Liiuge vas iequiieu nor only ro virlsranu
oices iom rlis ice, Lur also ro avoiu uelays in rle movemenr o ice our o rle
Sriair in siing. 1le Liiuge las 44 main sans roralling 11,0S0 m, virl a ryical
uisrance o 250 m Lerveen iei cenrielines. Lacl iei las a conical Lase, virl
aces inclineu ar 30 iom rle veirical. As rle ice moves againsr rle iei, rvo
acrois aie iesenr. 1le ciiculai slae o rle iei in lan renus ro slir rle ice, anu
in auuirion, rle ice loe renus ro iiue u rle iei ace, virl veirical oices rlar
cause rle ice ro iacruie in rension in irs uei ace. 1le rvo eecrs comLine ro
minimise oices alieu ro rle iei, anu ro allov rle ice ro move asr. Similai
sriaregies can also Le auoreu in smallei Liiuges.
Iaiiauay anu Clailron (19S3) anu eill (196) quore values iom rle 19S
anu 194 euirions o rle Canauian Sranuaius Associarions sranuaiu CSA-S6.
1le loiizonral oice, exeireu on a iei Ly moving ice may Le calculareu iom
rle exiession

2

vleie
1
is a coeicienr oi nose inclinarion,
2
is a seconu coeicienr, oi iei geomeriy,
is an ice iessuie,
is rle ice rlickness, anu
is rle iei viurl ar rle level o rle ice (Lorl mm)
1le coeicienr,
1
, las rle values given in 1aLle 11.4.
Coeicienr
2
is a uncrion o rle iario (see 1aLle 11.5).

Table 11.5
Table 11.4
STREAM LOADS 288
Values o vaiy virl rle conuirion o rle ice:

(a) Ioi ice in small cakes vleie Lieak-u occuis ar melring remeiaruies, =690
kPa (100 si).
(L) Ioi ice in laige ieces rlar aie inreinally sounu, Lur Lieak-u is ar melring
remeiaruies, =13S0 kPa (200 si).
(c) Ioi inirial movemenr o rle ice sleer as a vlole, oi laige sleers o sounu ice,
=200 kPa (300 si).
(u) Ioi Lieak-u oi majoi ice movemenr ar remeiaruies signiicanrly Lelov rle
melring oinr, =260 kPa (400 si).

As an examle, oi a iei angle less rlan 15, =0.5 m anu =1.5 m, Lorl
1
anu
2
aie uniry, anu

=1.125

Ir lies, rleieoie, in rle iange 6 ro 3105 k, ueenuing on rle conuirion o rle
ice. Alrlougl laige, rlis is srill mucl smallei rlan rle iguies oi sli imacr
quoreu in rle ievious secrion. As menrioneu in Secrion 4.4, rle Canauian
Sranuaius Associarions CSA-S6 (19S) is cuiienrly unuei ieviev. eill (196)
also quores values iom a 196 coue o rle USSR.

Chapter 12
12.1 Wind velocities

Wind, earthquake and
temperature effects
1le Biirisl Sranuaiu, BS 6399: Pair 2:1995, seciies rle vinu seeu ar a
airiculai sire as a uncrion o ive aiamereis: rle Lasic vinu seeu, virl acrois
ro ioviue oi alriruue, uiiecrion, season o rle yeai, anu a ioLaLiliry acroi. 1le
Lasic vinu velociry vaiies virl geogialic locarion, anu rle coue incluues a ma
o rle Unireu Kinguom anu Iielanu virl conrouis sloving Lasic vinu seeus.
1lese conrouis lave minima (oi lov oinrs) cenrieu aLour Oxoiu (20 m/sec),
Peirl (23 m/sec) anu DuLlin (23 m/sec), virl liglei values Lerveen anu oursiue
rlese oinrs. 1leie is, oi examle, a Lasic vinu velociry o aLour 24 m/sec in a
iegion Lerveen rle cenries anu exrenuing uovn ro Lanus Lnu, virl aLour 26 m/
sec along rle noirl-vesr coasr o Scorlanu, iising ro as ligl as 30 m/sec aiounu
rle Slerlanu Islanus. Similai mas o vinu velociries may Le ounu oi orlei
counriies anu iegions anu in orlei souices, Lur ir is o inreiesr leie ro nore rlar
rle ma oi rle Unireu Kinguom anu Iielanu incluueu in Biirisl Deairmenr o
1iansoir liglvay Liiuge coue, BD3/SS (Secrion 4.2), issueu in 19SS, uieis
iom rlar in BS 6399. 1le ieason oi rlis is cleaily rlar BS 6399 is larei. Ir ielecrs
moie iecenr voik, cliely Ly Cook (19S2, 19S3, 19S5) anu Cook anu Piioi
(19S), vlicl vill Le useu laigely in rle olloving secrion. 1le rvo-volume Look,
Cook (19S5), is a valuaLle ieeience. Some orlei iecenr voiks aie rlose Ly Simiu
anu Scanlan (1996), DyiLye anu Hansen (199) anu Liu (1991), all ueal
exrensively virl rle use o ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurions in rle analysis o
vinu uara. 1le Ameiican Sociery o Civil Lngineeis uLlisleu a srare-o-rle-air
ieoir on vinu loauing anu sriucruial iesonse in 19S.
1le oimal (oi Gaussian) DisriiLurion vas ueineu in Secrion 3.3, virl a
ioLaLiliry uensiry, o a uncrion, given Ly

WIND, EARTHQUAKE AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS 290
Ioi rle case virl rle mean, q equal ro zeio, anu rle sranuaiu ueviarion, equal
ro uniry, rlis Lecame

1le WeiLull uisriiLurion is commonly useu oi rle srarisrical uisriiLurions o vinu
seeu. Ir las a ioLaLiliry uensiry uncrion, given Ly

vleie
is a sieau aiamerei, anu
is a slae aiamerei
1le cumularive uisriiLurion uncrion, is ueineu as rle inregial o Lerveen
rvo Lounuaiy values o commonly iom ro a airiculai value. Ioi rle
WeiLull uisriiLurion, rlis Lecomes

1le cumularive ioLaLiliry o exceeuance is =1. 1len, oi rle WeiLull
uisriiLurion,

Some ryical WeiLull ioLaLiliry uensiry uisriiLurions aie slovn in Iig. 12.1 (a).
Insreau o consiueiing all values o one may cloose ro iecoiu only exrieme
values, vleie
is ueineu as rle laigesr o values. 1len rlese values also

lave srarisrical uisriiLurions. 1le iesenr ioLlem is conceineu virl rle
ieuicrion o uei Lounu values o rle vinu velociry, . 1le rleoiy o exrieme
values vas ueveloeu inirially Ly Iislei anu 1ierr, anu rlen Ly GumLel, anu
rleii names lave Leen alieu ro uisriiLurions useu in rle analyses o vinu
iecoius. A GumLel uisriiLurion is one vlose cumularive ioLaLiliry uisriiLurion,
oi laige aioacles

=1

vleie
is some uncrion
1le WeiLull uisriiLurion sarisies rlis ueinirion, nor only oi laige Lur also
ovei rle vlole iange. 1le Iislei-1ierr 1ye I (I11) uisriiLurion las

Fig. 12.1 (a)Typical Weibull distributions; (b) Fisher-Tippett Type 1 distribution
vleie
is rle moue, anu

1/ is calleu rle uiseision
1le lor o rle coiiesonuing ioLaLiliry uensiry uncrion againsr is slovn in
Iig. 12.1 (L). 1lis uisriiLurion may Le inveireu ro give

virl

Consiuei a ser o uara values,
, virl cumularive ioLaLiliries 1len may Le

lorreu ro a scale equivalenr ro . 1le lor o rlese values o
againsr
vill Le lineai i rle values sarisy rle I11 uisriiLurion. 1len anu 1/
may Le oLraineu anu rle gial exrenueu ro give anu lence oi laigei values o
oi smallei values o rle exceeuance ioLaLiliry, =1.
Cook anu Piioi (19S) useu a merlou iooseu Ly Cook (19S2) anu Laseu
on rle I11 mouel ro esrimare vinu seeus ar vaiious locarions in rle Unireu
Kinguom, oi a 50-yeai Aveiage Recuiience Inreival. In uoing rlis rley useu rvo
ioceuuies: (a) rle uiiecr exriaolarion o rle velociry iom oLseiveu values,
anu (L) rle conveision o oLseiveu values o ro iessuie, using rle ielarion,

2
/2, vleie is rle aii uensiry, olloveu Ly rle exriaolarion o anu rlen
ieconveision ro . 1ley ounu rleii mouel ro Le Lerrei vlen Laseu on . 1le
iesulring conrouis o vinu seeus (Cook anu Piioi 19S: 3S5) aie rlose incluueu
in BS 6399: Pair 2:1995: Iiguie 6, Annex B. 1ley ieiesenr esrimareu values o
rle louily mean seeu.
Cook anu Piioi ieeareu rlese analyses oi 12 uiiecrions ar eacl sire,
seaiareu Ly a lan angle o 30. 1ley ounu rlar rle unueilying uiiecrional
claiacreiisrics veie rle same oi all sires in rle Unireu Kinguom. Accoiuingly, BS
6399: Pair 2:1995 mulrilies rle Lasic vinu velociry, calleu
Ly a uiiecrion
acroi,
vleie rlis equals uniry oi vinus iom a Leaiing o aLour 240260

(clockvise iom noirl), ieuucing ro aLour 0.3 oi Leaiings iom 30120.
BS 6399: Pair 2 also seciies a seasonal acroi
rlar may Le ielevanr oi

consriucrion ovei sloir eiious. Ioi examle, oi consriucrion eiious o oui
monrls, iom ]anuaiy ro Aiil, ây ro Augusr anu SeremLei ro DecemLei, rlis
acroi is 0.9S, 0.3 anu 0.96. 1le voisr eiiou oi consriucrion in rle Unireu
Kinguom is iom DecemLei ro ]anuaiy.
1leie is also a seciieu ioLaLiliry acroi,
rlar can Le useu ro clange rle

iequiieu exceeuence ioLaLiliry. 1le Lasic Aveiage Recuiience Inreival in BS
6399 is 50 yeais, coiiesonuing ro an annual iisk o exceeuance, =0.02. Ioi
orlei values o rle Lasic vinu seeu sloulu Le mulrilieu Ly
vleie

WIND VELOCITIES 293
1le Biirisl liglvay Liiuge coue, BD3/SS, seciies a 120-yeai ieruin eiiou
(Cl.5.3.1). 1o aclieve rlis iesulr, virl =0.00S3,

=1.04S

Ir is also necessaiy ro allov oi oices iom vinu gusrs. BS 6399: Pair 2: 1995
quores oimulae oi gusr vinu seeus Laseu on Cook (19S5). 1le gusr velociry,
acrive ovei a gusr uuiarion, (secs), is given aioximarely Ly mulrilying

rle mean vinu velociry,
Ly a gusr acroi,
vleie
=0.42 (3600/).
Hovevei, rle gusr velociry is local in claiacrei anu ir is necessaiy ro esrimare
rle gusr seeu vlicl 'vill enveloe rle sriucruie oi comonenr ro iouuce rle
maximum loauing rleieon (BS 6399: Pair 2:1995: Annex I). 1lis sranuaiu, virl
airiculai ieeience ro Luiluings, iuenriies rle emiiical ielarionsli,

=4.5

vleie is a claiacreiisric uimension o rle sriucruie. 1le oluei BD3/SS
raLulareu rle gusr acroi againsr rle loiizonral loaueu lengrl anu leiglr aLove
giounu. 1le quesrion o Liiuge leiglr vill Le uiscusseu sloirly, Lur consiuei rle
case virl a lengrl o 100 m. Suose, also, oi rlis examle, a mean vinu
velociry o 24 m/sec. 1len rle aLove exiessions give

=1S.S sec
=2.21

Ioi a loaueu lengrl o 100 m, BD3/SS lisreu acrois rlar vaiieu ovei rle iange
1.35 ro 1.9S oi leiglrs iom 5 ro 200 m aLove giounu level, oi iom 1.60 ro 1.6
oi leiglrs iom 20 ro 50 m. Alrlougl rle size o rlis acroi musr Le ievieveu in
irs alicarion ro a airiculai Liiuge, rlese oiueis o magniruue suggesr rlar irs
eecrs may Le consiueiaLle, airiculaily vlen ir is iememLeieu rlar vinu oice is
iooirional ro
2
.
1lis uiscussion las so ai nor rieareu Liiuge leiglr, as rle siruarion virl a
Liiuge may uiei maikeuly iom rlar oi a Luiluing. 1le coue BD3/SS gave
conrouis o vinu velociry oi Giear Biirain anu Iielanu rlar veie 'aioiiare ro
a leiglr aLove giounu level o 10 m in oen level counriy anu a 120-yeai ieruin
eiiou. 1le velociries slovn in irs conroui ma (irs Iig. 2) uieieu somevlar
iom rlose in BS 6399: Pair 2:1995, Lorl in magniruue anu uisriiLurion. 1le
seciieu velociries veie aLour 26 m/sec ar Oxoiu, 33 m/sec noirl o LuinLuigl,
anu 30 m/sec ar DuLlin. Ioi comaiison, iguies iom rle larei coue veie quoreu
eailiei as 20, 23 anu 23 m/sec, alrlougl rlese neeueu ro Le mulrilieu Ly 1.04S ro
allov oi rle clange in seciieu iecuiience inreival. 1ley rlen Lecome 21, 24
anu 24 m/sec. 1ley also aie Laseu on vinu velociries measuieu ar a leiglr o 10
m aLove oen, level reiiain.
Winu velociry vaiies virl leiglr, Lerveen zeio ar a lane some uisrance,
aLove rle giounu ro rle so-calleu giauienr leiglr,
ueineu as 'rle lovesr leiglr

ar vlicl rle vinu is unaecreu Ly rle iougl suiace reiiain (Cook 19S5: Pair
1:, 13S). Heiglr, ueines rle 'inreiacial layei in vlicl rle oveiall ner
lov is zeio. In oen counriy, rlis layei is slallov, virl aioacling zeio. In
Luilr-u aieas, aioacles rle aveiage Luiluing leiglr anu rle 'aeiouynamic
giounu lane is elevareu. Ioi rlis ieason, is calleu rle 'zeio-lane
uislacemenr. 1le roral leiglr ro
ueines rle 'armosleiic Lounuaiy layei.

Deaves anu Haiiis (19S, Deaves 19S1, Haiiis anu Deaves 19S0) lave iooseu
a semi-emiiical ielarionsli connecring rle velociry
(rle equiliLiium mean

velociry) virl leiglr, . Ioi less rlan 300 m, rlis Lecomes

vleie

anu
aie as given Lelov

1le reim, is calleu rle Lasic iicrion velociry anu may Le exiesseu in reims o
rle velociry ar leiglr, =10 m, coiiesonuing ro sranuaiu mereoiological
oLseivarions o velociry. Cook (19S5: Pair 1:221) gives

=0.06SS6

1lis value is useu ro esrimare rle giauienr leiglr,
/6

vleie
vaiies virl lariruue anu is calleu rle Coiiolis aiamerei (iau/sec)
Irs geneial oim is 1.45410
4
sin vleie is rle lariruue, Lur oi rle Unireu
Kinguom, vleie rle conrouis o vinu velociry inuicare rlar also vaiies virl
lariruue, an aioximare exiession is

=4.510
6
(iau/m)

1len

=2550 m

1le reim
(m), oi iouglness lengrl, ieiesenrs rle aeiouynamic iouglness o

rle reiiain. Iive iouglness caregoiies aie lisreu in 1aLle 12.1, virl rle
coiiesonuing values o
.
1le sranuaiu mereoiological reiiain is Caregoiy 3. Ioi rlis case,

=2.50.06SS6 |(/0.03)+5.5/2550]

WIND VELOCITIES 295
Ioi
=10 m,
=0.12 (5.S09+0.023)=1.004

I rle seconu reim is omirreu, rlen
=1.00.
Consiuei a Liiuge ovei a laige exanse o varei (caregoiy 0). 1len
=0.003,
=0.

=0.12 |n(/0.003)+5.5/2550]

Ioi =10 m,
=1.4
oi =30 m,
=1.609
oi =100 m
=1.S3.

In all cases, rle conriiLurion o rle seconu reim is small: 0.4' ar 10 m, 0.' ar
30 m anu 2.2' ar 100 m. Ir may Le omirreu in mosr iacrical cases. Ir ollovs
also rlar a vaiiarion in
uoes nor signiicanrly aecr velociries.

1lis UK examle las Leen closen Lecause ir ielecrs iecenr voik in rle aiea.
DyiLye anu Hansen (199:35) quore iom Luiocoue I (see Secrion 4.6) vlicl
ueines a ieeience vinu velociry as rle 10-minure mean vinu velociry ar 10 m
aLove a reiiain virl a iouglness lengrl o 0.05 m, anu an aveiage iecuiience
inreival o 50 yeais. 1lis ieeience vinu uieis iom rlar useu Ly BS 6399,
alrlougl rle iecuiience inreival is rle same, rle Biirisl Sranuaiu ieeis ro rle
louily mean vinu seeu (see oi examle, Cook anu Piioi 19S:3S5). Some o
rle Luiocoue values aie: Sourlein Sveuen, 2426 m/sec, Denmaik 2 m/sec,
coasral aieas o Geimany, 32 m/sec, anu coasral aieas o Gieece anu rle Gieek
islanus, 36 m/sec. DyiLye anu Hansen queiy rle iange o rle iisr rliee o rlese
iguies, oi, 'in rle Balric Region, rle vinu climare is geneially lomogeneous.
1le closesr conroui in rle Biirisl uara is aiounu oivicl, virl a Lasic vinu
seeu o 24 m/sec.
1le AASH1O seciicarion (1994: Cl.3.S) seciies a Lase uesign vinu
velociry o 160 km/li (44.4 m/sec), aujusreu oi leiglrs in excess o 10 m Ly rle
exiession

=2.5
(
10
/
) n
Table 12.1
vleie
is rle uesign vinu velociry (equivalenr ro
aLove),
is rle iicrion velociry
is rle vinu velociry 10 m aLove rle giounu
is rle Lase vinu velociry, equal ro 160 km/li (44.4 m/sec),

is rle leiglr, anu
is a iicrion lengrl (as aLove)

1le reims
anu
aie raLulareu oi a ev cases. Ioi examle, oi 'oen

counriy,
is 13.2 km/li (3.6 m/sec) anu
is 0.0 m. 1le larrei iguie lies

Lerveen rle iouglness caregoiies 2 anu 3 given aLove. Reaiianging rle
AASH1O exiession,

=25
10

oi, oi

=3.6 m/sec,
=44.4 m/sec
=0.206
10

1lis las rle same oim, Lur is a lirrle laigei (0.206/0.12=1.2) rlan rle
exiession oi
given aLove, virl rle reim in
omirreu. 1le uieience iesulrs

ar leasr airly iom rle laigei iecuiience inreival useu in Liiuge uesign. 1leie is
also some uieience in rle riearmenr o gusrs. 1le AASH1O Seciicarion uoes
nor seciy gusr velociries, Lur incluues rle eecr o gusrs in rle exiession
ielaring vinu iessuie ro vinu velociry. Wleieas rle sragnarion iessuie
associareu virl a vinu velociry o 160 km/li (44.4 m/sec) is 1.2310
3
^Pa (coue
commenraiy), rle seciieu iessuies aie somevlar laigei:

riusses, columns anu aicles, vinuvaiu siue 0.0024 ^Pa
riusses, columns anu aicles, leevaiu siue 0.0012 ^Pa
Leams 0.0024 ^Pa
laige lar suiaces 0.0019 ^Pa

Lur nor less rlan 4.4 k ei merie oi a Leam, oi oi a vinuvaiu cloiu memLei,
anu nor less rlan 2.2 k/m oi a leevaiu cloiu. 1lese may Le aujusreu in
iooirion ro rle iario (
/160)
2
, virl
in km/li.
Alrlougl Cook (19S5: Pair 1:S9) incluues roinauoes in lis vinu ryes in rle
Unireu Kinguom, rle ielarive seveiiry o rlese occuiiences is small comaieu virl
orlei counriies. 1le Ausrialian vinu coue (AS110.2 19S9), oi examle,
seciies liglei uesign vinu velociries in coasral aieas noirl o lariruue 2S, ro
allov oi rle eecrs o rioical cyclones. Cyclone 1iacy asseu ovei rle ciry o
Daivin in DecemLei 194. 1le maximum gusr vinu velociry (Walkei 195) vas
esrimareu as 0 m/sec.
Simiu anu Scanlan (1996:) give uara on rle vaiiarion o vinu seeu anu

WIND VELOCITIES 297
leiglr oi six rioical cyclones, rle iisr rvo in rle Ameiican iegion anu rle
orlei oui in oirlein Ausrialia. 1le iisr o rlese vas rle Ameiican luiiicane
Caiol (1954) uuiing irs uecaying srages. Recoiueu vinu seeus veie as given in
1aLle 12.2.
Ioi rle Ausrialian cyclone Beveiley (âicl 195), rle values o rle
maximum vinu seeus ovei a eiiou o 10 min, as given in 1aLle 12.3, veie
iecoiueu.
In geneial, rle vinu seeus uislayeu a logaiirlmic vaiiarion virl leiglr, o
rle kinu uiscusseu ieviously, Lur rleie is eviuence rlar rlis is nor alvays rle case.
Cook (19S5: Pair 1:12) uiscusses rle o occuiience anu
concluues rlar, in mosr iegions, cyclone inciuence is roo lov ro allov ieasonaLle
esrimares, virl rle excerion o Hong Kong, 'vleie rle conriiLurion iom
ryloons uominares all orlei meclanisms anu rle iecoiueu annual maximum
vinu seeu is neaily alvays iom rlis souice. Ir musr Le iememLeieu rlar
rioical cyclones lave veiy local eecrs, rleii arls aie eiiaric, anu rleii inrensiry
uiminisles iaiuly as rley ass iom rle sea ro rle lanu.
Holmes (1990), in a commenraiy on rle Ausrialian Sranuaiu oi vinu loaus
(AS110: Pair 2:19S9), quores rle maximum gusr velociries ar a leiglr o 10 m
oi rioical cyclones o vaiying inrensiries, as lisreu in 1aLle 12.4.

Table 12.4

Table 12.2
Table 12.3
Baseu on rlese values, rley suggesreu rle velociries given in 1aLle 12.5 oi
coasral iegions in rle noirl o Ausrialia.
Ioi comaiison, 1aLle 12.6 gives ryical uesign vinu seeus elsevleie in
Ausrialia.
1lese aie noriceaLly liglei rlan values quoreu eailiei oi rle Unireu
Kinguom, vlicl veie oi a 50-yeai value o rle ARI, anu ie-emlasise rle oinr
rlar uesign vinu velociries musr Le vieveu geogialically. Simiu anu Scanlan
(1996:122) also uiscuss rle ioLaLiliry o occuiience o roinauo vinus in rle
Unireu Srares.
1le Lasic exiession oi vinu oice is

(
2
/2)

vleie
is a iessuie coeicienr,
is an aiea,
is rle aii uensiry, anu
is rle uesign vinu velociry
1le aii uensiry, vaiies virl remeiaruie anu iessuie. Cook (19S5: Pair 1: 125,
12) suggesrs rle use o =1.225 kg/m
3
oi remeiare iegions, anu 1.122
(coiiesonuing ro a remeiaruie o 25C, anu an armosleie iessuie o 960
^Pa) in rioical cyclones, rle coiiesonuing sragnarion iessuies,
2
/2, aie
0.613
2
anu 0.561
2
(Pa).
1le Biirisl coue oi liglvay Liiuges, BD3/SS, gives values o a uiag
coeicienr,
oi many iacrical cases. Iiguie 12.2 slovs ryical examles o

Table 12.5
Table 12.6
12.2 Wind forces
WIND FORCES 299
vlar is calleu 'a sueisriucruie virl a soliu elevarion. A live loau o leiglr,
may Le iesenr ovei air o rle sriucruie, vleie
is raken as 2.5 m oi a
liglvay, 3. m aLove iail level oi a iailvay, anu 1.25 m oi a oorvay oi cycle
riack. 1le uerl o rle Liiuge lus live loau is
3
1le sriucruial uerl is iegaiueu
as
1
(ar rle ler) oi rle case virl oen aiaers, anu
2
vleie rle aiaers aie
soliu. 1len rle aiea is raken as rle iojecreu aiea in elevarion, using
uimensions
1
,
2
oi
3
, vliclevei is aioiiare. 1le uiag coeicienr,
is
exiesseu in reims o a iario vleie is ueineu as ollovs. I rle sriucruial
uerl,
1
oi
2
, exceeus
rlen
1
oi
2
. I Lorl uerls
1
anu
2
aie less rlan
rlen oi rle case virl live loau,
. Iiguie 5 o rle coue lors
againsr
. Ioi mosr sriucruies,
lies Lerveen 1.3 anu 2.6, virl some ryical values

lisreu in 1aLle 12..
1le limir o 1.3 coiiesonus ro =6.0. Ioi oor oi cycle riack Liiuges,
is
ro Le nor less rlan 2.0, vleie rle limir coiiesonus ro a lirrle in excess o 1.1.
A value o
equal ro 2.0 gives

=1.226
2
Pa

Table 12.7
Fig. 12.2 Dimensions used to compute wind pressure in BD37/88
Ioi a uesign vinu velociry o 40 m/sec, rlis equivalenr iessuie is 1.96 kPa. 1le
coiiesonuing loau, voulu Le ielarively small comaieu virl rle caaciry o
rle sriucruie ro riansmir ir ro rle suoirs.
BD 3/SS also ioviues oi Liiuges virl an oen sueisriucruie, sucl as rle
oluei, meral riuss Liiuges. 1le eecrive aiea, is evaluareu as rle sum o
conriiLurions iom rle vinuvaiu anu leevaiu riusses, rle ueck anu rle aiaers,
excer rlar rle ueck aiea scieeneu Ly rle vinuvaiu riuss is uelereu, as is rle
leevaiu riuss aiea scieeneu Ly rle ueck, virl similai iovisions oi rle scieening
o aiaers. Diag coeicienrs oi a riuss ueenu on rvo acrois: (a) rle soliuiry
iario, vlicl is equal ro rle iario o rle acrual aiea seen in elevarion uiviueu Ly rle
oveiall sace occuieu Ly rle riuss, anu (L) rle slae o riuss memLeis. Ioi
larsiueu memLeis,
las rle values given in 1aLle 12.S.

1leie is also some slieluing alloveu o rle leevaiu riuss, ueenuenr on rle
soliuiry anu sacing iarios, vleie rle larrei equals rle uisrance Lerveen rle
cenrielines o rle riusses, uiviueu Ly rle riuss uerl. A ev o rle coue values aie
lisreu in 1aLle 12.9.
In many acrual cases, rlis slieluing iario voulu Le in rle iange, 0.S ro 1.0.
1lis uara is also useul in rle case o orlei sriucruies, sucl as caLle-srayeu oi
susension Liiuges. Ioi a ciiculai srianueu caLle,
=1.2. 1le ueck las a value o
=1.1. 1le leiglr o any live loau on rle ueck is consiueieu ro Le rle same as oi
a sueisriucruie virl a soliu elevarion, Lur virl a value o
=1.45 oi
unslielueu airs o rle live loau.
1lese iovisions uo allov oi vinu loaus on riaic in rle sense rlar rle
riaic auus ro rle eecrive aiea o rle Liiuge in elevarion. 1le eecr o rle vinu
on rle riaic irsel is anorlei marrei, a uiivei can comensare oi rle eecrs o a
sreauy vinu, Lur uiiculry aiises in rliee vays: (1) a ligl velicle may Le
oveiruineu Ly vinu, (2) gusrs may aly suuuen oices ro a velicle, causing ir ro

Table 12.9 Values of C
D
Table 12.8
WIND FORCES 301
Le uiiculr ro conriol, anu (3) moving velicles may Le ar one momenr slielueu Ly
rle sriucruie iom rle eecrs o vinu anu rlen move suuuenly inro oen sace.
Gavrloie (1994) uesciiLes a numLei o inciuenrs vleie riains lave Leen
Llovn ovei, oi examle, in 1903 on rle Leven Viauucr in rle noirl-vesr o
Lnglanu, anu in 19S6 on a naiiov gauge iailvay acioss rle 40 m-ligl
AmaiuLe Biiuge. aiira anu Karsuiagi (19S1) cire anorlei examle. In OcroLei
196 a small, unloaueu riuck vas oveiruineu as ir ler a Liiuge in ]aan, ar a
rime vlen rle maximum vinu seeu vas esrimareu ro Le in excess o 30 m/sec.
Iielu oLseivarions anu vinu runnel sruuies sloveu rlar rle uiiecrion o vinu
lov vas aecreu Ly rle local roogialy. 1iaic leaving rle Liiuge in rle
iiglr-lanu lane lau, on rleii ler, a all o aLour 50 m ro rle sea, virl a sree
curring on rleii iiglr iising ro aLour 20 m, virl a lengrl o 1S0 m. An access
ioau joineu rle liglvay iom rle ler, oosire rlis curring, anu ir vas aLour
leie rlar rle acciuenr occuiieu. 1le vinu runnel resrs sloveu rlar oi ceirain
vinu uiiecrions, rle riansveise comonenr o vinu clangeu suuuenly in
uiiecrion ar rle access ioau, iom coming iom rle uiiveis ler ro a uiiecrion
iom lis iiglr.
Bakei anu Coleman lave caiii eu our anal yrical anu vinu-runnel
invesrigarions o rle ossiLiliry o velicles Leing oveiruineu oi ailing in orlei
vays ar ligl vinus. An inirial sruuy (Bakei 19S6) inuicareu rlar a airiculai,
unlauen Lus coulu Le oveiruineu, rleoierically, Ly vinu velociries o rle oiuei
o 20 m/sec, alrlougl 'oeiarional exeiience voulu suggesreilas aLour
30 m/sec. Larei voik (Coleman anu Bakei 1990) uesciiLeu vinu runnel resrs
on a 1/50rl scale mouel o 'a ryical laige airiculareu riacroi-riailei
comLinarion (rle equivalenr ull-scale leiglr voulu Le 2.S5 m) riavelling on a
Lox giiuei Liiuge, virl rvo kinus o lov: a lov-ruiLulence vinu-runnel lov,
anu a ruiLulenr lov inrenueu ro ioviue 'a simularion o armosleiic
ruiLulence. 1le equivalenr ull-scale maximum gusr velociry oi rle ruiLulenr
vinu aeais ro lave Leen aLour 25 m/sec. Oveiruining in rlis vinu lau a
ioLaLiliry o occuiience o 20 louis ei yeai. Orlei voik in rlis aiea can Le
ounu in Bakei (1994) anu Huclo (19S). Cooei (19S1) anu Bakei (19S1)
lave also uone voik on rle sraLiliry o riains.
Wyarr (1.A.
1590, in Laisen 1992) las a useul, iecenr uiscussion o rle slieluing o
riaic iom rle eecrs o vinu. He ieeis ro exeiience on rle Sevein anu Ioirl
susension Liiuges, anu quores cuiienr iules oi rle Sevein Liiuge rlar iequiie
lane closuies ro Le consiueieu oi gusr seeus in excess o 15 m/sec, anu alieu i
gusr seeus ieacl 1S m/sec. Similaily, closuie o rle Liiuge ro vulneiaLle riaic,
sucl as loliuay caiavans, ligl-siueu liglr commeicial velicles, anu ligl-siueu
unlauen leavy velicles, is consiueieu ar gusr seeus o 20 m/sec anu ur inro
eecr ar 22.5 m/sec. 1leie veie also eailiei seeu iesriicrions, ro as lov as a 32
km/l velicle seeu oi gusr velociries in excess o 23 m/sec, virl iovisions ro
iesriicr riaic ro only one lane in eacl uiiecrion 'ro inciease rle maigin oi lareial
couise ueviarions. ALour 19S, rlese iesriicrions meanr rlar lane closuies veie
alieu on rlis Liiuge aLour 15 rimes ei yeai, roralling some 10 louis, virl
closuie ro vulneiaLle velicles aveiaging some 60 louis ei yeai. Ir can only Le
concluueu rlar rlese iesriicrions consrirure a ailuie Ly rle Liiuge ro eioim irs
ioei uncrion, anu ir is signiicanr ro oLseive rlar Wyarr rlen goes on ro uiscuss
riaic iorecrion.
1le vinu Laiiieis consiueieu Ly lim veie oious, maue u o loiizonral
slars o vaiious viurls ar a cenrie-ro-cenrie sacing o 300 mm. 1le
coiiesonuing oiosiries (iario o oenings ro roral aiea) vaiieu iom 0.2 ro 0.S.
Baiiieis o vaiious leiglrs veie consiueieu, mounreu on mouel Liiuge secrions
oi vinu runnel resrs. 1le aim vas ro ieuuce rle oveiruining momenr on a velicle
4.4 m ligl Ly aLour 50'. One suiraLle coniguiarion lau a oiosiry o 0.4 anu
a leiglr o 3 m. Iiguie 12.3 (a), raken iom Laisen (1992:161), slovs rle loii
Fig. 12.3 Effect of wind barriers on wind velocities at two sections of a box girder
bridge (Redrawn from Larsen 1992:161)
WIND FORCES 303
zonral vinu velociry lorreu againsr leiglr ar rvo locarions, virl anu virlour rle
Laiiieis. Velociries aie scaleu againsr rle aioacl vinu velociry, virl leiglrs
scaleu againsr rle Laiiiei leiglr. 1le ueck viurl is aLour 36 m.
Reeiiing iisr ro rle gials slovn as 'virlour Laiiieis, ir is eviuenr rlar
vinu velociries ro a leiglr o aLour 4.5 m aie close ro . 1le gials 'virl
Laiiieis uiei. Ioi rle uvinu gial, rle velociry ieuuces iom aLour 0. close
ro rle ueck ro a minimum o aLour 0.125 jusr Lelov rle ro o rle Laiiiei, anu
rlen incieases rovaius ar 1.5rle Laiiiei leiglr. 1le uovnvinu cuive is
uieienr in slae, virl a velociry o aLour 0.45 ar one lal rle Laiiiei leiglr.
Winu scieens aie also uiscusseu in rle same volume Ly K.H.Osrenelu anu
A.Laisen ('Biiuge engineeiing anu aeiouynamics, 322, in Laisen 1992:9, 14),
virl airiculai ieeience ro Denmaiks Giear Belr Liiuge, rle iooseu Laiiieis
aie slovn in Iig. 12.3 (L). 1ley also concluue rlar rle oiosiry o rle Laiiieis
sloulu Le in rle iange 0.4 ro 0.5, anu srare uirlei rlar scieens 'o 0.5 oiosiry
can Le aiiangeu on 'srieamlineu Lox giiueis virl lirrle i any enalry ro rle
aeiouynamic sraLiliry. An aioiiare aii-ga musr lovevei Le alloveu oi
Lerveen rle Lorrom memLei o rle scieen anu rle ueck (see Secrion 12.4).
1ley also slov a cioss-secrion iooseu Ly Azriz anu Anueison oi an 'ulria-
long san susension Liiuge acioss rle Sriairs o GiLialrai. 1lis las a ueck
comlerely encloseu in an ellise, virl a loiizonral majoi axis equal ro aLour
rliee rimes irs leiglr. 1le ueck suiace lies ar aLour one-rliiu o rle leiglr aLove
rle Lase. 1le enriie sace Lelov rle ueck oims a sriucruial ruLe. ûcl o rle
ro o rle ellise oims an uei lange, connecreu ro rle lovei ruLe Ly veirical
riusses ar eacl siue. 1le riaic is comlerely encloseu Lerveen rle lovei ruLe, rle
uei lange anu rle riusses.
Gavrloie (1994) oLseives rlar 'ioLlems virl cais anu smallei goous
velicles aie mainly o rle Couise Deviarion rye. A simle numeiical examle
may Le useu ro give some iuea o rle naruie o rle ioLlem. Consiuei rle case
o a moving cai o mass 1200 kg, virl an aiea in rle siue viev o 4.5 m
2
anu an
assumeu riansveise uiag coeicienr o 1.2. A riansveise vinu velociry o 20 m/
sec voulu give, on rle Lasis o rle simlesr assumrions, a riansveise oice o
660 . Ir may Le execreu rlar a iolling suoir voulu ioviue only a small
iesisrance ro riansveise loau. Consiuei a rime san o 1 sec. 1len an
acceleiarion o 660/1200, oi 0.55 m/sec
2
, acring ovei rlis eiiou, on a Louy
virl no inirial riansveise velociry voulu cause a riansveise uislacemenr o
0.2 m. I rle cai las a longiruuinal velociry o 100 km/l, oi 2.S m/sec, irs
longiruuinal uislacemenr voulu Le 2.S m. Ioi rlis lengrl, rle ievious
oimulae voulu give a gusr acroi,
=2.6, coiiesonuing ro a riansveise vinu

velociry o 53 m/sec anu a riansveise oice o 400 , an inciease o 4040
iom rle iguie useu aLove. 1vo cases aiise. I rle cai moves iom a comlerely
slielueu aiea inro a gusr o 53 m/sec, rlen in 1 sec, irs riansveise uislacemenr is
incieaseu iom 0.2 ro 1.96 m. I, insreau, ir is rle clange in oice rlar is
signiicanr, rlen rle uislacemenr voulu Le 1.69 m. Ir is nor claimeu rlar rlese
esrimares aie accuiare, Lur rley aie suicienr ro slov rlar a ieal ioLlem may
exisr. Wyarr (in Laisen 1992:164) ieeis ro rle ioLlem Lur inuicares rlar
uirlei voik neeus ro Le uone. He also (. 160) srares rlar 'aLour lal rle vinu-
ielareu acciuenrs on rle Sevein Liiuge aie Lelieveu ro iesulr on assing rle
rovei, rlar is, Lecause o inreimirrenr slieluing anu rle ueviarion o velicles
iom a iegulai arl.
Anorlei aiea o inreiesr is in rle alicarion o vinu oices ro euesriians.
êlLouine (in Aynsley, êlLouine anu Vickeiy 19:154) las uesciiLeu a
siruarion vleie vinu causeu eole ro Le Llovn ovei in a Luiluing oiecouir in
êlLouine.
1le vinu vas gusring iegulaily u ro 20 m/sec vlicl causeu all
eole in rle aiea giear uiiculry virl Lalance. On seaiare
occasions rvo giils veie unLalanceu ro rle exrenr rlar rley came
uovn on rleii lanus anu knees. 1le maximum gusr velociryvas
23 m/sec iising iom aLour 12 m/sec in 23 sec. Ir is concluueurlar
vinu gusrs o 20 m/sec vill unLalance anu seiiously inconvenience a
numLei o eole anu vinu gusrs o 23 m/sec anu ovei vill cause
eole ro Le Llovn ovei. OLviously a eison can sranu in a mucl
liglei sreauy vinu velociry Lur ir aeais ro Le rle unexecreu naruie
o rle eak gusr vlicl carcles mosr eole o guaiu.
êlLouine also quores oLseivarions Ly Penvaiuen (193) conceining rle eecrs
o vinus classiieu on rle Beauoir scale. Some o rlese aie lisreu in 1aLle 12.10.
1le vinu seeus aie eak gusr velociries. 1le uara suoirs rle eailiei
oLseivarions.
1le reim 'Luering is usually alieu ro eecrs rlar iesulr vlen one sriucruie is
Luilr in rle vake o anorlei (Cook 19S5: Pair 2:362, Houglron anu Caiiurleis
196:1S1, Lur see DyiLye anu Hansen 199:155 anu Simiu anu Scanlan 1996:
461). As ai as Liiuges aie conceineu, one eaily sruuy vas Ly Sciuron, Woougare
anu Alexanuei (1955, see also Sciuron 19S1 anu Sciuron anu Ilinr, 1964) in
connecrion virl rle uesign o rle rliiu Runcoin-Wiunes Liiuge (Anueison 1964,
OConnoi 191a:499, 501). 1le iisr Liiuge leie vas a iailvay Liiuge virl
larrice riusses, srill in use in 1964. In 1905 an aujacenr riansoirei Liiuge vas
Table 12.10
12.3 Buffeting
BUFFETING 305
oeneu oi liglvay riaic, Lur rlis neeueu ro Le ielaceu. 1le iisr ioosal oi
irs ielacemenr vas a susension Liiuge, virl a main san o 314 m, inueeu,
1eloiu lau in 1S14 iooseu a 305 m-san susension Liiuge ar rlis sire (Smiles
1S62: Vol. 2:446). Winu runnel resrs veie caiiieu our oi rlis nev ioosal. 1o
quore Anueison (1964):

1esreu alone, rle susension Liiuge secrional mouel vas ounu ro Le
aeiouynamically sraLle. 1le suiiising earuie o rle iesulrs came
vlen ir vas resreu alongsiue rle mouel o rle exisring iailvay Liiuge.
1le susension Liiuge oscillareu seveiely, oving ro rle Luering eecr
o voirices ser u in rle vinusrieam Ly rle Llu slae o rle iailvay
Liiuge. 1le oscillarion vas mosr seveie ar a vinu seeu o 60 miles/l
(26.S m/sec). 1le maximum amliruue vas 6 in. (152 mm) vlen no
riain vas on rle iailvay Liiuge, Lur rlis coulu Le incieaseu ro 12 in.
(305 mm) Ly rle iesence o a riain. As ai as rle Aurloi is avaie, rlis
is rle iisr case o aeiouynamic Luering aiising in connecrion virl
rvo aujacenr Liiuges.

1le iooseu susension Liiuge vas ielaceu Ly a canrilevei aicl virl a 330 m
cenrial san.
Sciuron anu Ilinr (1964:69), in a geneial uiscussion o 'Winu-Lxcireu
Oscillarions o Sriucruies iesenr 'a ryical uiagiam o rle vaiiarion o
Luering amliruue virl vinu seeu, raken iom sruuies caiiieu our oi rle
Runcoin-Wiunes anu 1amai Susension Biiuges. Ir slovs a maximum
amliruue o aLour 325 mm ar a vinu seeu o 23 m/sec (Lorl iguies uiei a
lirrle iom rlose given Ly Anueison). Hovevei, rle signiicanr oinr lies in rle
vaiiarion o amliruue virl vinu seeu. Ioi a seeu o 19 m/sec, rle amliruue
vas 61 mm, ieuucing ro 20 mm ar 15 m/sec. 1leie vas a similai Lur less
maikeu ieuucrion oi vinu seeus in excess o 23 m/sec: ro 1S5 mm ar 2 m/sec,
anu ro 10 mm ar 3S m/sec, ir rlen incieaseu sliglrly ro aLour 142 mm ar 61 m/
sec. In orlei voius, 23 m/sec vas, in eecr, a ciirical vinu velociry. Houglron
anu Caiiurleis (196:1S2), ieeiiing ro rle same case, srare 'rle maximum
Luer amliruuesincieaseu lineaily as rle loiizonral seaiarion vas
incieaseu u ro 40 m. PiesumaLly rley rlen ieuuceu.
1lis Luering lenomenon is comlex anu in airiculai cases may neeu ro
Le exloieu Ly vinu runnel resrs. 1leie is, lovevei, a Lasic comonenr rlar
neeus ro Le uesciiLeu. 1le simlesr cioss-secrion o rle usrieam sriucruie is a
ciiculai cylinuei. 1lis case is imoiranr in climney uesign, anu las Leen
auequarely exloieu (see, oi examle, Cook 19S5: Pair 1:35, DyiLye anu
Hansen 199:110, Sciuron anu Ilinr 1964, Simiu anu Scanlan 1996:14S). Ar
lov velociries rle lov iemains arracleu ro rle cylinuei (Reynolus umLei,
R1). Ioi a laigei velociry (R20) rle lov iemains symmeriical, virl euuies
on eirlei siue o rle cenrial lane immeuiarely Leyonu rle cylinuei. Ar liglei
velociries (R>30), rlese euuies aie sleu in rle oim o voirices rlar leave rle
cylinuei alreinarely on eirlei siue o rle cenrial lane. 1le iesulring voirex riail
is commonly ieeiieu ro as rle von Kaiman voirex srieer, Lur ir vas Srioulal
vlo, i n 1SS, oLseiveu i rs iegul aii ry. 1le Srioulal umLei (S),
uimensionless, is ueineu as

vleie
is rle iequency o ull cycles o rlis voirex sleuuing,
is a claiacreiisric uimension, leie rle cylinuei uiamerei, anu
is rle aioacl velociry
Ioi a ciiculai cylinuei, S is consranr anu close ro 0.2 oi R iom 30 ro ar leasr
10
(Sciuron anu Ilinr 1964: Iiguie 2, Simiu anu Scanlan 1996: Iiguie 4.4.4).
Reynolus umLei vas ueineu ieviously (Secrion 11.3) as

R=

vleie
is a claiacreiisric uimension, anu
is rle kinemaric viscosiry
Ioi aii ar 20C, is o rle oiuei o 1510
6
m
2
/sec. 1len
R=6000
A Reynolus umLei o 10
coiiesonus ro =1493 m
2
/sec, oi oi =30 m,
=50 m/sec. âny iacrical sriucruies lie in rlis iange. 1le alreinare voirices
cause iessuies on rle cylinuei rlar lave an alreinaring riansveise oice iesulranr.
Similaily, sriucruies in rle vake aie suLjecr ro riansveise oices (eienuiculai ro
) virl a iequency,

=S.
=0.2 oi a ciiculai cylinuei
Consiuei, oi examle, rle case virl =20 m/sec, rlen las rle ryical values
given in 1aLle 12.11.
Simiu anu Scanlan (1996:152) lisr values o oi a iange o sriucruial
secrions, ianges iom 0.114 ro 0.20. Ioi a lare aiallel ro rle srieam lov, virl
Table 12.11.
AERODYNAMIC INSTABILITY 307
a rlickness equal ro 0.03rle viurl, =0.156. Ir ollovs rlar oi a Liiuge secrion,
one voulu also execr ro lie in aLour rlis iange.
ov rle oinr o signiicance aLour rlese oices is nor so mucl rleii
magniruue Lur rleii iequency. I rlis iequency coinciues virl rlar o rle
sriucruie, rlen sriucruial viLiarions may iniriare anu rlen Le iogiessively
amliieu, virl rleii limiring value conriolleu Ly sriucruial uaming. Sciuron anu
Ilinr (1964:6S1) oinr our rlar 'oscillarions occui vlen rle eneigy inur uue ro
vinu exceeus rlar uissiareu Ly uaming. Gosvami, Scanlan anu ]ones (1993)
uiscuss 'Voirex-Inuuceu ViLiarion o Ciiculai Cylinueis, rley ieei ro rle Sciuron
numLei vlicl ielares luiu aiamereis ro rle level o meclanical uaming, anu
lor exeiimenral values o rle maximum amliruue o viLiarion againsr rlis
numLei. 1lis riearmenr vill nor Le ieeareu leie, oi majoi Liiuge cioss-secrions
aie nor ciiculai. Ir may, lovevei, Le ielevanr in consiueiing comonenr airs o a
sriucruie, sucl as rle roveis o a caLle-srayeu giiuei Liiuge. Inueeu, one o rle
cases uiscusseu Ly Sciuron anu Ilinr (1964) vas conceineu virl sriucruial
viLiarions o rle roveis o rle Sevein Rivei susension Liiuge (comlereu in
1966), oi rle eailiei Ioirl Roau Biiuge (1964) (see OConnoi 191a:33, 39
S3) sueieu oscillarions in irs roveis uuiing eiecrion. Wirl climney-sracks,
viLiarions aie oren conriolleu Ly rle auuirion o aeiouynamic soileis, vlose
auuirion 'is oren moie easiLle oi moie acceraLle rlan clanges o rle naruial
iequencies oi inciease o rle sriucruial uaming (Sciuron anu Ilinr 1964:6SS).
Sciuron vas one o rlose (virl Walsle) vlo ueveloeu rle iuea o veluing
iojecring lares lelically aiounu a climney ro acr as soileis, as is commonly
seen rouay.
Anorlei case o inreiesr ro rle Liiuge uesignei lies in rle oscillarion o caLles in
majoi Liiuges, Lur leie rle ioLlem is inluenceu also Ly rle oimarion o iain
iivulers. So-calleu 'iain-vinu inuuceu viLiarion is uiscusseu Ly ârsumoro er al.
(1995). A similai ioLlem las occuiieu on rle iecenr GleLe Islanu Liiuge in Syuney,
vlicl las lasric ruLes encasing anu iorecring rle caLles. Unoirunarely, ceirain
comLinarions o vinu anu iain cause rlese ruLes ro viLiare, lirring rle caLles anu
ciearing a noise uisruiLance ro local iesiuenrs.
Unuei some conuirions a Liiuge ueck may move veirically unuei rle acrion o a
loiizonral vinu. Oscillarions uevelo rlar may iove ro Le carasriolic, as in rle
ailuie o rle iisr 1acoma aiiovs Liiuge in 1940 (Secrion 2.4). 1le ioLlem is
calleu . Alrlougl ir lau Leen oLseiveu eailiei (see oi
examle Piovis 1S42, Russell 1S41), mouein ieseaicl inro rlis asecr o Liiuge
uesign eecrively Legan in 1940. Ir aecrs cliely long-san Liiuges, noraLly
susension Liiuges virl a ielarively lov veirical sriness. A ev ieeience voiks
aie Laisen (1992), anu clareis in Colen anu Biiusall (19S0), DyiLye anu
Hansen (199), Kolousek er al. (19S4) anu Simiu anu Scanlan (1996). 1leie lave
Leen coneiences on rle suLjecr, sucl as Ly rle Insrirurion o Civil Lngineeis,
Lonuon (19S1). OConnoi (191a) ieeis Liiely ro rle ioLlem anu gives
12.4 Aerodynamic instability
srarisrics oi rvenry susension Liiuges, sucl as rle Goluen Gare Liiuge, San
Iiancisco, comlereu in 193 virl sans o 343, 12S0 anu 343 m, rle
Veiiazano aiiovs Liiuge, ev Yoik, o 1964, virl 30, 129S anu 20 m
sans, anu rle 1966 Sevein Liiuge, virl sans o 305, 9SS anu 305 m anu an
unusual ueck cioss-secrion. Laisen (1992) incluues aeis on rle iecenrly
comlereu Giear Belr Liiuge, joining rle Danisl islanus o Iunen anu Zealanu,
virl a roral lengrl o 1S km, anu susension sans o 535, 1624 anu 535 m,
anu rle ]aanese Akasli Kaikyo susension Liiuge, virl sans o 960, 1990
anu 960 m. A useul summaiy o iecenr ]aanese susension Liiuge
consriucrion may Le ounu in Buiuen (1991), virl a ma sloving rleii
locarions (see also Laisen 1992:2). âny oim air o rle iojecr ro link rle
islanu o Slikoku virl Honslu, sucl as rle Kuiuslima Liiuges, vlicl oim a
sequenrial seiies o rliee susension Liiuges virl common inreimeuiare
ancloiages, anu sans o 150, 610 anu 10 m, 230, 1010 anu 250 m, anu 250,
1030 anu 30 m, roralling 400 m. 1lese examles slov maximum sans
incieasing iom 12S0 ro 129S m Lerveen 193 anu 1964, anu rlen, moie
iecenrly, ro 1624 anu 1990 m. 1leie lave Leen also orlei laige sans, sucl as
acioss rle HumLei, in rle Unireu Kinguom (19S0, 1410 m).
1le analysis o aeiouynamic insraLiliry in susension Liiuges uares iom
aLour 1940, Lur rle ielareu ioLlem o insraLiliry in aiiciar sriucruies vas
oLseiveu somevlar eailiei, oi examle, Ly Iokkei virl lis D-S single-ving
aiiciar uuiing rle 19141S vai. Ir is aioiiare, rleieoie, ro ieei also ro sucl
Looks as Bislinglo er al. (1955, see lis lisroiical nore: 3), Bislinglo anu
Aslley (1962), Dovell er al. (1995), Iung (1955), Scanlan anu RosenLaum
(196S). In aiiciar uesign, rle reim commonly useu oi rle lenomenon is
.
1lis ioLlem also exrenus ai Leyonu rle scoe o rlis Look, anu comLines
Lorl sriucruial anu vinu eecrs, Lur a Liie inriouucrion may Le useul. Some o
rle ielevanr acrois aie:

(a) rle veirical anu roisional srinesses o rle Liiuge, anu rle consequenr values
anu ielarive magniruues o irs naruial iequencies,
(L) rle aeiouynamic claiacreiisrics o rle ueck cioss-secrion,
(c) rle vinu velociry, anu
(u) rle level o sriucruial uaming.

1le ryical susension Liiuge las main caLles srieneu Ly a sriucruial sysrem ar
ueck level vlose uiose is rliee-olu: ro riansmir loaus iom rle ueck ro langeis
connecreu ro rle main caLles, ro ieuuce local ueoimarions in rle ueck, anu ro
conriol aeiouynamic movemenrs.
1iauirionally, rle mosr common oim o sriening sysrem las Leen rle riuss,
virl rvo iimaiy sriening riusses laceu in rle veirical lane Lelov rle main
caLles, anu connecreu Ly rle ueck anu some loiizonral vinu Liacing sysrem. In
some eailiei Liiuges, sucl as rle Goluen Gare, rleie vas only one loiizonral
Liacing sysrem. Ir is nov noimal ro use rvo loiizonral riusses, in rle lanes o rle
uei anu lovei cloius o rle main riusses, ro give vlar may Le calleu a closeu
sysrem rlar is roisionally sri. 1le lisr Ly OConnoi (191a: 33, 4) o rvenry
Liiuges, uareu iom 1931 ro 196, lau sixreen virl sriening riusses. O rle
iemainuei, one lau a iesriesseu conciere Lox giiuei, rle Sevein Liiuge (1966,
9SS m) lau vlar may Le calleu a ruLulai giiuei o srieamlineu cioss-secrion, anu
rvoar Rouenkiiclen (1954, 3S m) anu rle oiiginal 1acoma aiiovs Liiuge
(1940, S53 m) lau lare giiueis (virl uerls o 3.3 anu 2.4 m iesecrively).
1le cioss-secrion o rle 1acoma aiiovs Liiuge is slovn in Iig. 12.4 (a). 1le
uisrance cenrie-ro-cenrie o rle sriening giiueis is 11.9 m.
1le ruLulai secrion useu oi rle Sevein Liiuge vas a uiiecr ourcome o rle
1acoma aiiovs ailuie, see Iig. 12.4 (L). Ir is o velueu sreel, virl a 4.5 m
oorarl on eirlei siue o a ioauvay o 19.S m roral viurl. 1le viurl incluuing
rle arls is 31.9 m. 1le uerl is 3.05 m. 1lis ruLulai sriening sysrem vas
roisionally sri anu o a oim slovn ro Le aeiouynamically suiraLle. Ir is eviuenr,
lovevei, rlar riaic on rle Liiuge is exoseu ro vinu, oi rle oorarls aie ser
uovn anu rle ciasl Laiiieis consisr only o viie ioes. âny larei Liiuges lave
olloveu rle examle o rle Sevein Liiuge, sucl as rle LilleLlr Liiuge in
Denmaik, comlereu in 190 virl a main san o 600 m (Iig. 12.4 (c)), rle
Liiuge ovei rle Bosoius neai IsranLul in 1uikey, 193, 104 m, anu rle HumLei
Liiuge, 19S0, 1410 m.
Wirl rlis Lackgiounu, ir is o inreiesr ro oLseive rle sriucruial oim o rvo
majoi Liiuges comlereu iecenrly. 1le Giear Belr Liiuge (1624 m san) las rle
ruLulai cioss-secrion slovn in Iig. 12.4 (u), vleieas rle Akasli Kaikyo Liiuge,
vlose 1990 m san is nov rle laigesr in rle voilu, las ieruineu ro rle sriening
riuss (Iig. 12.4 (e)).
In rle eiiou olloving 190, rle common merlou useu ro sruuy rle
inreiacrion Lerveen aeiouynamic anu sriucruial aiamereis vas Ly vinu runnel
resrs on a secrional mouel, suoireu so as ro ieiouuce naruial viLiarion
iequencies o rle comlere sriucruie (in a vacuum). Iiguie 12.5 slovs a siing-
mounreu secrional mouel, vlose lengrl eienuiculai ro rle aei is inire, Lur
suicienr ro mouel rle aeiouynamic Lelavioui o rle secrion. 1le ueck anu
sriening memLeis aie slovn in iuealiseu oim, Lur voulu in acr Le accuiare
mouels o rle ull-scale cioss-secrion. Ir may Le slovn (OConnoi 191:425)
rlar rlis mouel may viLiare in a vacuum virl rvo Lasic moues: (a) veirical
rianslarion, anu (L) roision, virl naruial iequencies (cycles ei seconu),
anu
given Ly:

vleie
is rle sriness o eacl suoiring siing,

is rle roral mass, anu
is rle mass momenr o ineiria oi iorarions aLour 0

Fig. 12.4 Deck cross-sections for five notable stiffened suspension bridges (all
drawn to the scale shown)
Ir ollovs rlar

Ioi unuameu, sreauy srare viLiarion in eirlei moue, rle morion is simle
laimonic, virl a ryical uislacemenr given Ly:

sin 2

vleie
is rle lal-amliruue o uislacemenr ar oinr

is rle rime, anu
is rle iequency,
oi
1le mouel vill Le Luilr ro ieiouuce rle ueck cioss-secrion ro some scale. 1le
aiamereis,
anu (rle siing sacing) may rlen Le closen so as ro

ieiouuce ro an aioiiare scale
anu
rle viLiarion iequencies o rle

comlere sriucruie. In uoing rlis, rle olloving six uimensionless aiamereis
musr Le ker consranr, oi aeiouynamic similaiiry Lerveen rle mouel anu irs
iororye (Sciuron 1952):
Fig. 12.5 Spring-mounted sectional model
1le iisr rvo ielare rle ineirias o rle mouel anu iororye, virl Leing rle aii
uensiry. In rle seconu aii, rle values
anu
ieiesenr rle movemenr o a

airicle o aii in rle unuisruiLeu aiisrieam uuiing rle rime iequiieu oi one
comlere oscillarion. 1le rliiu aii iequiie uaming, as exiesseu Ly rle
logaiirlmic ueciemenrs,
anu
ro Le rle same. 1le mouel viurl, B, ieiesenrs

rle mouel scale. Ioi rlis scale, rle mouel ineirias, anu may Le uereimineu iom
rle coiiesonuing values oi rle iororye. 1le seconu aii o scaling aiamereis
allov rle vinu velociry, ro Le uereimineu, vlile rle rliiu aii ueine rle level o
uaming ro Le ioviueu Ly uaslors oi orlei uevices ar rle mouel siings.
Piororye values o
anu
anu esrimares o
anu
may Le uereimineu
Ly convenrional sriucruial analyses. Pioviueu rlar rle aiamereis oi similaiiry
aie sarisieu, rle mouel iequencies may uiei iom rlose in rle iororye, Lur
rle iario,
musr Le rle same. 1lis iario Lecomes, rleieoie, an imoiranr

aiamerei in rle assessmenr o aeiouynamic Lelavioui. Values o
anu
anu
rleii iario, aie lisreu in OConnoi (191a:439) oi airiculai Liiuges. Some o
rlese aie lisreu in 1aLle 12.12.
1le iguies oi rle Goluen Gare Liiuge, vlicl las sriening riusses, ielecr
rle acr rlar, vlen oiiginally Luilr, ir lau uei lareials only. Arei rle 1acoma
collase, a lovei lareial sysrem vas auueu, virl an inciease in rle iequency iario
iom 1.25 (as 1acoma) ro 1.96. 1le Veiiazano aiiovs Liiuge also las sriening
riusses anu uei anu lovei lareials, irs iequency iario is 1.92, anu rle iange,
1.92.0, aeais ro Le ryical oi susension Liiuges o rlis age anu rye. 1le
Ioirl Liiuge (1964, 1006 m) las rle somevlar liglei value o 2.S, Lur rleie is
rlen, rle majoi inciease ro 3.9 in rle ruLulai Sevein Liiuge.
Sriucruial uaming is also o some imoirance. ôvemenr o rle Iiisr
1acoma aiiovs Liiuge vas anriciareu Leoie irs eiecrion anu moniroieu in rle
eiiou iom irs oening on 1 ]uly ro irs ailuie on ovemLei 1940 (Iaiqulaison
1949). Ceirain iemeuial measuies veie caiiieu our: cenrial ries veie inseireu
Lerveen rle main caLles anu rle sriening giiueis aLour 1 ]une, enu Lueis veie
inseireu Lerveen rle main roveis anu rle ioauvay on 2S ]une, anu rie-uovns in
rle siue sans on 4 anu OcroLei 1940. 1le seconu o rlese vas essenrially a
uaming sysrem, Iaiqulaison viires, 'as rle san moveu longiruuinally, oil vas
oiceu rliougl a ie line, rle lov Leing cleckeu Ly a neeule valve. 1le vinu
velociry ar ailuie vas aLour 19 m/sec (42 ml).
Winu runnel resrs on secrion mouels o rle Sevein Liiuge Leoie irs
consriucrion inuicareu 'a ossiLle minoi insraLiliry causeu Ly euuy sleuuing ar a
Table 12.12
naiiov Lanu o vinu seeus aiounu S ml |35 m/sec] (Biovn, W.C.
126, in Colen anu Biiusall 19S0:1S).
1le comlere sriucruie vas velueu, virl lirrle sriucruial uaming. Ir vas ueciueu
ro use inclineu langeis (65 ro rle loiizonral) vlose axial loaus voulu clange
uuiing oscillarion o rle Liiuge. Iiguie 12.6 slovs a ryical lysreiesis loo, rle
seaiarion o rle loauing anu unloauing sriess-sriain cuive oi rle caLle imlies a
loss o eneigy, anu uaming.
1le ueck o a susension Liiuge is commonly aLiicareu in unirs, lireu
successively inro lace Ly equimenr mounreu on rle main caLles. Ioi some
sriucruies ir voulu Le ossiLle ro arracl rlese unirs rogerlei in sucl a vay rlar rley
aie lingeu aLour a riansveise axis, virl ielarive iorarions conriolleu Ly uaslors
anu suiraLle siings, oi examle, in oorLiiuges o long san. 1uneu mass uameis
may also Le useu (Livesey anu Sonueigaaiu 1996, VoioLie 1990, Wleelei 19S2).
1le non-sriucruial asecr o Lelavioui is moie comlex, anu less suireu ro
marlemarical analysis. In vinu runnel sruuies o secrional mouels, ir las Leen
common ro caiiy our resrs ar successively laigei velociries anu nore rle logairlmic
inciemenr oi ueciemenr, vleie rlis is ueineu as

(
+1
)
Fig. 12.6 Typical hysteresis loop for wire rope (Redrawn from Cohen and Birdsall
1980:18)
virl
anu
+1
Leing successive amliruues o rle same sign. 1yically, is small
oi lov vinu velociries, Lur rlen incieases maikeuly oi velociries aLove a ceirain
level, vlicl may Le calleu rle ciirical velociry. 1le iesulring movemenr las
amliruues rlar inciease virl rime, anu commonly incluue Lorl veirical anu
roisional comonenrs. 1le lenomenon is calleu .
1le comlexiry o rle ioLlem may Le illusriareu Ly a ev examles. 1le
LilleLlr Liiuge las vlar is convenrionally calleu a srieamlineu Lox-giiuei
secrion, closen as a iesulr o vinu runnel resrs Ly SelLeig ar rle Univeisiry o
1ionuleim (Laisen 1992:66) (see Iig. 12.4 (c)). Wlar is nor immeuiarely
aaienr is rlar rle ueck lare joins rle uei, sloing enu lares Ly a cuiveu
riansirion, anu cuiveu vinu las aie mounreu aLove rlis riansirion. 1leii
uiose is ro imiove rle lov ovei rle coinei anu ro minimise voirex sleuuing
excireu oscillarions. Anorlei examle is slovn in Iig. 12.3 (L), vlicl slovs
vinu scieens iooseu ro iorecr riaic on rle Giear Belr Liiuge. As menrioneu
eailiei, vinu runnel resrs sloveu rlar oious scieens coulu Le aiiangeu on rlis
srieamlineu Lox giiuei virl lirrle oi no enalry ro rle aeiouynamic sraLiliry.
1leie is, inally, rle sriaragem o making air o rle ueck irsel oious. 1le
âckinac Liiuge ar rle leau o Lake îcligan in rle USA (195S, 115S m,
OConnoi 191a:3S) las a sreel giaring ueck. In rle ourei lanes ir is illeu
virl conciere, Lur is ler oen in rle rvo cenrial lanes. 1le Ioirl Liiuge (1964,
1006 m, OConnoi 191a:39) las a 2.9 m viue meuian srii iooeu virl an
oen giiu. 1leie aie also oen gas, o rle oiuei o 4 m viue, Lerveen rle
ioauvay anu rle oorarls. Iiguie 12. slovs cuives oi ciirical vinu seeu oi
rvo secrions sruuieu in connecrion virl rle uesign o rle Giear Belr Liiuge
(Laisen 1992). 1le seconu o rlese, calleu rle 'slorreu Lox secrion, las an oen
slor ar rle meuian srii, causing an inciease in roral ueck viurl iom aLour 33
ro 3S m. Decks virl rlese oims veie evaluareu oi susension Liiuges virl
main sans iom 2000 ro 5000 m (siue sans=main san/3, caLle sag=san/9,
Fig. 12.7 Critical wind speeds for suspension bridges with closed and slotted
streamlined box girder decks (Redrawn from Larsen 1992: Fig. 3.4)
oui ioauvay lanes). Ir can Le seen rlar, oi a main san o 2000 m, rle ciirical
vinu seeu is incieaseu Ly rle slor iom aLour 61 ro S4 m/sec, an inciease o
3S'. 1le uiagiam is also o inreiesr oi irs ieuicrion o lovei ciirical velociries
oi giearei san lengrls. Ir is uiiculr ro see lov rle Lelavioui o rlis iange o
secrions coulu Le ieuicreu virlour mouel resrs.
On rle orlei lanu, ir is ossiLle rlar vinu runnel resrs o secrions virl
conriolleu inciuence angles coulu Le useu ro accumulare uara oi rleoierical
analyses, anu rlis voik may Le exrenueu ro incluue uynamic mouels, as in rle
voik Ly Reinlolu (Laisen 1992:262). ûcl o rlis voik ieeis ro Lasic sruuies
o aeioelasriciry Ly Scanlan (sucl as in Dovell er al. 1995, DyiLye anu Hansen
199:143, Laisen 1992:4, Scanlan 19S1, Scanlan anu RosenLaum 196S,
Simiu anu Scanlan 1996:246). Some o rle eailiesr voik in rlis aiea vas Ly
Smirl anu Vincenr (1950).
1lis uiscussion las ieeiieu cliely ro secrional vinu runnel sruuies o rle kinu
iniriareu Ly rle 1acoma Liiuge ailuie. An alreinarive is rle use o 'raur srii
mouels as ueveloeu cliely Ly Davenoir (Davenoir A.G., King, ].P.C. anu
Laiose, G.L., 11324, in Laisen 1992). 1le Lasis o rle
merlou is ro ielace rle siing suoirs o rle secrional mouel Ly liglly rensioneu
viies, ious oi ruLes, iunning aiallel ro rle ueck, anu exrenuing ovei rle ull viurl
o rle vinu runnel, virl rle ueck mouel also exrenueu ovei rlis lengrl. Consiuei a
single viie o lengrl sriaiglr, virl an inirial rension vleie is laige. 1ake, as
an examle, a ielarively small cenrial uelecrion, . 1len eacl lal o rle viie
Lecomes inclineu ar an angle (2). In eacl lal, rle veirical comonenr o
Lecomes (2). 1le roral cenrial veirical oice is, rleieoie,

=4

virl an equivalenr sriness given Ly

=4

Davenoir (Laisen 1992:114) gives exiessions oi rle coiiesonuing lovesr
naruial iequencies o viLiarion i a ull-lengrl mouel, o rle kinu slovn in Iig.
12.5, is mounreu nor only on rvo viies, Lur on aiallel memLeis vlicl auu
Lenuing anu roisional sriness ro rle assemLly. As virl rle secrional mouel, ir is
ossiLle ro aujusr rle viie sacing anu rle sriness o rle aujuncr memLeis,
so as ro mouel rle unuamenral iequencies o a Liiuge, anu rlen resr rle vlole in
a vinu runnel. 1leie aie ceirain uieiences Lerveen a raur srii mouel anu a
secrional mouel, noraLly:

(a) rle raur srii mouel can viLiare in orlei moues, virl iequencies orlei rlan
rle unuamenral iequencies, anu
(L) rle lengrl o rle raur srii mouel is sucl rlar ir may exeiience vaiiarions in
vinu iessuie along irs lengrl uue ro ruiLulenr lov.

In Lorl iegaius, rle raur srii mouel voulu aeai ro lave Leneirs ovei rlose
given Ly rle secrional mouel.
1leie is, lovevei, a uirlei alreinarive: i rle vinu runnel is suicienrly laige,
a mouel o rle comlere Liiuge may Le resreu, anu rlis las Leen uone, oi
examle, in rle uesign o rle Akasli Kaikyo Liiuge (Laisen 1992).
ûcl o rlis voik is exeiimenral, irs consequences lave a uiiecr alicarion
anu neeu nor Le uirlei uiscusseu leie. 1le selecrion o vinu seeu is, o couise,
ciirical, Lur rlis las Leen uiscusseu in a geneial mannei in Secrion 12.1. A uirlei
uiscussion, o uiiecr ielevance ro long san Liiuges, may Le ounu in Laisen
(1992).
1le mosr common eairlquakes aie uesciiLeu as recronic anu aiise ryically iom
suuuen movemenrs oi slis ar geological aulr zones, causeu Ly long-reim
movemenr o rle eairls ciusr (Bolr 1993:9S, Doviick 19S:3S). 1le oiigin o
rle eairlquake is local, Lur irs eecrs move iaiuly our in all iauial uiiecrions
iom rle eicenrie Ly rle riansmission o sriain vaves, virl axial sriains in rle
iauial uiiecrion anu sleai sriains, eienuiculai ro rle iauius anu eirlei veirical
oi loiizonral. 1le iauial uiiecr sriain anu veirical sleai sriain vaves aie calleu
rle P anu S vaves (Piimaiy anu Seconuaiy vaves) anu rlar virl loiizonral sleai
sriains, rle Love vave. 1leie is also a ouirl, rle Rayleigl vave, rlar is nor
unlike an ocean vave, virl airicle movemenrs oiming ellirical oiLirs aLour a
loiizonral axis ar iiglr angles ro rle uiiecrion o rle moving vave. 1leoierical
exiessions aie availaLle oi rle riansmission velociries o rlese vaves (e.g.
evmaik anu RosenLluerl 191:S2), anu also oi rle ueenuence o
uislacemenr magniruues on uisrance iom rle eicenrie.
1le giounu movemenrs cause Lorl veirical anu loiizonral acceleiarions,
velociries anu uislacemenrs o rle ounuarions o a Liiuge. I rley veie all
ueineu anu knovn as uncrions o rime, ir voulu nor Le uiiculr ro eioim a
suiraLle uynamic analysis o rle Liiuge, so as ro uereimine irs iesonse. 1le
ioLlem is rlar rle naruie o rlese movemenrs vaiies, anu ir is uiiculr ro
iesciiLe a suiraLle uesign evenr. 1leie aie, lovevei, orlei eecrs also rlar may
Le riouLlesome. In airiculai, saruiareu colesionless soils may Le suLjecr ro
liqueacrion, causing rlem ro lov, anu ieuucing rleii sriengrl unuei loau,
Doviick (19S:203) anu Bolr (1993:164) uiscuss rle ioLlem. 1leie is also rle
ossiLle oimarion o issuies in rle giounu, causing eimanenr clanges in
uisrance Lerveen seciic oinrs, conriiLuring ro rle iisk o Liiuge ailuie Ly rle
seaiarion o irs suoirs.
Vaiious scales lave Leen useu ro assess rle magniruue (^) o an eairlquake.
1le Riclrei scale is Laseu on iecoius raken Ly a sranuaiu seismogial anu is
ueineu as 'rle logaiirlm ro Lase ren o rle maximum seismic-vave amliruue (in
rlousanurls o a millimerie) iecoiueuar a uisrance o 100 kilomeries iom rle
eairlquake eicenrie (Bolr 1993:11S). Disrance iom rle eicenrie is esrimareu
iom rle uieience in rle iisr aiiival rimes o rle P anu S vaves. Knoving rlis
uisrance, rle measuieu amliruue may Le conveireu ro one ar a uisrance o 100
km. Doviick (19S:6) ieeis ro rle Riclrei magniruue as rle anu
gives rle laigesr value evei iecoiueu on rlis scale as S.9 (oi ossiLly 9.0). Anorlei
12.5 Earthquake loads
EARTHQUAKE LOADS 317
measuie o eairlquake magniruue is rle ôuiieu êicalli Inrensiry Scale. Ir is a
'elr scale anu las values I ro XII (in Roman numeials), vleie eacl is veiLally
ueineu. Ioi examle, I means 'nor elr excer Ly a veiy ev unuei excerionally
avouiaLle ciicumsrances, II'elr Ly eisons ar iesr, on uei loois, oi
avouiaLly laceu, III'elr inuoois, langing oLjecrs sving, viLiarion similai ro
assing o liglr riucks, uuiarion may Le esrimareu, may nor Le iecogniseu as an
eairlquake, anu so on, ro XII 'uamage neaily roral, laige iock masses
uislaceu, lines o siglr anu level uisroireu, oLjecrs rliovn inro rle aii (Bolr
1993: A. C, Doviick 19S: A. B). Bolr auus ro rlese qualirarive uesciirions
numeiical values oi rle 'aveiage eak velociry anu 'aveiage eak acceleiarion.
Some o lis values aie:

IV 1020 mm/sec (0.0150.02)
VII S0120 mm/sec (0.100.15)
XXII moie rlan 600 mm/sec moie rlan 0.60

vleie is rle acceleiarion uue ro giaviry (9.S1 m/sec
2
).
Bolr (1993: As A, B) lisrs majoi voilu anu Ameiican eairlquakes anu oi a
ev o rlese ir is ossiLle ro comaie oLseivarions on rle Riclrei anu ôuiieu
êicalli scales. 1lese aie lisreu Lelov.

1S99 Alaska, Yakurar Bay .S anu S.6 XI
1906 San Iiancisco eairlquake anu iie S.25 XI
191 San Ieinanuo, Calioinia 6.5 VIIIXI
19S9 Sanra Ciuz ôunrains, Calioinia .0 X
1992 Lanueis, Calioinia .5 VIII

1le lisr is suicienr ro give some iuea o rle ielarionsli, alrlougl some aaienr
uiscieancies may Le noreu. 1le 19S9 eairlquake uamageu air o rle majoi San
Iiancisco-Oaklanu Bay Liiuge (comlereu in 1936 virl a main san o 04 m).
In rle eairlquake as a vlole, 63 lives veie losr, mosr uue ro rle collase o rle
uei level o a rvo-level elevareu ieevay in Oaklanu. Ir is imoiranr ro iealise
rlar sriucruial collase may leau nor only ro inancial loss anu inconvenience, Lur
ro rle loss o lie. 1le srevise collase o Liiuges virl mulrile sans o small ro
moueiare size, uue ro one enu o eacl san alling iom irs iei, vas eviuenceu
also in a Liiuge neai Sakaiya, 1uikey, uuiing rle Augusr 1999 eairlquake, anu in
1aivan in an eairlquake in rle olloving monrl. Borl lau inrensiries o .6
(ieliminaiy value) on rle Riclrei scale.
1le size o an eairlquake can also Le gaugeu Ly irs eecr on rle simle, one
uegiee o ieeuom sriucruie slovn in Iig. 12.S (a). âss vlicl coulu Le rle
elevareu looi o a single sroiey Luiluing, is suoireu on elasric columns, sucl
rlar rle comLineu sriness againsr loiizonral uislacemenrs o rle mass ielarive
ro rle giounu is
. 1le columns aie assumeu ro Le virlour mass, anu in rlis

inirial analysis, rle uaslor slovn in rle iguie is nor iesenr. 1le sriucruie can
viLiare virl uislacemenrs, given Ly

sin
1le coiiesonuing acceleiarions aie

$

2
sin

1le equivalenr loiizonral oice alieu ro mass, is $. 1le equal anu
oosire oices alieu ro rle ros o rle columns vill cause uislacemenrs
equal ro

Fig. 12.8 (a) Single degree of freedom model used in earthquake studies; (b)
simple harmonic motion; (c) impulsive components
Ioi rlis ro Le a coiiecr solurion, rlese musr Le rle same as rlose exiesseu
inirially as

sin

Ir ollovs rlar
2
/

1le inirial equarion o morion may Le exanueu ro rle oim

sin (2 )
vleie is rle eiiou.
1len is zeio ar =0 anu as slovn in Iig. 12.S (L). Ir ollovs rlar,

Hence,

1le inveise o oi 1/ is rle iequency, (cycles/sec, oi Heiz).
Consiuei rle alicarion ro rle mass, o an imulsive oice, consranr
ovei a sloir rime, . vill cause an acceleiarion, . I rle mass is inirially ar
iesr, rlen ar rle enu o rlis rime ir vill lave a small velociry,

Iolloving is zeio, anu rle morion vill Le simle laimonic. Reeiiing ro Iig.
12.S (a), rle inirial velociry is

Lquaring rlis ro

Iiguie 12.S (c) slovs a gial o a longei reim vaiiaLle oice rlar may Le
alieu ro rle sysrem. 1lis can Le ielaceu Ly a seiies o imulsive acrions, sucl
as rlar slovn, virl oice ( ) ar rime , assumeu ro Le consranr ovei rle rime
inreival, . 1le comLineu eecr o rlese imulses can Le viirren,

1lis inregial is calleu rle Dulamel inregial, anu may Le evaluareu Ly numeiical
merlous.
In rle case o an eairlquake, rle oices, alieu ro rle mass, iesulr iom
giounu movemenrs,
. ( ) may Le ielaceu Ly $
( ), vleie $
( ) ieiesenrs rle
giounu acceleiarion. 1lis may Le ounu oi airiculai eairlquakes, anu
suLsrirureu in rle aLove exiession.
ôie noimally, rle elasric sysrem o Iig. 12.S (a) is ielaceu Ly rle uameu
sysrem, virl rle uaslor auueu. 1le uaming oice is iooirional ro rle
velociry, ir ooses rle morion anu may Le viirren as . 1le uaming iario,
is given Ly

vleie is rle unuameu naruial iequency.
1le uislacemenrs o rle uameu sriucruie may srill exliLir eiiouiciry, Lur
virl a ieviseu value,
given Ly

1le coiiesonuing eiiou,
is

=(1
2
)

Ioi small values o rle eecr o on rle eiiou is small. Ioi laigei values,
is
ieuuceu. A airiculai value o is saiu ro ioviue ciirical uaming. I rle mass,
is uislaceu anu rlen ieleaseu, ir vill simly move Lack ro rle inirial osirion
virlour oscillarion. 1le coiiesonuing value,
is calleu ciirical uaming, anu is

given Ly

Ir sloulu Le noreu rlar

virl

rlar is,

Ioi a uameu sysrem, rle reim virlin rle Dulamel inregial sloulu Le
mulrilieu Ly e
u (rr)
, vleie rle use o in lace o
is an aioximarion
rlar is acceraLle oi lov levels o uaming. 1lis analysis can Le exrenueu ro
comure maximum values o sucl uncrions as anu $ oi airiculai
eairlquakes, anu oi airiculai levels o rle uaming iario, . Gials o sucl
uncrions againsr rle naruial eiiou o a sriucruie, aie anorlei oim o
ieiesenring rle magniruue anu naruie o a airiculai eairlquake. A ryical
examle may Le ounu in Doviick (19S:21) oi rle 1940 Ll Cenrio eairlquake,
iareu as X on rle ôuiieu êicalli scale. 1lis gial slovs rle maximum
velociry,
calleu rle secrial velociry, lorreu againsr . Some o rle values aie
slovn in 1aLle 12.13.
1le rienu is oi ro vaiy lineaily virl oi giearei rlan 0.S sec anu
equal ro oi giearei rlan 0.02. 1le eecr o uaming may Le seen iom rle
olloving values, all ar =3.0 sec: (0.0, 0.S2), (0.02, 0.69), (0.05, 0.5), (0.10,
0.3S), (0.20, 0.33) anu (0.40, 0.24), vleie rlese aie in rle oiuei, anu . 1lis
analysis las Leen iesenreu in rle conrexr o assessing eairlquake magniruues. Ir
las also a sriucruial signiicance, anu rlis may Le uisueu, as in rle rexr Ly
evmaik anu RosenLluerl (191).
Lairlquake magniruues, oi a airiculai ioLaLiliry o iecuiience, vaiy
giearly iom iegion ro iegion. âs sloving rle locarions o majoi inciuenrs may
Le ounu in rle aLove souices, anu coues o iacrice renu ro ueine Ly iegion rle
magniruue o eairlquake rlar sloulu Le consiueieu. 1lis again exrenus Leyonu
rle scoe o rle iesenr voik, Lur a iecenr uiar coue, rle Luiocoue S (DD LV
199S:1996) vill Le useu ro illusriare mouein iacrice. Irs geneial rirle is 'Design
iovisions oi eairlquake iesisrance o sriucruies, anu Pair 2 ueals airiculaily
virl Liiuges.
Ir srares iisr rlar a ieeience ieruin eiiou o 45 yeais las Leen useu.
Regions lave Leen ueineu essenrially in reims o a single aiamerei, rle eecrive
eak giounu acceleiarion,
in iock anu iim soil. Seismic zones virl
less rlan
0.04 (vleie is rle acceleiarion uue ro giaviry) aie uesciiLeu as rlose vleie
rle iovisions o rlis coue neeu nor Le oLseiveu, anu zones virl
less rlan
0.10 aie calleu lov seismiciry zones, vleie simliieu uesign ioceuuies may
Le olloveu.
1le veirical comonenrs o movemenr aie seciieu in reims o rle sriucruial
eiiou oi less rlan 0.15 sec, veirical movemenrs aie raken as 0.0 x: rle
loiizonral movemenrs, oi giearei rlan 0.5 sec, a acroi o 0.5 is useu, virl
lineai inreiolarion Lerveen 0.15 anu 0.5 sec.
Table 12.13 Values of u
.
(m/sec)
1le coue rlen ueines an 'elasric iesonse secrium o rle same kinu as
rlar uesciiLeu aLove. Irs Lasic oim is slovn in Iig. 12.9, vleie rle veirical
oiuinare,
ieiesenrs acceleiarion, anu rle loiizonral is rle 'viLiarion eiiou

oi a single uegiee o ieeuom sysrem. 1lis secrium is uiviueu inro oui zones,
Ly rle oinrs A, B, C anu D, vleie BC is calleu 'rle consranr secrial acceleiarion
Liancl, anu D, 'rle Leginning o rle consranr uislacemenr iange o rle
secrium. Values o rle eiious,
anu
aie lisreu in a raLle anu

exiessions aie given oi rle veirical oiuinare,
in reims o rle olloving

aiamereis:
is rle uesign giounu acceleiarion,

is rle soil aiamerei,
is a uaming acroi, equal ro vleie is rle uaming iario in
ei cenr,
A
is an amliicarion acroi, anu
1
anu
2
aie exonenrs.
1lese aiamereis aie raLulareu oi rliee suL-soil classes, vleie class A is iock, oi
a sri ueosir o sanu, claiacreiiseu Ly a sleai vave velociry,
o ar leasr 400 m/
sec ar a uerl o 10 m, B is a uee ueosir o meuium uense sanu, virl
equal ro
ar leasr 200 m/sec ar a uerl o 10 m, incieasing ro ar leasr 350 m/sec ar a uerl
o 50 m, anu C is a loose colesionless soil.
Ioi class A, rle coue seciies rle olloving values: =1.0, A
=2.5,
1
=1.0,
2
=2.0,
B
=0.1 sec,
=0.4 sec, anu
=3.0 sec. In rle iegion BC,
is (
), oi,
Fig. 12.9 Elastic response spectrum, as specified in Eurocode 8, DD ENV 1998
11:1996: Fig. 4.1 (Redrawn)
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS 323
oi class A suLgiaues,
is 2.5
oi a sriucruial uaming iario o 5', anu rlis

alies oi sriucruial eiious Lerveen 0.1 anu 0.4 sec. or all o rle coue
iovisions vill Le ieeareu leie, Lur ro give one uirlei examle, in rle iegion
CD, virl eiious Lerveen 0.4 anu 3.0 sec,

Again, oi class A suLgiaues, anu a sriucruial uaming iario o 5',
is
2.5
0.4/. 1lar is, oi equal ro 0.4,
is 25
anu oi equal ro 3.0 sec,
is
/3.
1le coue also suggesrs rlar rle giounu uislacemenr,
can Le esrimareu
iom rle exiession,

=005
D

Once moie, oi class A suLgiaues,

=0.06

1le coue rlen allovs rle uesignei eirlei ro geneiare an airiicial acceleiogiam (a
lisroiy o giounu acceleiarions veisus rime), oi ro selecr a minimum o ive
iecoiueu acceleiogiams, sucl rlar rlese sloulu marcl rle seciicarion o rle
elasric iesonse secrium. Inueeu, rle clauses quoreu ieviously can Le seen
simly as iovisions vlicl ueine rle magniruues o aioiiare acceleiogiams,
eirlei raken uiiecrly iom iecoius oi closen iom suiraLle asr exeiience. 1lese
acceleiogiams rlen Lecome rle inur uara oi a uynamic analysis o rle sriucruie.
Pair 2 o rle coue goes on ro assisr rlese analyses Ly seciying sucl marreis as
rle cloice o suiraLle elemenr srinesses.
Anorlei imoiranr ieeience may Le ounu in rle ioceeuings o a voikslo
on rle issueu Ly rle US Alieu
1eclnology Council in ovemLei 199. Ir incluues useul mareiial, sucl as
conrouis o eecrive eak acceleiarions anu velociries oi rle USA ( 1314), a
zoning ma oi ]aan ( 4951), anu uiscussions o analysis anu uesign rlar go
Leyonu rle scoe o rlis Look.
1vo classes o remeiaruie eecrs occui in Liiuges:

(a) oveiall remeiaruie clanges musr Le consiueieu in rle uesign o moving
Leaiings anu in rle cloice o rleii locarion, anu
(L) uieienrial remeiaruie eecrs may occui sucl rlar ar a airiculai rime, rle
remeiaruie ar one oinr in a sriucruie vill nor Le rle same as ar anorlei, anu
rlese remeiaruie uieiences may cause lockeu-in sriesses anu ossiLle
ailuie.
12.6 Temperature effects
Conceining rle iisr, in a single-san Liiuge, ir is convenrional ro eimir
longiruuinal, loiizonral movemenr in rle Leaiings ar one enu o a san, so rlar
rle Liiuge may exanu oi conriacr ieely unuei rle acrion o remeiaruie clanges
oi orlei ielareu marreis, sucl as conciere sliinkage oi ciee, anu elasric sriains in
rle sriucruie unuei loau. 1ley also eimir ounuarion movemenrs. In rle case o
a mulri-san Liiuge, ir may Le ienueieu conrinuous ovei irs ull lengrl, oi ovei a
numLei o sans, anu rlese longiruuinal movemenrs may in rle limir, auu ro one
locarion. Alreinarively, i rle Liiuge consisrs o a numLei o simly-suoireu
sans, rleie may Le a moving Leaiing ar one enu o eacl san.
Lacl iovision oi movemenr musr exrenu acioss rle ull sriucruie. As a
iesulr, rleie vill Le nor only moving Leaiings rlar suoir rle Liiuge, Lur ueck
exansion joinrs. Ir is a simle acr rlar one o rle mosr common causes o
mainrenance in liglvay Liiuges lies in rle eioimance o rlese ueck joinrs, oi in
consequences rlar ollov vlen iainvarei iom rle ueck asses rliougl rlese
joinrs. Ioi rlese ieasons, uesigneis may vell cloose ro limir rle numLei o
exansion joinrs. An examle is rle Garevay Liiuge, BiisLane, slovn in Iig.
12.10, vlicl vas comlereu in 19S6 virl a main san o 260 m. 1le main
giiueis aie sriucruially conrinuous, remeiaruie eecrs cause longiruuinal
movemenrs ar rle iei ros anu rlese aie uesigneu so as ro lave suicienr
lexiLiliry ro roleiare rlese movemenrs virlour uisriess. 1lis uecision, lovevei,
gives iise ro orlei ioLlems, i rle giiueis aie ancloieu longiruuinally ar rle
aLurmenrs, rlen remeiaruie movemenrs vill accumulare ovei giearei uisrances
rlan a single san lengrl. On rle orlei lanu, ir may Le ueciueu rlar Lorl enu
suoirs sloulu ioviue oi longiruuinal movemenr. 1le uesign o rle main ieis
musr rlen sriike a Lalance Lerveen iovision oi exansion anu rle ierenrion o
suicienr sriengrl ro riansmir longiruuinal riaic oices ro rle giounu.
Conceining rle seconu class, rle uevelomenr o lockeu-in sriesses uue ro
uieienrial remeiaruies causeu uamage ro rle majoi evmaiker Viauucr,
Aucklanu, in rle eiiou olloving irs comlerion in 1966 (Buckle anu Lanigan
191, see also Leonlaiur er al. 1965, Piiesrley 192, Wlire 199). 1emeiaruies
may vaiy virlin a cioss-secrion, rley may, oi examle, vaiy virl uerl. I rlis
vaiiarion is lineai, anu i rle sriucruie is uereiminare, rlen ir may auor a
uelecreu slae virlour rle uevelomenr o sriesses uue ro rlese remeiaruie
uieiences. I eirlei o rlese conuirions is nor sarisieu, rlen sriesses vill Le
ueveloeu uue ro remeiaruie. 1lese may rake rle oim o longiruuinal uiiecr
sriesses. Ioi examle, ro rake rle case o a Liiuge conrinuous ovei rliee sans,
as rle Garevay Liiuge (Iig. 12.10), in rle moinings ir may Le execreu rlar
remeiaruies in rle uei lange vill Le liglei rlan in rle lovei. I rle sriucruie
veie ieeu iom irs cenrial ieis, rlese remeiaruies, vlen consiueieu alone,
voulu cause rle giiuei ro iise. Ir is, in acr, iesriaineu iom uoing so anu auueu
uovnvaiu ieacrion comonenrs vill Le alieu ro rle sriucruie ar irs
inreimeuiare suoirs. 1emeiaruie uieienrials o rlis kinu vill, rleieoie, renu
ro cause iesriainr sriesses rlar aie rensile in rle lovei lange. 1lese may nor Le a
ioLlem ar rle suoirs rlemselves, Lur vill auu ro orlei uesign sriesses ar miu-
san. or only so, Lur rle lolu-uovn ieacrions ueveloeu ar rle inreimeuiare ieis
vill cause veirical enu ieacrions rlar auu ro rle enu sleais in rle memLeis. 1le
comLinarion o rlese eecrsrle eecrs o non-lineaiiry in rle remeiaruie uis
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS 325
riiLurions, anu rle eecrs o iesriainr oicesmay vell cause ciacking in a
conciere sriucruie, anu ossiLle giearei uisriess.
Again, remeiaruies vill vaiy geogialically, Lur an examle o remeiaruie
seciicarion may Le ounu in rle Biirisl coue BD3/SS. 1lis gives isorleims, oi
conrouis, o maximum anu minimum slaue remeiaruies in Biirain anu Iielanu oi
a 120-yeai ieruin eiiou. 1ley vaiy iom 3 ro 24C, a suiiising vaiiarion. Ioi a
ieruin eiiou o 50 yeais, rlis vaiiarion is ieuuceu, virl Lorl exriemes mouiieu Ly
2C. 1aLles aie given rlar ielare Liiuge remeiaruies ro rlese slaue remeiaruies,
oi examle, oi a slaue remeiaruie o +3C,
Fig. 12.10 The Gateway Bridge, Brisbane, completed in 1986 with a main span
of 260 m, is an example of a continuous girder bridge with temperature
movements accommodated by pier deflections (OConnor photograph)
rle maximum eecrive Liiuge remeiaruie vaiies iom 46C ro 36C, vleie rle
liglesr iguie is oi a Liiuge virl a sreel ueck on sreel giiueis, anu rle lovesr oi a
Liiuge virl conciere ueck anu giiueis. 1le coiiesonuing minimum remeiaruies
iange iom 14C ro 2SC.
BD 3/SS coue also gives uara on non-lineai remeiaruie vaiiarions acioss
rle uerl o a Liiuge: oi 'osirive remeiaruie uieiences virl a maximum
remeiaruie ar rle uei ace, anu oi 'negarive remeiaruie uieiences, vleie
rle siruarion is ieveiseu in sign. Ioi a Liiuge virl a sreel ueck on sreel giiueis, rle
seciieu remeiaruies aie as given in 1aLle 12.14.
1yical iguies oi ull conciere consriucrion, virl a roral uerl, =1 m, aie
as given in 1aLle 12.15.
1lese assume a 40 mm rlickness o veaiing suiace oi rle sreel sriucruie,
anu 100 mm oi rle conciere. Ioi orlei rlicknesses, uieienr remeiaruies aie
seciieu. 1emeiaruies aie assumeu ro vaiy lineaily Lerveen rle srareu values,
Lur rle oveiall lors ueair iom a single sriaiglr line.
Table 12.14
Table 12.15
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Index

AASHO ioau resr 1SS
aLsolure maximum Lenuing momenr
1113
acceleiarion loaus 1S2, 21
ACI (Ameiican Conciere Insrirure) 232
aeiouynamic insraLiliry 40, 41,
3016
aeioelasriciry 30S, 315
alux 259, 265
allovaLle sriess uesign (ASD) 59, 60
aicl Liiuges 24, 14, 15, 259, 260
ASCL loauing S0, S1, S9
armosleiic Lounuaiy layei 294
Ausrialian Roau Reseaicl Boaiu 139,
190
axle lo 1SS, 209
axle sysrems
uual S, 96, 113, 142, 149, 151,
152, 2039, 212
single 142, 149
riile 99, 142, 14, 149, 152

Lackvarei coeicienr 266
Laiiieis
conrainmenr level 2504
ciumle uerl 246, 24S
Geneial ôrois 249
liglr iail 255, 256
loaus 2445S
ev ]eisey 249
iailvay 256S
slae 249
Lase lengrl signaruie S35, 135
Larren lares 3
Bausclingei eecr 24
Leam oi giiuei 2, 3
Leaiings, moving 9, 161, 190, 323,
324
Leu mareiial 22, 246
Beinoullis Piincile
Licycle loaus 234
Louy Lounce 1S6, 1SS, 209
Lox giiueis 6, 45, 113
Liaking 1S2, 21619, 221
Liiuge aLurmenrs 263
Liiuge uecks
veaiing suiace 6, S, 113,
1S, 2S3, 324
Liiuge evaluarion 15961
Liiuge lyuiaulics 261
Liiuge ieis
cioss-secrions 2S0
ueLiis loaus 50, 1S2, 2S36
lov loaus 29S3
ice loaus 2S6S
scoui 260, 229
INDEX 344
slaeu oi ice 2S6S
sli imacr 2, 4S, 49, 2S46
Liiuge-velicle inreiacrion, analyses
14, 19S216
Liiuges
aicl 24, 14, 15, 259, 260
Leam oi giiuei 2, 3
Lox giiuei 6, 45, 113
caLle-srayeu 3, 4, 10, 15, 45, 243,
30
ueinirion 1
eiecrion 3S, 39, 45, 4, 51
lengrl Lerveen aLurmenrs 263
long san S0, S1, S6, S9
majoi 156
iesriesseu conciere 25, 26, 50, 51
seciic
Akasli Kaikyo 30S10, 316
ArlaLasca R. 2S6
Bosoius 309
Boven 4S, 49, 2S6
Buiuekin 26S0, 23, 24
CoiuoLa 14
DeiLuel 1SS
Dulessis 42
Ioirl iail 3S
Ioirl susension 30, 312, 314
Garevay 324, 325
GleLe Islanu 30
Goluen Gare 30S, 312
Gianville 4S, 25S, 2S6
Giear Belr 30S10, 314
Hammeismirl Ilyovei 1S4
Hasselr 42
HumLei 30S
Inuooiooilly 26, 29
Kings 41, 53, 56
KoLlenz 45
Kuiuslima 30S
Leven viauucr 301
LilleLlr 309, 310, 314
Lions Gare 165
âckinac 314
âciossan 26S0
ênai Sriairs 41
êiiua 14, 15, 259, 260
îloiu Haven 45
îiani 29
aini 260
euilly 261
evmaiker Viauucr 324
evoir, Rloue Is. 2S5
galimLiu R. 50, 51, 261, 2S3
Pons IaLiicius 260
Piince Luvaiu Is. 2S6, 2S
QueLec 3S40
Quinniiac R. 4, 4S
Rouenkiiclen 309
Runcoin-Wiunes 304, 305
Salamanca 14
San Iiancisco-Oaklanu 165, 31
Sevein 14, 301, 302, 3010, 312
Six île Cieek 9, 1S9, 209, 215
Syuney HaiLoui 156
1acoma aiiovs 40, 41, 30,
309, 310, 312
1asman 4S, 49, 261, 2S4, 2S6
1ay 3, 3S
Veiiazano aiiovs 30S, 312
Vicroiia 22, 22S
Wesrgare 45
Wye 1S4
Ynys-y-Gvas 50
srone 2, 14, 259, 260
susensi on 3, 4, 14, 40, 41,
30416
riuss 2, 3, 3S40, 300
ryes 24
Vieienueel giiuei 42
Biiglron Piei 40, 41
Luering vinu

caLle-srayeu Liiuges 3, 4, 10, 15,
45, 243, 30
caliLiarion 12431, 156
canrilevei Liiuge 3, 4, 3S41
caaciry ieuucrion acrois 69, 0,
S0, S2, 126
cenriiugal oices 1S2, 2161S, 22
Claiy resr 54
climneys 305
coue caliLiarion 12431, 156
coues anu sranuaius
AASHO ( Ameii can) 59, 5,
INDEX 345
SS0, 96, 11012, 129, 130,
145, 14S, 149, 153, 1SS, 220
AASH1O (Ameiican) 69, SS3,
96, 11012, 12431, 156, 164,
165, 16, 14, 1SS, 221, 226,
231, 232, 23, 239, 240, 250,
25255, 2S2S4, 295, 296
ARLA (Ameiican) 59, 1046, 146,
193
AS110 (Sranuaius Associarion o
Ausrialia) 296, 29
AS260 1S3, 241
Ausrialian ev Zealanu iail 105,
10, 10S, 14, 193
Ausrioaus (Ausrialian) 9100,
1012, 162, 163, 226, 22S,
229, 23, 239, 240, 242, 249,
250, 253, 2555S, 2626, 24,
29
BD3/SS (Biirisl) , 109, 110, 14,
164, 1S3, 21620, 222, 223,
226, 23S40, 254, 2S9, 293,
29S300, 325, 32
Belgian 92
BS131 (Biirisl) 54
BS153 35, 1002, 109, 110
BS36S0 22
BS5400 5, 1024, 164, 1S3, 21,
21S, 226, 22, 239, 242,
254, 256S
BS6399 2S9, 292, 293, 295
BS69 251, 253, 254
BS L 10045 54
CA35 (Ausrialian) 153
CSA-S6 (Canauian) S69, 110, 111,
125, 2S, 2SS
CSA-S40S (Canauian) S9
DD LV 199S (Luiocoue S) 3213
DI 102 (Geiman) 902
LV 1991 (Luiocoue 1) 6, , 946,
106, 10, 10913, 156, 15,
161, 162, 164, 21S, 220, 223,
226, 22, 23S, 239, 254, 25,
25S, 295
Iinlanu 91, 92
Iiance 90, 91
ISO 2631 ( Sranuaius Assoc. o
Ausrialia, AS260) 1S3, 241
Iraly 91, 92
Ô1 (Biirisl) 3, 4, 10913, 164
AASRA (Ausrialian) 96, 2S4
OHBDC (Onraiio) 2, S3, 99,
110, 111, 124, 130, 149, 1SS
SIA160 (Sviss) 93, 10, 1S6, 1S,
226, 22, 229
Sourl Aiica 109
Sain 91, 92
1iansir ev Zealanu 23S, 239
coues o iacrice 2113
coeicienr o vaiiarion 61
collase
Luiluing iames 1622, 6S
uynamic 2, 32, 15S
meclanism 1921
iogiessive 32, 146
conciere ciacking 15, 24, 25, 50
convolurion inregial 63
Coiiolis aiamerei 294
coiielarion coeicienr 16S
coiiosion 15, 50, 162
cosrs 14655
ciacking
conciere 24, 25, 69
Giiirls rleoiy 54
sreel 15, 424, 4, 4S, 54, 56, 5,
69, 196
ciirical lov 26, 26S
CULWAY 13S, 140, 143, 144
cuivaruie 119, 2230
cyclones 296S
caregoiies 29

uaming 30S, 309, 312, 313, 31S, 320
ciirical 320
runeu mass uameis 242, 243
Daivin 10, 296
ueLiis loaus 50, 1S2, 2S36
uecks
uiainage 324
exansion joinrs 324
Lii uge uecks, veaii ng
suiace
ue-icing 50
INDEX 346
uesign
oi collase 60
ar limir srares 611
uesign
lilosolies 591
ioLaLilisric 60, 61, 1
seiviceaLiliry loau 163
ulrimare loau 9, 163
ar voiking loaus 59, 60
uiag coeicienrs
varei 29S3
vinu 29S300, 303
Dulamel inregial 320
uynamic amlicarion acroi 1S9
uynamic analyses 146, 19S216,
3121
uynamic inciemenr 1S5, 1S6
imacr
uynamic loau allovance imacr
uynamic velicle loaus 146, 1S2224

eairlquakes
elasric iesonse secrium 3213
giounu accelogiams 323
loaus 31623
mareiial eecrs 316
êicalli scale 31, 321
ieruin eiiou 321
Riclrei scale 316, 31
single-uegiee o ieeuom mouel
31S21
riansmission 316
equivalenr Lase lengrl
concenriareu 13, 13S
Onraiio S35, 109, 130S, 149

acroi o saery 59
ailuie 145S
Liirrle iacruie 15, 516
case sruuies 3651
conclusions iom case sruuies 51
conciere 15
ueinirion 14, 15
moving loau 235
ioLaLiliry 606, 1, S9, 1224,
12, 156S, 160
iogiessive 32, 146
iisk 1, S9, 145, 156, 15
social consequences 4S
sreel 15
ailuies
Biiglron Piei 40, 41
Gianville 4S, 25S
Inuooiooilly 26
Kings 41, 53, 56
KoLlenz 45
ênai Sriairs 40, 41
êiiua 14, 15, 259, 260
îloiu Haven 45
îiani 29
aini 260
galimLiu R. 50, 51, 261
Qanras langai 36, 3
QueLec 3S40
Quinniiac R. 4, 4S
Sakaiya 31
San Iiancisco-Oaklanu 31
Sevein 14, 301, 302
slis 56
sreel Lox giiueis 45
1acoma aiiovs 40, 41, 30
1asman 4S, 49
1ay 3, 3S
Wesrgare 45
Ynys-y-Gvas 50
Iaral Acciuenr Rare (IAR) 156, 15
arigue 15, 56S, 162, 1S3
cycles ro ailuie 56S, 169
enuuiance limir 16
loauing 16S1
iailvay Liiuges 194
iainlov counr 1S0, 1S1, 194
loou iequency 11
loous 14, 15, 50, 69, 162, 2603,
26, 29
lov loaus 259SS
lurrei 314
oorLiiuges 23443
uynamic eecrs 23943
iequency secria
eairlquakes 3123
riuck loaus 209
viLiarion

INDEX 347
giiuei 2, 3
G^R ioilomerei 194
giauienr leiglr 293
Giiirls ciack rleoiy 54
gusr velociries 293, 296, 301, 303, 304

lammei-Llov 100, 102
leauvay uisrance 16, 16S
loiizonral loaus
coue iovisions 21623
iail 222, 223
ioau 21622
lyuiaulic iauius 262
lyuiology 11, 261, 230, 22

ice loaus 2S6S
imacr 2, 1S2
analyses 14, 15, 19S216
Laiiieis 2445S
couesliglvay 2, 3, 4, 6, 9,
S1, S2, S6, 90, 92, 99
couesiail 2, 60, 100, 102, 104,
105, 226, 22, 256S
ielu sruuies
Ausrialia 9, 1S994
Canaua 1SS, 1S9
iail 1924
ioau 9, 1S392
Sviss 1S5S
UK 1S35
USA 1SS
ice 2S6S
logs 2S3, 2S4
iail 1009, 1924, 19S, 216
sli 2S46
inluence lines 411
eecr o uisriiLureu loau 11
oi uelecrion 13
I.L.Ausr. 20, 21, 22
Izou resr 54

lane loau ieuucrion acrois 6, , 9,
90, 94, 9S100, 110, 16S4,
229
lie 1, S9, 95, 9, 155
lir coeicienrs
varei 29S3
vinu 30S
liglr iail 22533
ciusl loaus 22S, 229
ueinirions 225
loiizonral loaus 22
imacr 226, 232
loau acrois 22S, 230, 231
loauing 22632
assengeis 22S
ieliaLiliry inuex 230, 231, 232
velicle 226
limir srares
uesign merlou 611
lasric collase 152, 60, 6, S2, S3
seiviceaLiliry 15, 6S, 69, 6, 1613,
229, 232
ulrimare 6S, 69, 6, S0, S2, S3, S6,
93, 95, 100, 1230
limir srares uesign 611
auvanrages 1
loau eecr 61
loau acrois 69, 0, 6, S0, S2, S6, 93,
95, 100, 11463, 22S, 230, 231
airial 6S
loaus
Ausrialia 2, 96100, 1012
Laiiieis 1, 2445S
Licycle 234
Canaua 2, S39, 110, 111
ueau loau (sel veiglr) 1, 60, 6, S2,
S6, 93, 95, 9S, 129, 1535, 230,
231
ueLiis 50, 1S2, 2S36
uesign 1, 2, 14
uisriiLureu 11
uynamic lammei Llov,
imacr,
loaus, loiizonral,
luicling,
nosing
eairlquake 2, 31623
Luioe 2, 906, 106, 10, 109,
110, 21S20, 223
arigue 56S, 16S1
iequency secria 209
liglvay Liiuges 2100, 10913,
21622
INDEX 348
loiizonral 1, 104, 21623 loaus
ice 2S6S
imulsive 31S20
legal limirs 1, 2, 6, S36, 96, 135,
14655
locarion on Liiuge 413
long san Liiuges S0, S1, S6, S9
moving 235
loaus, uynamic
ev Zealanu 2, 105, 109
Onraiio S36, 110, 111
euesriian Liiuges 23443
iimaiy 1, 14, 11463
iailings 1, 14, 254, 255
iai lvay Liiuges 1009, 2223,
22533
selecrion 11463
seivice 1
Sourl Aiica 2, 109
srieam 2, 245, 259SS
rleimal 2, 323, 326
ryes 1, 2
UK 2, 1004, 109, 110, 21624
USA 2, SS3, 1046, 110, 111,
2202
vinu 2, 2S9316
luicling 104, 222, 22

ânning oimula 262, 26, 22
âxvells Reciiocal 1leoiem 9
mean 61
memLei ueinirion 6,
îneis lyorlesis 1S, 19
momenr-cuivaruie ielarionsli
conciere, ieinoiceu anu iesriesseu
246
sreel 1619, 2230
ûllei-Bieslaus Piincile 13
mulrile iesence 112, 113, 126,
1644
oinr in rime analysis 104

nosing 104, 222
norcl
uucriliry 54
eecr o 53

Onraiio 2
equivalenr Lase lengrl S35, 109,
130S, 149

ayloau, eecr on imacr 209
euesriian loaus 23443
illusriareu 235
raLulareu 239
vinu eecrs 304
Peiioner 261
lasric linge 1S21
lasric ieuisriiLurion 6, S2, S3
ioLaLiliry
cumularive 62, 63
uisriiLurions 61
Iislei-1ierr 2902
GumLel 290
loaus 61, 64, 10S, 109, 125, 1425,
102, 20, 290, 291
log-noimal 66, 6, 114, 121, 126,
20
log-Peaison 20, 21
o maxi ma oi srareu eiious
1120
noimal 61, 62, 114, 20, 2S9
iesisrance uara 61, 64, 121, 122,
126, 12, 161
skev 6, 121, 20, 21
sranuaiu noimal 62, 63
WeiLull 6, 114, 290, 291
o exceeuance 1120
o ailuie 606, 1, S9, 1224, 12,
156S, 160
iisr anu seconu oiuei merlous 6
ioLaLiliry merlous
auvanrages anu uisauvanrages 1
uiiculries 6S
inriouucrion o 60, 61, 6S
ioLaLiliry aei 11519
ioilomereis 1946
iogiessive ailuie 32, 146
ioo resring 15961

quairei cai mouel 19, 19S

INDEX 349
iail ieiglr loaus, vaiiaLiliry 10S, 109
iailings 14, 254, 255
iail
coiiugarion 19S
iouglness 19S
susension sysrems 216
riack anu vleel iiiegulaiiries 193
iailvays
ueiailmenr 44, 256S, 2S6
loauings 1009, 1S1, 1924, 2223,
22533, 255S
iecuiience inreival 11, 16, 20,
21, 292, 29S
ieliaLiliry inuex 66, 0, S9, 95, 96,
1231, 156, 230, 231, 232
ieeareu loauing 22, 23, 325, 146
ieseives o sriengrl 15S
iesiuual sriesses 21, 22, 4S, 14, 1S
ieruin eiiou 11, 16, 20, 21, 292,
29S
Reynolus numLei 24, 25, 2S0, 306
iisk, acceraLle 1, S9, 156, 15
ioau iouglness 14
inreiierarion 196S
measuiemenr 194

scoui 50, 69, 162, 261, 229
seiviceaLiliry limir srares 15, 6S, 69,
6, 1613, 229, 232
slakeuovn 35
sli ailuies 56
slock aLsoiLeis 2024
siings 199201, 206, 209
sranuaiu ueviarion 61
sranuaius coues anu sranuaius
sreel
Liirrle iacruie 15, 414, 516
colu-sriaiglrening 3
uucriliry 24
arigue 4, 4S, 56S, 69, 16S1
momenr-cuivaruie iel arionsli
1624
norcl uucrile 42
iesiuual sriesses 21, 22, 4S, 14,
1S
sriain-laiuening 21
sriess-sriain cuive 16, 21
riansirion remeiaruie 54
unloauing Lelavioui 21, 23
veluing 414, 55, 56
yielu anu ulrimare sriess 24, 513,
15S
srone Liiuges 2, 14, 259, 260
srieam lovs 14, 15, 2622
srieam loaus 245, 259SS
sriesses, voiking oi allovaLle 59, 60,
S0, 106
Srioulal numLei 305, 306
susension Liiuges 3, 4, 14, 40, 41,
30416
susension sysrems iail, riucks

remeiaruie
eecrs 3236
geogialic vaiiarion 325, 326
moving Leaiings 324
non-unioim 3235
sriucruial lexiLiliry 324, 325
1iei resr 54, 55
roinauoes 296S
riacrion 1S2, 21
riaic
miliraiy 9, 92, 165
srarionaiy 165
sroages 166, 16
riuck suiveys S35, 99, 11, 125,
130, 13S46, 14S52, 16, 10
riucks
B-DouLle (Ausrialian) 151, 152
B-1iile (Ausrialian) 151, 152
CL (Canauian) 149
HA loauing (Biirisl) 5, 6,
2161S, 23S
HB loauing (Biirisl) 5, 6, 21,
21S, 23S
HS (Ameiican) SS0, 111, 112,
149, 151, 153, 165, 1S
OHBDC (Onraiio) S5, 141, 149
^1600 (Ausrialian) 99, 112
S1600 (Ausrialian) 99, 112
susension claiacreiisrics 199209,
216
144 (Ausrialian) 969, 112, 141,
INDEX 350
145, 146, 163, 14, 213 riucks
riaic volumes S9, 11, 125, 13S,

14S, 165, 16, 169, 10, 1,
1S1
riuss 2, 3, 33S40, 300
ryies
conracr aieas 6, S0, S1, S, 91, 93,
95, 9, 99
loau/uelecrion 200, 201
iessuie 1S4, 201, 209
sliuing iicrion 21, 221
ulrimare limir srares 6S, 69, 6, S0, S2,
S3, S6, 93, 95, 100, 1230

vaiiance 61
velicle Laiiieis 2445S
viLiarion
Liiuge iequencies S6, 1S59, 192,
211, 240, 243, 30S10, 315
iequency analysis 319
eicerion o 1S3, 241, 242
iain-vinu 30
seiviceaLiliry limirs 162
Von îses-Hencky yielu ciireiion 52

valking Leam unir 205, 209
veaiing suiace 69, S2, 93, 95, 129,
192
verreu eiimerei 262
vleel lo 1S6, 192
vinu
aeiouynamic insraLiliry 40, 41,
3016
Laiiieis 302, 303
Beauoir scale 304
Luering 304
on caLles 30
climney uesign 305
Coiiolis aiamerei 294
cyclones 296S
loaus 2S9316
on euesriians 304
iessuie 3S, 296, 29S
scieens 302, 303
reiiain caregoiies 294, 295, 296
roinauoes 296S
on riaic 14, 3003
velociries 2S99S
vinu runnel resrs 305, 309, 311,
312, 315, 316
viie ioe, lysreiesis 313

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Bridge Loads

oi a unir loau locareu as slovn.

in a simly suoireu Leam. Diagiam (L) slovs an elemenr

slovn in rle assumeu osirive sense, causeu

ioviueu rlar a osirive oiuinare ro rle inluence line is

(anu lence rle loau sysrem), anu

as rle closen loau, rle aLsolure maximum Lenuing momenr may

causeu Ly a unir loau ar . Bur, Ly ^axvells Reciiocal 1leoiem, rle

can Le ounu, rleieoie, Ly

is, rleieoie, iuenrical virl rle uelecreu slae o rle

Lelavioui is elasric, as exiesseu Ly rle ielarionsli

. I rle coiiesonuing cuivaruie is

exrenuing in iom eacl exrieme iLie.

/6 is calleu rle elasric secrion mouulus, .

is calleu rle lasric linge momenr, anu rle reim

. Ir is eviuenr rlar, in rlis case,

aioacles ininiry. 1lis siruarion is, in rlis conrexr,

rle cuivaruie iaiuly incieases, ro rle exrenr rlar a

. 1lis in is calleu a lasric linge. 1le analogy is

. 1lar is, ar collase,

rlen rle sriesses causeu Ly unloauing aie

Lur virl rle sriess uioing

oi Lenuing aLour rle sriong axis, oi 1.6

oi Lenuing aLour rle veak axis.

is ueineu Ly Daivall anu Allen as

eirlei vlen rle conciere ails

Fig. 2.9 Behaviour of inelastic beam

inelasric uelecrions occui Leyonu =0.2454, anu iise ro a

inelasric uelecrions commence vlen =0.2113 anu iise ro an

ar locarion virl =0.41421, as slovn in Iig.

as rle loau enreis rle iiglr-lanu san, ieacling rle exrieme

ar rle cenrial suoir is negarive rliouglour, Leing 0.0S5S oi rle

rlen, oi rle loau ar rle elasric

ar causes yielu ar virl

ro iise also ro rle collase momenr,

a riue inelasric analysis voulu slov rlar rle

vlicl veie oiiginally osirive, vill Lecome incieasingly

vlicl lave alvays Leen negarive,

equals rle aiea Lenearl rle Sranuaiu oimal DisriiLurion cuive,

as slovn in Iig. 3.2 (L). 1le coiiesonuing

rle riue values o

olloveu in Liackers Ly rlose

veie zeio, voulu equal

as slovn in Iig. 3.3. 1lis cuive is symmeriical. 1le air o irs

. 1le sum o rle squaies o rlese ueviarions in equals rle

equals rle slaueu aiea in Iig. 3.3 uiviueu Ly rle

veie quoreu eailiei, Lur rlese veie Laseu on rle iario o

virl rlese equal. 1o give anorlei ryical value, oi A=3.0

. Ir ollovs rlar is a uncrion

1le only one o rlese aiamereis rlar is uiiecrly unuei

(caaciry) anu oi airial acroi

=3.5. Ir is aioiiare ro comaie rle oim o rle aLove

is rle coeicienr o vaiiarion o equal ro

rlen rle aLove exiession suggesrs rlar, oi A equal ro 3.5,

is rle nominal iesisrance,

sace. Geneially ir is only rle uei Lounu o rlese oinrs rlar

vill Le uiscusseu in Clarei 5.

sace uiviueu inro segmenrs, anu

is rle raiger ioLaLiliry o ailuie,

rle momenrs iouuceu Ly rle loaus rlemselves. 1ley rlen

vill Le iesenreu ar rle enu o rlis clarei. 1leii

is calleu . 1le inveise iocess may Le ueineu as

) may Le ounu Ly inreiolarion oi ireiarion.

anu a sranuaiu ueviarion