Concepts Mental set Scripts Prototypes Insight Convergent Thinking J. P.

Guilford Divergent thinking Functional fixedness Problem space Heuristics Heuristics Algorithms Metacognition Mediation Computer Simulation Models Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning Atmosphere Effect Semantic Effect Confirmation bias Decision Making Common Decision Making Techniques Intelligence Reaction time Elizabeth Loftus and Allan Collins Allan Collins and Ross Quillian Pictures vs. Words- Information Processing Semantic priming Stroop effect Bottom-Up Processing Top-down Processing Automatic Processing Eye movements Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion Ernst Weber Gustav Fechner Max Wertheimer Absolute Threshold Limit Subliminal Perception Difference Threshold Fechner's Law Weber's Law Stevens' Power Law Signal Detection Theory

Response Bias Sensitivity ROC curve John A. Swets What Sensory Systems Have in Common Steps of Sensory Information Processing Reception Transduction Receptors Transduction Projection areas Cornea Pupil Iris Lens Retina Duplexity/duplicity Theory of Vision Cones Rods Fovea Visual Receptors Connection between Visual Receptors and Optic Nerve Visual Processing Ganglion Cells Number of receptors & Ganglion cells Right & Left Optically Optic Chiasm Temporal Fibers Where does visual information go after the optic chiasm? Hubel and Wiesel Feature Detection Theory Hubel/Wiesel Types of cells Single-cell recording Illumination Brightness Adaptation (Visual) Dark adaptation Rhodopsin Rhodopsin Bleaching Rhodopsin Regeneration Simultaneous Brightness Contrast Lateral Inhibition Color Perception Subtractive Color Mixture Additive Color Mixture How we see color Trichromatic theory

Opponent-Process Theory of Color Vision Afterimages Image on Retina: -D or -D? Interposition Relative Size Linear Perspective Texture Gradients Motion parallax Kinetic Depth Effect Binocular Disparity Binocular Parallax Monocular and Binocular Depth Cues Perception of Form Law of Proximity Similarity Form Ground Good Continuation Closure Prgnanz Theory of Isomorphism Bottom-Up Processing of Perception Top-down processing of perception Top-down vs. bottom-up processing of perception Apparent Motion Induced motion Autokinetic effect Motion aftereffect Size Constancy Shape constancy Lightness Constancy Color constancy Emmert's Law Ames room illusion Major Research Methods for studying visual perception in infants Preferential looking Habituation Dimensions of Sound Frequency of Sound Intensity of Sound Hearing Ranges Pitch of Sound Loudness of sound Timbre main parts to the ear Outer Ear Pinna

Auditory Canal Eardrum Ossicles Oval window Cochlea Basilar membrane Organ of Corti Hearing vibrations Auditory circuit Helmholtz's Place-Resonance Theory Frequency Theory Bksy's Travely Wave Frequency Theory vs. Place resonance theory Taste and Smell Taste Smell Touch Touch receptors Two-Point Threshold Physiological zero Gate Theory of Pain Proprioception Vestibular sense Kinesthetic Sense Donald Broadbent Yerkes-Dodson law Bksy, G. Berkely, G. Broadbent, D. Fechner, G. Gibson, E. and Walk, R. Gibson, J. Helmholtz, H. Hering, E. Hubel, D. and Wiesel, T. Khler, W. Melzack, R. and Wall, P. Stevens, S. S. Swets, John A. Wever, E. and Bray, C. Yerkes, R. and Dodson, J.n SOCIAL PSYCH Social Psychology Norman Triplett William McDougall E.H. Ross Development of field

Verplank Reinforcement theory Role theory Attitudes Consistency theories Fritz Heider's Balance Theory Cognitive Dissonance Leon Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance theory Types of dissonance Free choice dissonance Forced-compliance dissonance Spreading of alternatives Festinger and Carlsmith experiment Minimal justification effect Main principles of cognitive dissonance theory Daryl Bem's Self-Perception Theory Overjustification effect Carl Hovland's Model Credibility Sleeper effect Self interest and credibility Two-sided messages Petty and Cacioppo's Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion Central route of persuasion Peripheral Route of Persuasion William McGuire Cultural Truisms Refuted counterarguments Efficacy of Inoculation Belief Perserverance Reactance Leon Festinger's Social Comparison Theory Principles of Leon Festinger's Social Comparison Theory Stanley Schachter Reciprocity Hypothesis Gain-Loss Principle Social Exchange Theory Equity Theory Individual Characteristics Similarity Need Complementarity Physical Attractiveness Spatial Proximity Mere exposure hypothesis Difference between Helping Behavior and Altruism John Darley and Bibb Latane Pluralistic Ignorance

Latane and Darley Social Influence Experiment Latane and Darley Diffusion of Responsibility Experiment Empathy Batson's Empathy-Altruism Model Batson's Empathy-Altruism Model Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis Bandura on aggression Musafer Sherif's Conformity Study Solomon Asch's Conformity Study Stanley Milgram's Obedience Experiment Stanley Milgram Prods Foot-in-the-Door Effect Door-in-the-Face Effect Clark and Clark Doll Preference Study Dimensions of Personal Identity Competing/ Cooperating Prisoner's Dilemma Muzafer Sherif and Robber's cave experiment Superordinate Goals Primacy Effect Recency Effect Attribution Theory Dispositional Attribution Situational Attribution Fundamental Attribution Error Halo Effect Belief in a Just World Theodore Newcomb's Study Proxemics Zajonc's Theory Social Loafing Philip Zimbardo Prison Experiment Deindividuation Groupthink Risky Shift James Stoner Group polarization Leadership and Communication Kurt Lewin's Study Aronson and Linder Asch Bem Clark & Clark Darley & Latan Eagly Festinger Hall

Heider Hovland Janis Lerner Lewin McGuire Milgram Newcomb Petty & Cacioppo Milgram Schachter Sherif Zajonc Zimbardo RESEARCH DESIGN, STATISTICS, TESTS AND... William Wundt Hermann Ebbinghaus Oswald Kulpe James McKeen Cattell Binet-Simon Test William Stern Lewis Terman Hypothesis Variable Operational Definitions Independent Variable Dependent Variable Types of Research Naturalistic Observation Correlational Quasi-experiment True Experiment Random Selection Stratified Random Sampling Between-Subjects Design Matched-Subjects Design Within-Subjects Design Counterbalancing Confounding Variables Control Group Design Nonequivalent Group Design Experimenter Bias Double-Blinding Single-Blind Experiment Demand characteristics Placebo Effect Hawthorne Effect

External Validity Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics Frequency Distribution Bimodal Outliers Measures of Variability Range Standard Deviation Variance Converting Scores in a Distribution into Z-scores what are the mean and SD of a T score distribution? Correlation coefficients Factor Analysis GRE Factor Analysis Significance Test Statistical Significance Significance Testing Process Type Error Type II Error What are t test, ANOVA and chi squared used for? ANOVA Test Chi-square Tests ANOVA Factorial Design ANOVA Interaction Meta-Analysis Norm-Referenced Testing Domain-Referenced Testing Reliability What makes a good test? SEM Methods used to Establish the Reliability of a Test Test-Retest Alternate-Form Method Split-Half Reliability Types of Validity Validity Content Validity Face Validity Criterion Validity Construct Validity Relationship between Validity and Reliability A test with zero reliability will have zero validity A test can have perfect reliabilit Scales of Measurement Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Ability tests Ratio IQ Deviation IQ Reason for Deviation IQ Wechsler Tests Tests developed by Wechsler Personality Tests Personality Inventory Major Personality Inventories Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Empirical Criterion-Keying Approach MMPICalifornia Psychological Inquiry (CPI) Common Projective Tests Projective Personality Tests Rorschach Inkblot Test Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Blacky Pictures Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank Barnum Effect Interest Testing Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory Holland's Model of Occupational Themes Binet, A. and Simon, T. Holland, J. Jensen, A. Morgan, C. and Murray, H. Rorschach, H. Rotter, J. Stern, W. Strong, E. and Campbell, D. Terman, L. Wechsler, D. PHYSIOLOGICAL/BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Somatic Nervous system Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic nervous system Spinal Cord Parts of the brain Parts of the Hindbrain Myelencephalon Metencephalon Reticular formation Mesencephalon

Tectum Tegmentum Forebrain Corticospinal tract Diencephalon Thalamus Hypothalamus Pituitary Gland Telencephalon Limbic System Hippocampus Amygdala Cingulate gyrus Cerebral cortex Neocortex Frontal lobe Occipital lobe Parietal lobe Temporal lobe Meninges Blood-brain Barrier Ventricles Colliculi Basal Ganglia Cortical Association Areas Apraxia Agnosia Aphasia Alexia Agraphia Broca's area Wernicke's area Hyperphagia Sham rage Stereotaxic Instruments Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Blooming and Pruning Dendrites Axon Hillock Myelin Sheath Terminal buttons Cell membrane Presynaptic Cell Postsynaptic Cell Glial cells Types of Glial Cells

Postsynaptic Receptors Postsynaptic Potentials Absolute Refractory Period Relative Refractory Period What happens to a neurotransmitter after it has done its job? Why? Acetylcholine Endorphins Monoamines Amino Acids Psychological Drugs Neuromodulators Agonists Antagonists Kinds of Hormones Organizational Hormones H-Y Antigen Androgens/Estrogen Menarche Activational Hormones Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Oxytocin Vasopressin Thyroid stimulating hormone Adrenocorticotropic Hormone The five stages of sleep are REM sleep Rebound effect Sleep cycles Infant Sleep compared to Older person sleep Animal aggression- Lorenz Releasing/sign stimuli Fixed Action Patterns Nikolaas Tinbergen Herring gull chicks- Tinbergen Karl von Frisch Walter Cannon Gamete Diploid Genetic Drift Inclusive Fitness Biological Clocks Displacement Activities Estrus Mimicry Instinctual Drift Pheremones Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms

Behavioral Isolation Geographic Isolation Mechanical Isolation Isolation by Season PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY Phrenology Extirpation Pierre Flourens William James Functionalism John Dewey Paul Broca C. Phineas Gage Johannes Mller Hermann von Helmholtz Sir Charles Sherrington Kinds of Nerve Cells Sensory Neurons Motor Neurons Interneurons Sensory Process Reflex Arc Process Functionalists View of Reflex Arcs The Nervous System is made of what two divisions? What does the central nervous system consist of? Peripheral Nervous System Divisons of the Autonomic Nervous System Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Regulates: Relationship Between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System Physical Effects of Sympathetic Nervous System Basic Subdivisions of Human Brain Hindbrain Midbrain Forebrain Connection Between Location in Brain and Function Order of Brain Development Phelogeny Limbic System Cerebral Cortex Medulla Oblongata Pons Cerebellum Reticular Formation Midbrain Function

Colliculi Forebrain Location Thalamus Hypothalamus (gen) Homeostasis Lateral Hypothalamus Aphagia Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH) Hyperphagia s Cat Experiment Anterior Hypothalamus Basal Ganglia Extrapyramidal Motor System Ventricles Limbic System Septum (Septal Area) James Olds and Peter Milner Amygdala Heinrick Klver and Paul Bucy Hippocampus H.M. Anterograde Amnesia Retrograde Amnesia Cerebral Cortex Convolutions The Four Lobes Frontal Lobe Prefrontal Cortex Association Area Projection Area Damage to Prefrontal Cortex Prefrontal Labotomies Motor Cortex Broca's Area Parietal Lobe Somatosensory cortex Occipital Lobes Striate Cortex Temporal lobes Wernike's Area Cerebral Hemisphere Communication Dominant vs. Nondominant Hemisphere Dominant Hemisphere Nondominant Hemisphere Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga Basic Parts of the Neuron Cell body

Dendrites Axon Terminal buttons Neurotransmitters Transmitting Information Between Neurons Glial Cells Myelin Sheath Differences Between Axons and Dendrites Neural conduction Neural Transmission Resting Potential Cell membrane Ions and Neurotransmission Sodium-Potassium Pump Neuron Fire Process Polarized Depolarization Action Potential Spike Hyperpolarization Refractory Period Absolute Refractory Period Relative Refractory Period All-or-nothing Law Axon Hillock Myelin Saltatory Conduction Nodes of Ranvier Terminal Buttons Presynaptic Membrane Postsynaptic Membrane When an action potential releases the neurotransmitters: Binding Graded Potentials Eric Kandel Acetylcholine Alzheimer's Disease Catecholamines Norepinephrine Dopamine Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia Amphetamines Phenothiazines Parkinson's Disease and Dopamine Tardive Dyskinesia Treating Parkinson's Before L-dopa L-dopa Serotonin

Monoamine Theory of Depression GABA Peptides Neuromodulaters Endorphins Epinephrine Sedative-hypnotic drugs Synergistic Benzodiazepines Barbiturates Alcohol Korsakoff's Syndrome Behavioral Stimulants Antidepressants Trycyclic antidepressant MAO Inhibitors Methylphendate Antipsychotic drugs Lithium Carbonate Narcotics Psychedelics Endocrine System Endocrine gland Pituitary Gland Anterior Pituitary Gland Sex Characteristics Development Sex Chromosomes Androgens Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome Female Hormones during Fetal Development Gonadtropins Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone (LH) Ovulation Estrogen & Ovulation Progesterone & Ovulation Ablation Stereotaxic Instrument Wilder Penfield Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF) Dementias Aphasia Amnesia Agnosia Apraxia Reticular Formation Circadian Rhythms

Beta Waves Alpha Waves Sleep Stage Sleep Stage Sleep Stage Sleep Stage Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Deprivation Effects REM Deprivation Effects Insomnia Narcolepsy Sleep Apnea James-Lange Theory of Emotions Cannon-Bard Theory Schacter-Singer Theory Broca, P Cannon, W Kandel, E. James, W. and Lange, C. Klver, H. and Bucy, P. Luria, A Milner, B. Olds, J., and Milner, P. Penfield, W. Schachter, S. and Singer, J. Sherrington, C. Sperry, R., and Gazzaniga, M. Wernicke, C. PERSONALITY AND ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY William Sheldon E. G. Boring Edward Titchener Humanism Philippe Pinel Dorothea Dix General Paresis Cerletti and Bini Antipsychotic Drugs Emil Kraepelin Primary process thinking (Freud) Unconscious wish fulfillment theory Secondary Process Ego (Freud) Subsystems of Superego Instinct (Freud) Life Instinct What is Freud's death instinct?

Defense mechanisms What are Freuds defense mechanisms? Repression Suppression Projection Reaction formation Rationalization Sublimation Displacement Libido (Jung) Ego (Jung) Unconscious (Jung) Collective Unconscious Jungian Archetypes Major Jungian archetypes Persona Anima / Animus Shadow Self Archetype Jung-Orientations of Personality Jungian Psychological Functions Alfred Adler Creative Self Style of Life Fictional Finalism Karen Horney Horney's Neurotic Needs Horney--Difference between Neurotic and healthy needs Basic AnxietyHorney Strategies for Overcoming Basic Anxiety Strategies for Overcoming Basic Anxiety--Healthy vs. Neurotic Anna Freud Erik Erickson Object-Relations Theory Hypnosis (Freud) Free Association (Freud) Dream Interpretation (Freud) Resistance (Freud) Tranference (Freud) Counter transference Neo-Freudian approaches Behaviorist Theories of Personality John Dollard and Neal Miller B. F. Skinner Albert Bandura Martin Seligman Behavior Therapy

Symptom Substitution Kurt Lewin's Field Theory Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs Traits of Self-Actualized People (Maslow) George Kelly George Kelly Psychotherapy Humanist-Existential Therapies Carl Rogers Victor Frankl Type Theorists Type A/Type B Raymond Cattell Hans J. Eyesenck Gordon Allport Cardinal Traits Central traits Secondary Traits Funtional Autonomy David McClelland Herman Witken Julian Rotter Machiavellianism Androgyny Sandra Bem Mischel's Criticism DSM-IV Axes Attention Deficit (Hyperactivity) Disorder Symptoms of Autistic Disorder Autism Statistics Tourette's Disorder Term "Schizophrenia" Positive Symptoms Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia Delusions Delusions of reference Delusions of persecution Delusions of Grandeur Thought Broadcasting Thought Insertion Hallucinations Disorganized Thought Word Salad Neologisms Blunting Flat Affect Inappropriate affect Catatonic Motor Behavior

Prodromal Phase of Schizophrenia Process Schizophrenia Reactive Schizophrenia Catatonic Schizophrenia Paranoid Schizophrenia Disorganized Schizophrenia Undifferentiated Schizophrenia Residual Schizophrenia Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia Double-Bind Hypothesis of Schizophrenia What is the difference between Bipolar I Disorder and Bipoloar II disorder? Cyclothymic Disorder Catecholamine Theory of Depression Phobia Specific phobias Claustrophobia Acrophobia Cynophobia Agoraphobia Conversion Disorders Dissociative Amnesia Dissociative Fugue Depersonalization Disorder Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa Schizoid Personality Disorder Narcissistic Personality Disorder Borderline Personality Disorder Antisocial Personality Disorder Diathesis-Stress Model Primary Prevention David Rosenhan Thomas Szasz Structuralism Functionalism Behaviorism Gestalt Cognitive Psychoanalysis Adler, A. Allport, G. Bandura, A. Bem, S. Cattell, R. Dollard, J. and Miller, N. Erickson, E. Eysenck, H.

Freud, A. Freud, S. Horney, K. Jung, C. Kelly, G. Kernberg, O. Klein, M. Lewin, K. Mahler, M. Maslow, A. McClelland, D. Mischel, W. Rogers, C. Rotter, J. Sheldon, W. Skinner, B. F. Winnicot, D.W. Witkin, H. MEMORY Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Iconic memory Ulric Neisser Echoic Memory Short Term Memory Working Memory George Miller Chunking STM Coding Rehearsal Interference Proactive Interference Retroactive Inhibition Long Term Memory Recognition Recall Savings Encoding Specificity Principle Interference in LTM Episodic Vs. Semantic Memory Procedural Versus Declarative Memory Explicit memory Implicit Memory Frederick Bartlett Allan Paivio Fergus Craik & Robert Lockhart Behaviorists

Elizabeth Loftus Karl Lashley Donald Hebb E. R. Kandel Brenda Milner Serial Learning Serial-Anticipation Learning Paired-Associate Learning Free-recall learning Following factors make items on a list easier to learn and retrieve Decay Theory Interference Theory Mnemonics Generation-recognition model Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon State-Dependent Memory Clustering Order of Items on List Incidental Learning Eidetic Imagery Flashbulb Memories Tachtiscope Zeigarnik Effect LEARNING E. L. Thorndike Kurt Lewin Ivan Pavlov John B Watson B. F. Skinner Simultaneous Conditioning Higher-Order Conditioning Forward Conditioning Delayed Conditioning Trace Conditioning Backward Conditioning Differential Reinforcement of Successive Approximations Primary Reinforcement Secondary Reinforcement Primary Drives Secondary Drives Exploratory Drive Other Motivations Clark Hull Edward Tolman Victor Vroom Henry Murray David McClelland

John Atkinson Neil Miller Hedonism Premack Principle Arousal Donald Hebb Yerkes-Dodson effect Stimulus Stimulus Discrimination Stimulus Generalization Undergeneralization Response Learning Perceptual/concept Learning Aversive Conditioning Avoidance Conditioning Escape Conditioning Autonomic Conditioning State Dependent Learning Latent Learning Incidental Learning Superstitious Behavior Chaining Habituation Sensitization Overshadowing Autoshaping Social learning theory Observational Learning Modeling John Garcia M. E. Olds Continuous motor tasks vs. Discrete motor tasks Positive transfer Negative Transfer Age and Learning Thorndike Accomplishments Aptitude Cooperative Learning Scaffolding Learning Intelligence IQ Alfred Binet Mental and Chronological Age Mean IQ of Americans Lewis Terman Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Goodenough Draw-A-Man Test IQ Correlates John Horn and Raymond Cattell Robert Zajonc Charles Spearman Achievement Tests Aptitude Tests Objective tests Q-sort Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory California Personality Inventory Myers-Brigg Type Indicator Myers Brigg Characteristics Julian Rotter Projective tests Rorschach Inkblot Test Thematic Apperception Test Rosezweig Picture-Frustration (P-F) Study Word Association Test Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank Draw-A-Person Test Beck Depression Inventory Empirical keying Approach Vocational Tests Lie Detector Tests Walter Mischel Anne Anastasi F-Scale Bayley Scales of Infant Development Research design A Scientific Approach to Psychology Field Study Experimental Design Stratified Sampling Longitudinal Design Cross-sectional design Cohort-sequential Design Within-Subject Design Between-subject design Quasi-Experimental Design Double Blind Experiments Placebo Predictive Value Generalizability Acquiescence Cohort Effects

Demand Characteristic Experimenter Bias Hawthorne Effect Nonequivalent Control Group Placebo effect Reactance Selective attrition Social Desirability Illusory correlation Meta-analysis Institutional Review Board (IRB) Statistics Descriptive statistics most common forms of descriptive statistics? Percentiles Frequency Distributions Nominal variables Ordinal variables Interval variables Ratio variables Graphs Frequency Polygon Histogram Bar graph Measures of Central Tendency Variability Elements of a Normal Distribution Curvilinear Pearson r Correlation Coefficient Spearman R Correlation Coefficient Regression Type I error Type II Error T-tests Chi-square Tests ANOVA One-way ANOVA Two-way ANOVA Factorial Analysis of Variance Analysis of Covariance Linear Regression Analysis Standardized Tests Criterion-referenced tests Domain-referenced tests Reliability Test-Retest Reliability Split-half Reliability

Item analysis Validity Internal validity External validity Concurrent Validity Construct validity Content validity Face validity Donald Campbell & Donald Fiske Edward Thorndike John Watson Behaviorism Clark Hull Konrad Lorenz Etiologists Forward Conditioning Backward Conditioning Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Generalization Second Order Conditioning Sensory preconditioning Robert Rescorla Blocking Presenting CS with UCS E.L Thorndike B.F. Skinner Negative reinforcement Goals of negative reinforcement and punishment Discriminative stimulus Partial Reinforcement Fixed Ratio Variable-Ratio Fixed-interval Variable-Interval Continuous Reinforcement Schedule Shaping Behavior Therapies Therapies Based on Classical Conditioning Flooding Implosion Systematic Desensitization Conditioned Aversion Operant Conditioning Therapies Behavioral Contract Time-Out

Token Economies Premack Principle Thorndike Puzzle Box Wolfgang Khler Khler Chimp Experiment Edward Tolman Biological Constraints Garcia Effect Preparedness Chemotherapy Taste- Aversion Learned Taste-Aversion Keller and Marion Breland Brelands' Raccoon Experimant Albert Bandura Instinctual drift Etiology Fixed-Action Pattern Sign stimuli Niko Tinbergen's Stickleback Experiment Innate Releasing Mechanism (IRM) Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms Karl von Frisch Charles Darwin Natural Selection Process Reproductive Fitness Altruism Theory of kin selection Modern ethology E.O. Wilson Bandura, A. Breland, K. and Breland, M. Darwin, C. Garcia, J. Khler, W. Lorenz, K. Pavlov, I. Premack, D. Rescorla, R. Skinner, B.F. Thorndike, E. Tinbergen, N. von Frisch, K. Watson, J. Wilson, E. O. Wolpe, J. LANGUAGE Phonemes Morphemes

Phrase Syntax Grammar Morphology Prosody Noam Chomsky Transformational grammar Surface Structure Deep Structure Language Acquisition Device Overregularization Overextension Telegraphic speech Holophrastic speech Girls vs Boys in lanugage Learning Bilingual Children Reading/Writing Parts of Speech Language Acquisition Milestones Benjamin Whorf Whorfian Hypothesis Roger Brown Katherine Nelson William Labov Lee Vygotsky and Alexander Luria Charles Osgood Definition of Developmental Psychology Middle Ages Renaissance Members of the British Empiricist School of Thought British Empiricist School of Thought John Locke Jean-Jacques Rousseau Charles Darwin G. Stanley Hall John Watson Arnold Gesell Sigmund Freud Cognitive structuralists Major Psychological Research Methods Nature/Nurture Controversy Gregor Mendel Dominant & Recessive Genes Genotype & Phenotype Chromosomes Cells Inheriting

R.C. Tryon Tryon's Experiment Cont. Tryon Replicating Heritability Research Methods Family studies Twin Studies Adoption studies Louis Terman Down's syndrome PKU Klinefelter's Syndrome Turner's Syndrome Stages of Prenatal Development Fertilization Germinal Period Embryonic Stage Fetal Period Overall Prenatal Development Prenatal Maternal Illness Prenatal Maternal Use of Drugs Other Negative Environmental Prenatal Factors Smoking & Drinking While Pregnant Reflexes Rooting Moro reflex Babinski reflex Grasping reflex Jean Piaget Schema Adaptation Assimilation Accommodation Piaget's Stages . Sensorimotor stage Circular reactions Object Permanence Preoperational Stage Centration Egocentrism Conservation Concrete Operational Stage Formal Operational Piaget on Language Piaget's Criticism Lee Vygotsky Zone of Proximal Development Components of Language

Phonology Categorical perception with regards to phonology Semantics Syntax Pragmatics Babbling Lenneberg, Rebelsky, and Nichols Study Petitto and Marentette Study Language Acquisition Knowledge of language is evidenced Errors of Growth Chomsky Transformational Grammar Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Critical Period for Language Genie Sigmund Freud Freud Theory Fixation Freud Stages Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Stage Oedipal Conflict Electra conflict Latency Stage Genital Stage Erik Erikson's Theory Erikson's Stages . Trust v. Mistrust Autonomy v. Shame & Doubt Initiative v. Guilt Identity v. Role Confusion Intimacy v. Isolation Generativity v. Stagnation Integrity v. Despair Temperament Concepts of Temperament Thomas and Chess study Temperament Research Methods Parental Reports on Temperament Naturalistic Observations of Temperament Laboratory Observations of Temperament Infant Communication Methods Wolff Study Social Smiling Fear response

Harry Harlow Combined Experiment Harry Harlow Exclusive Experiment Harry Harlow Isolationist John Bowlby Bowlby Attachment Process Mary Ainsworth Experiment Ainsworth Experiment Steps Ainsworth Conclusions Imprinting Lorenz Experiment Lawrence Kohlberg Kohlberg's Phases Pre-Conventional Morality Conventional Phase of Morality Post-Conventional Phase of Morality Kohlberg and the Heinz Dilemma Carol Gilligan Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Development Kohlberg's Gender Stages Gender Labeling Gender Stability Gender Consistency Gender Schematic Processing Theory Diane Baumrind Authoritarian Parents Permissive Parents Authoritative Parents Differences between Mothers and Fathers Ainsworth Baumrind Bowlby Chomsky Erikson Freud Gesell Gilligan Hall Harlow Kohlberg Locke Lorenz Piaget Rousseau Terman Tryon Vygotsky COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Edward Titchener Goal of Structuralism Research Methods of Cognitive Psychology Reaction time Eye movements Brain Imaging Hermann Ebbinghaus Method of Savings Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Memory Processes Encoding Storage Retrieval Two most common kinds of retrieval Generation-recognition Model Recency Effect Primacy Effect Clustering Stage theory of memory Sensory memory Whole-Report Procedure George Sperling Partial-Report Procedure Maintenance Rehearsal Elaborative Rehearsal Types of Long-Term Memory Procedural Memory Declarative Memory Encoding Verbal Material in Short-Term and Long-Term Semantic Priming Semantic Verification Task Semantic Feature-Comparison Model Levels of Processing Theory Paivo's Dual-Code Hypothesis Decay Theory

How one represents the relationship between two things We organize our world through concepts 1 Preconceived notion of how to look at a problem May help future problem solving 2 Ideas about the way events typically unfold 3 Representative or usual type of event or object 4 Having a new perspective on an old problem 5 Type of thinking used to find the one solution to a problem (e.g. math) 6 First defined convergent and divergent thinking 7 Used when more than one possibility exists in a situation 8 The idea that people develop closed minds about the functions of certain objects 9 The sum total of possible moves that one might make in order to solve a problem 10 Problem-solving strategies that use rules of thumb or short-cuts based on what has worked in the past Cannot guarantee a so 11 Problem-solving strategies that use rules of thumb or short-cuts based on what has worked in the past Cannot guarantee a so 12 Problem-solving strategies that consider every possible solution and eventually hit on the right one May take a great deal of t 13 The process of thinking about your own thinking It might involve knowing what solving strategies to apply14 when to apply and Intervening mental process that occurs between stimulus and response Reminds us what to do or how to15 respond based on i Designed to solve problems as humans do Allen Newell and Herbert Simon introduced the first of these (called the logic theo 16 Leads to a specific conclusion that must follow from the information given 17 Leads to general rules that are inferred from specifics 18 Logical reasoning error When a conclusion is influenced by the way information is phrased 19 Logical reasoning error Believing a conclusion because of what you know or think to be correct rather than what logically follo 20 Logical reasoning error Remembering and using information that confirms what you already think 21 Working on solving a problem until an acceptable solution is found Research indicates that the process of22 reaching a solution Pros vs. cons Flipping a coin Divination Consulting an expert 23 Definition is very debated Most people tend to agree that intelligence is the capacity to use knowledge to24 improve achieveme Most frequently used to measure cognitive processing Also called latency Response speed for all types of 25 declines signif tasks Suggested that people have hierarchical semantic networks in their memory that group together related items The more clos 26 Asserted that people make decisions about the relationship between items by searching their cognitive semantic hierarchies. 27 Takes long to process pictures than words Pictures must be mentally put into words first 28 The presentation of a related item before the next item (one word before another in a word-recognition task for example) De 29 The decreased speed of naming the color of ink used to print words when the color of ink and the word itself are of different 30 Recognizing an item or pattern from data or details (data driven) 31 Guided by larger concepts 32 When a task is effortlessly done because the task is subsumed under a higher organization process 33 Along with gaze durations, indicators of information processing while reading Eye movements from one fixation point to ano 34 AKA Emergency Theory Asserts that emotions and bodily reactions occur simultaneously In emotional situations, our body is 35 Stanly Schachter and Jerome Singer Asserts that emotions are the product of physiological reactions We cognitively interpret 36 Published De Tactu, which was an investigation of muscle sense Introduced the notion of just noticeable difference in sensati 37 Mid th century Discovered the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological responses to stimuli Formulated Webe 38 - Founded Gestalt Psychology Studies led him to conclude that the experience of the phi phenomenon has a wholeness about 39 Minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system. The amount of stimulus that an40 individual can perce Another word for threshold 41 Refers to perception of stimuli below a threshold--in this case below the threshold of conscious awareness Perception that oc 42 The amount of stimulus energy that needs to be added to or subtracted from a stimulus for a person to say that she notices a 43 Expresses the relationship between the intensity of the sensation and the intensity of the stimulus 44 K=I/I K=JND I=Absolute difference between original and comparative stimulus I=Original intensity 45 Mid -th century S.S. Stevens Performed some experiments that suggested that Fechner's law might be incorrect Best fit by an 46 Suggests that other, nonsensory factors influence what the subject says she senses 47

Measures how risky the subject is in sensory decision-making Based upon nonsensory factors 48 Measures how well the subject can sense the stimulus 49 Receiver operating characteristic curve Used to graphically summarize a subjects responses in a signal detection experiment 50 Refined the use of ROC curves 51 Sensory Information Processing 52 Reception Transduction Electrochemical energy is sent to various projection areas in the brain along various neural pathways 53 The receiving of a stimulus Each sensory system has receptors to react to physical external energy 54 Translation of physical energy into neural impulses or action potentials 55 Respond to physical stimuli 56 Translates physical energy to neural impulses 57 Brain areas that further analyze sensory input 58 Clear, domelike window in the front of the eye Gathers and focuses the incoming light 59 Hole in the iris Contracts in bright light Expands in dim light to let more light in 60 Colored part of the eye Has involuntary muscles and autonomic nerve fibers Controls the size of the pupil61 therefore, the and Lies right behind the iris Helps control the curvature of the light coming in and can focus near or distant objects on the retina 62 In the back of the eye Like a screen filled with neural elements and blood vessels Image-detecting part of 63 eye the States that the retina contains two kinds of photoreceptors The organization of the retinal cells makes light pass through inte 64 Used for color vision Perceive fine detail Most effective in bright light Allow us to see chromatic and achromatic colors 65 Function best in reduced illumination Allow perception only of achromatic colors Have low sensitivity to detail Not involved in 66 Area in the middle of the retina Contains only cones Visual acuity is best in the fovea Most sensitive in normal daylight vision 67 Rods and cones 68 Indirect Several layers of neurons in between Horizontal Amacrine Bipolar Cells Ganglion Cells 69 Rods/cones connect with bipolar neurons, which connect with ganglion cells 70 Group together to form the optic nerve 71 There are many more receptors than ganglion cells, so each ganglion cell has to represent the combined activity of many rod 72 The image of the stimulus on the right side of each eye's visual field forms the left half of each eye's retina and the image of t 73 Here the fibers from the nasal half of the retina cross paths The nasal fibers from the left eye go to the right side of the brain 74 Responsible for peripheral vision Temporal fibers from the left eye go to the left side of the brain, and temporal fibers from t 75 Lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus Visual cortex in the occipital lobe Superior colliculus 76 Earned a Nobel Prize in Found a neural basis for feature detection theory 77 Hubel and Wiesel Suggests that certain cells in the cortex are maximally sensitive to certain features of stimuli 78 Simple: give information about the orientation and boundaries of an object The fact that singe cells give info about specific fe 79 Method used by Hubel and Wisel; they measured cell responses using the latest research methodologies 80 available to sensory A physical, objective measurement that is simply the amount of light falling on a surface 81 The subjective impression of the intensity of a light stimulus 82 Affects how we perceive brightness Dark adaptation: adapting to a dark environment Light adaptation: adapting to a lighter e 83 Light reaching the photoreceptors before you entered the dark environment bleached the photopigment 84 the rods in The only photopigment in rods Made up of a Vitamin A derivative, called retinal, and a protein, called opsin 85 When a molecule of rhodopsin absorbs a photon of light, the pigment begins to decompose, or split, into 86 retinene and opsin After bleaching, it takes time for the pigments to regenerate As the rhodopsin regenerates, it is easier to see in the dark Vitam 87 Affects how we perceive brightness A target area of a particular luminance appears brighter when surrounded by a darker sti 88 Adjacent retinal cells inhibit one another If a cell is excited, neighboring cells will be inhibited Sharpens and highlights the bor 89 Related to the wavelength of the light entering the eye The eye can see wavelengths from about - nanometers 90 Mixing different pigments (i.e. paints) Wavelengths reflected are those common to both paints The ones that are not commo 91 Mixing lights of different wavelengths; All wavelengths are reflected Superimposing blue (short wavelengths) and yellow (gre 92 We see lights If a stimulus does not emit its own light, then we perceive it by processing the light reflected off of it 93 Young-Helmholtz theory Suggests that the retina contains three different types of color receptors (cones)94 which are sensitive

Ewald Herring Said that yellow was a primary color in addition to red blue and green Arranged in opposing pairs of red/green 95 Led Herring to his theory An after image is a visual sensation that appears after prolonged or intense exposure to a stimulus I 96 -D We see -D through depth perception George Berkely listen various cues for depth in Interposition Relative size Linear Pers 97 AKA overlap One object covers or overlaps with another object We see the object that covers as the object in front 98 As an object gets farther away, its image on the retina gets smaller You can tell how far away something is from you relative t 99 Refers to the convergence of parallel lines in the distance In other words, lines which are actually parallel appear to converge 100 J. J. Gibson Refer to the variations in perceived surface appear to have smaller, more densely packed elements Sudden chang 101 The perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away. 102 When an object rather than the perceiver moves, the motion of that object gives us cues about the relative depth of parts of 103 AKA Steropsis The difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provides information about depth. 104 The degree of disparity between the retinal images of the eyes due to slight differences in the horizontal position of each eye 105 Requires one or two eyes Stereopsis is the only depth cue that requires two eyes 106 Figure Ground Gestalt Laws: Proximity, Similarity, Good continuation, Closure, and Prgnanz 107 Gestalt Principle Elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit 108 Gestalt Principles Elements that are similar to one another tend to be grouped together 109 The integrated visual experience that stands out at the center of attention 110 The background against which the figure appears 111 Gestalt Principle Elements that appear to follow in the same direction tend to be grouped together 112 Gestalt principle The tendency to see incomplete figures as being complete 113 Gestalt Principle Encompasses the other gestalt laws Perceptual organization will always be as "good" (i.e. regular, simple, sy 114 Wolfgang Kohler Suggests that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the object in the perceptual field and the patte 115 Refers to object perception that responds directly to the components of incoming stimulus on the basis 116 of fixed rules It then Refers to object perception that is guided by conceptual processes such as memories and expectations that allow the brain to 117 If we only did bottom up, we would not be very efficient at recognizing objects If we only did top down, 118would only see w we Phi phenomenon Stroboscopic movement When two or more stationary lights flicker in succession they 119 to be perceived tend A stationary point of light appears to move when the background moves 120 A stationary point of light when viewed in an otherwise totally dark room appears to move Probably caused by involuntary ey 121 If a moving object is viewed for an extended period of time, it will appear to move in an opposite direction when the motion 122 Tendency for the perceived size of an object to remain constant despite variations in the size of its retinal image 123 Tendency for the perceived shape of an object to remain constant despite variations in the shape of its retinal image 124 Tendency for the perceived lightness of an object to remain constant despite changes in illumination 125 Tendency for the perceived color of an object to remain constant despite changes in the spectrum of light falling on it 126 AKA size distance invariance principle the farther away the object appears to be, the more the scaling device in the brain will 127 Constructed so that from the front it appears to be an ordinary cubic-shaped room True shape of the room is trapezoidal Per 128 Preferential looking Habituation 129 Two different stimuli are presented side by side If infant looks longer at one of them, it is inferred that the infant can perceive 130 Stimulus is presented to infant Infant eventually stops attending A different stimulus is presented If the infant attends, it is in 131 Objective Frequency Intensity Subjective Loudness Pitch Timbre 132 The number of cycles per second More = Higher Measured in Hz 133 The amplitude of the sound wave Measured in decibels More=noisier 134 Hz - , Hz Best = , Hz - , Hz Sounds above decibels tend to be painful to the human ear 135 The subject experience of the frequency of the sound 136 The subjective experience of the intensity of the sound 137 Complexity or quality of sound that makes musical instruments, human voices, or other sources sound unique 138 Outer ear Middle ear Inner ear 139 The external sound-gathereing portion of the ear, consisting of the pinna and ear canal 140 Part of the outer ear Channels sound waves into the auditory canal 141

Part of the outer ear Channels sound to the eardrum 142 AKA Tympanic membrane Vibrates in phase with the incoming sound waves, moving back and forth at a 143 rate for high-fre high tiny bones in middle ear Hammer (malleus) Anvil (incus) Stirrup (stapes) Transmit the vibrations of the tympanum to the inne 144 Entrance to inner ear Edge of the stirrup rests on the oval window 145 A coiled, bony, fluid filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses Filled 146 cochlear fluid with Membrane that runs the length of the cochlea Supports the organ of Corti 147 Rests on basilar membrane along entire length Composed of thousands of hair cells that are the receptors for hearing When 148 The movement of the stapes causes the oval window to vibrate; This makes the cochlear fluid vibrate at149 frequency This same Auditory nerve Superior olive, inferior colliculus, medial geniculate nucleus in thalamus Temporal cortex150 Proposed by Helmholtz and Young Each different pitch causes a different place on the basilar membrane to vibrate These diff 151 Basilar membrane vibrates as a whole The rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a 152 In early s, Von Bksy found that the movement of the basilar membrane is maximal at a different place153 the basilar me along The frequency theory is operative for tones up to about Hz Place theory is operative for tones higher than about , Hz Both ar 154 Chemical senses Both require receptors to have actual contact with the molecules that make up the stimulus 155 Receptors are groups of cells called taste buds found in little bumps on the tongue called papillae Information travels to the t 156 In the upper nasal passage of the nose called the olfactory epithelium Information travels to the olfactory bulb in the brain 157 At least receptors Information travels to the somatosensory cortex 158 Pacinian corpuscles (deep pressure) Meissner corpuscles (touch) Merkle discs Ruffini endings (warmth) Free nerve endings 159 The minimim distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will 160felt as two distinc be A neutral temperature perceived to be neither hot nor cold 161 Ronald Melzach and Patrick Wall Proposes there is a special gating mechanism that can turn pain signals162 or off, thus affect on The general term for our sense of bodily position and includes aspects of both the vestibular and kinesthetic senses 163 Has to do with our sense of balance The receptors for balance, the semicircular canals, are in the inner ear, above and behind 164 Has to do with the awareness of body movement and position Specifically with muscle, tendon, and joint position since the re 165 Studied selective attention; Proposed that selective attention acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing syst 166 Peformance is worst at extremely low or extremely high levels of arousal 167 Empirical studies led to traveling wave theory of pitch perception which, at least partially, supported Helmholtz's place-reson 168 Developed a list of depth cues that help us to perceive depth 169 Proposed filter theory of attention 170 Developed Fechner's law which expressed the relationship between the intensity of the stimulus and the intensity of the sens 171 Developed the visual cliff apparatus, which is used to study the development of depth perception 172 Studied depth cues (especially texture gradients) that help us to perceive depth 173 Developed Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory of color vision Developed place-resonance theory of pitch perception 174 Developed opponent process theory of color vision 175 Studied feature detection in visual cortex and discovered simple, complex, and hypercomplex cells 176 Developed theory of isomorphism 177 Proposed gate theory of pain 178 Developed Stevens' law as an alternative to Fechner's law 179 Refined ROC curves in signal detection theory 180 Proposed volley theory of pitch perception in response to a criticism of the frequency theory of pitch perception 181 Developed Yerkes-Dodson Law which states that performance is best at intermediate levels of arousal 182 IAL PSYCH 183 Concerned with social behaviorthe impact of People on each others attitudes/behavior People on other people Social grou 184 Published what is thought to be the first study of social psychology in Investigated the effect of competition on performance 185 Psychologist who published one of the first textbooks on social psychology in (same year as E.H. Ross) 186 Sociologist who published one of the first textbooks on social psychology in (same year as William McDougall) 187 Developed rapidly since s Early experiments, such as the work by Verplank in the s, suggested that social188 approval influences

s Together with Pavlov, Thorndike, Hull, and Skinner Showed that the course of a conversation changes dramatically based up 189 Behavior is motivated by anticipated rewards Eventually challenged by social learning theorists 190 The perspective that people are aware of the social roles they are expected to fill and much of their observable behavior can 191 Includes: Cognition or beliefs Feelings Behavioral predisposition 192 People prefer consistency, and will change or resist changing attitudes based upon this preference Inconsistencies are viewed 193 One person is considered Balance: If P + O, P + X, O + X; If P + O, P -- X, O -- X; If P -- O, P + X, O -- X Imbalance: If P + O, P + X, O 194 Conflict when you feel that your behavior is not in accordance with your attitudes 195 When a person experiences cognitive dissonance, he will take steps to lessen the dissonance 196 Free choice Forced compliance 197 Occurs in a situation where a person makes a choice between several desirable alternatives Dissonance 198 because you w occurs Occurs when an individual is forced into behaving in a manner that is inconsistent with his or her beliefs 199 or attitudes The forc Making the alternatives seem further apart Emphasizing the positive in the chosen alternative Emphasizing the negative in th 200 Asked subjects to lie and say a boring task (filling and emptying spools in a tray repeatedly) is interesting. IV: the amount of m 201 When behavior can be justified by means of external inducements, there is no need to change internal cognitions When exte 202 If a person is pressured to say or do something contraryto his or her privately held attitudes, there will be a tendency for him 203 When attitudes about something are weak or ambiguous, people observe their own behavior and then attribute attitudes to 204 If you reward people for something they already like doing, they may stop doing it They will attribute the fact that they do th 205 Deals with attitude change as a process of communicating a message with the intent to persuade someone Broke down the p 206 The more credible a communicator is perceived to be, the more likely their argument will be believed Depends on how exper 207 Over time, the persuasive impact of a highly credible source decreases while the persuasive impact of a 208 credibility sour lower People seem more credible when they argue against their own self-interest 209 Contain arguments for and against a position Often used for persuasion since such seems to be balanced communication 210 There are two routes to persuasion: the central route and peripheral route 211 The listener cares about the issue being discusses Follow the persuader's arguments closely and mentally evaluate the persua 212 We don't care very much about the issue, can't hear the message clearly, or are otherwise distracted We either aren't paying 213 Analogy of inoculation of disease People can be inoculated against persuasion People can be inoculated 214 against the attack of Beliefs that are seldom questioned Since these beliefs are seldom attacked, they are vulnerable to attack This is analogous to 215 Psychologically inoculates people against an oncoming attack by first exposing them to a weakened attack First present argum 216 McGuire found that it can be quite effective in developing the resistance of cultural truisms to subsequent attacks 217 People will sometimes hold beliefs even after those beliefs have been shown to be false If they are induced to believe a state 218 When social pressure to behave in a particular way becomes so blatant that the person's sense of freedom is threatened the 219 We are drawn to affiliate because of a tendency to evaluate ourselves in relationship to other people 220 People prefer to evaluate themselves by objective, nonsocial means, but when this is impossible, they evaluate themselves b 221 Found that greater anxiety leads to greater desire to affiliate A situation of low anxiety does not lead one to affiliate Anxious 222 We tend to like those who we think like us We tend to dislike those who we think dislike us 223 Aronson and Linder An evaluation that changes will have a bigger impact than an evaluation that remains constant If we think 224 Assumes that a person weighs the rewards and costs of interacting with another The more the rewards outweigh the costs, th 225 Proposes that we not only consider our own costs/rewards, but also that of the other person We prefer 226 our ratio of cost that Certain characteristics tend to play a role in affiliation and attraction Similarity Need complementarity Physical attractiveness 227 Correlations have been found between affiliation and similarity of intelligence, attitudes, education, height, age, religion, SES 228 "Opposites attract" People choose relationships so that they mutually satisfy each other's needs Person 229 likes to talk is at who Research has repeatedly documented the potency of physical attractiveness as a determinant of attraction The attractivenes 230 We are more likely to affiliate with those who are close to us--even small differences in distance can make a substantial impa 231 Robert Zajonc Familiarity of a stimuli (repeated exposure) enhances liking of it 232 Altruism is a form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to himself or hers 233 Bystander intervention Work traced to Kitty Genovese's attack in Kew Gardens in Although others thought bystanders didn't 234 The phenomenon in which people in a group misperceive the beliefs of others because everyone acts inconsistently with thei 235

Smoke piped in a room with subject and confederates. Confederates noticed and pretended to assume 236 it came from a radiat Subject was placed alone in a booth--could hear "participants" (actually pre-recorded) but could not talk237them One would to The ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another Thought by some social psychologists to be a strong influence o 238 When faced with situations in which other may need help, paople might feel distress, and/or they might239 empathy Both o feel Subjects watched a person receive shocks Some could leave after nd shock (easy escape); others had to 240 all (difficult esca see When people are frustrated, they act aggressively Strength of frustration experienced is correlated with 241 level of aggressio the Bandura's social learning theory is perhaps the most influential theory on aggression Aggression is learned through modeling 242 Strategy used: Autokinetic effect Key Result: Individuals' estimates of movement conform to group's 243 Strategy Used: Comparing length of lines Key Result: Subjects yield to group pressure and choose incorrect line 244 Each of administered at least volts percent went to maximum voltage, even though they believed that 245 were causing gr they Please continue The experiment requires that you continue It's absolutely essential that you continue You have no other cho 246 Compliance with a small request increases the likelihood of compliance with a larger request 247 The tendency for a person who has refused a major request to subsequently be more likely to comply with a minor request 248 Children were asked which doll they prefer--Black and white children preferred white doll Indicated a more positive opinion o 249 Individuals have more than one dimension of person identity It is believed that our identities are organized in a hierarchy of s 250 In cooperation, persons act together for their mutual benefit so that all of them can obtain a goal In competition, a person ac 251 Prisoner A and Prisoner B have a choice to confess (compete) or refuse to confess (cooperate) Each gains most if they compe 252 contact hypothesis- two groups of boys to a summer camp in Oklahoma. bond in ignorance of the other 253 for about a we group Shared goals that override differences among people by requiring cooperation to solve 254 A characteristic of memory in which recall is particularly good for the first two or three items in a list. 255 Tendency to better remember information at the end of a body of information better than the information preceding it. 256 People will hypothesize the causes of others' behavior Fritz Heider is one of the founding fathers of attribution theory 257 Attributing a behavior to some internal cause, such as a personal trait, motive, or attitude; an internal attribution 258 Attributing a behavior to some external cause or factor operating within the situation; an external attribution 259 The tendency to overestimate the extent to which people's behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors, and to underesti 260 The tendency to allow a general positive or negative impression about a person to influence other, more specific evaluations 261 M.J. Lerner Good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people Must of the recent research into belief in a 262 Women at Bennington College Most had come from conservative homes; but the school had a liberal atmosphere Each year 263 How individuals tend to space themselves in relation to others (how close/far you stand from someone when talking to them 264 Presence of others increases arousal and consequently enhances the emission of dominant responses During the early stages 265 The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal that when 266 Half group was randomly assigned to be guards; other half were prisoners Got out of control-guards became abusive Prisoner 267 Loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, go 268 Irving Janis Emphasis of group unanimity at the expense of critical thinking and sound decision making The group tends to str 269 The tendency for a group decision to be riskier than the average individual decision made by group members. 270 --Dilemmas were presented to couples to examine the risky shift in controversial situations Ex: Stoner had a couple choose be 271 Group decisions tend to be more extreme but not necessarily more risky than the decisions of individuals Group polarization 272 Leaders of groups engage in more communication than nonleaders Researchers found that by artificially273 increasing the amou Boys in after-school program divided into different leadership styles Autocratic Boys were more hostile,274 aggressive, and depe Proposed gain-loss principle (an evaluation that changes will have more effect than an evaluation that remains constant) 275 Studied conformity by asking subjects to compare lengths of lines 276 Developed self-perception theory as an alternative to cognitive dissonance theory 277 Performed study on doll preferences in African-American children The results were used in the Brown v. the Topeka Board o 278 Proposed that there were two factors that could lead to non-helping Social influence and diffusion of responsibility 279 Suggested that gender differences in conformity were not due to gender per se, but to differing social roles 280 Developed cognitive dissonance theory Also developed social comparison theory 281 Studied norms for interpersonal distance in interpersonal interactions 282

Developed balance theory to explain why attitudes change Also developed attribution theory and divided attributions into tw 283 Studied attitude change 284 Developed the concept of groupthink to explain how group decision-making can sometimes go awry 285 Proposed belief in a just world 286 Divided leadership styles into three categories Autocratic Democratic Laissez-faire 287 Studies how psychological inoculation could help people resist persuasion 288 Studied obedience by asking subjects to administer electroshock Also proposed stimulus-overload theory to explain differenc 289 Studies political norms 290 Developed elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (central and peripheral routes to persuasion) 291 Studied obedience by asking subjects to administer electroshock Also proposed stimulus-overload theory to explain differenc 292 Studied relationship between anxiety and the need for affiliation 293 Used autokinetic effect to study conformity Also performed Robber's Cave experiment and found that having superordinate g 294 Studied the mere exposure effect Resolved problems with the social facilitation effect by suggesting that the presence of oth 295 Performed prison simulation and used concept of deindividuation to explain results 296 EARCH DESIGN, STATISTICS, TESTS AND... 297 Established the first psychology laboratory in Established psychology as a science Believed that experimental psych. had limit 298 Contemporary of Wundt's Showed that higher mental processes could be studied using experimental methodology Studied m 299 Contemporary of Wundt's Disagreed with Wundt fundamentally Believed that there could be imageless 300 thought; he performe Studied under Wundt Introduced mental testing to the United States 301 Binet and Simon collaborated in Purpose was to assess the intelligence of French schoolchildren to ascertain which children w 302 Developed an equation to compare mental age to chronological age, which came to be known as the intelligence quotient, or 303 In , revised the Binet-Simon test for use in the United States Became known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test 304 A tentative and testable explanation of the relationship between two or more variables 305 A factor that varies in amount or kind and can be measured 306 State how the researcher will measure the variables 307 The variable whose effect is being studied Note: difference between the number of IVs and the number 308 of levels in the IV The variable expected to change due to variations in the IV 309 Naturalistic Observation Correlational Quasi-experiment True experiment 310 Researcher does not intervene; measure behavior as it naturally occurs Also called field study Not necessarily examining the r 311 IV not manipulated 312 IV manipulated Subjects nor randomly assigned 313 IV manipulated Subjects randomly assigned to groups 314 Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample 315 Each subgroup of the population is randomly selected in proportion to its size 316 Each subject is only exposed to one level of each IV Subjects in a given group do not receive the same level of IV as members 317 Take groups that have, roughly, the same contributing factor (i.e. intelligence on academic performance) Match subjects to e 318 Also called-repeated measures design Expose all to all levels of IV to see how performance changes between levels Results m 319 Take half the group and expose them to one level first; the other half gets the other level Then switch 320 Any difference between the experimental and control conditions, except for the independent variable, that might affect the d 321 Treat both groups equally in all respects except for the IV--one group gets none, the other is exposed to 322 it (protein experimen Control group is not necessarily similar to the experimental group since the researcher doesn't use random assignment Comm 323 The fact that due to his or her expectations, the experimenter might inadvertently treat groups of subjects differently, and th 324 To help with experimenter bias Neither the researcher who interacts with the subjects nor the subjects themselves know wh 325 Subjects do not know whether they are in the treatment or control group, but the researchers know 326 Refer to any cues that suggest to subjects what the researcher expects from them These are overall effects of the situation o 327 Experimental results caused by expectations alone Any effect on behavior caused by the administration 328 inert substance of an The tendency of people to behave differently if they know that they are being observed To control for the Hawthorne effect, 329

How generalizable the results of an experiment are to situations outside of the experiment 330 Describing the information that the experiment has gathered 331 Using the information from an experiment and using it to describe the population (% of sample=% of population) 332 A table that show how often each value occurs 333 A term used to describe a data set when there are two modes 334 Extreme scores Will affect mean, but not median or mode 335 Range Standard Deviation Variance 336 The smallest number in the distribution subtracted from the largest number 337 Provides a measure of the typical distance of scores from the mean 338 The square of the standard deviation Description of how much each score varies from the mean 339 The mean of the distribution of z-scores will always be zero and the standard deviation will always be This is true regardless o 340 T-scores: Mean=, SD= A T-score of is standard deviation above the mean T-Scores are often used in test score interpretation 341 Two variables are related if knowing the value of one variable of one variable helps you predict the value of the other variabl 342 Attempts to account for the interrelationships found among various variables by seeing how groups of variables "hang togeth 343 We want to look through the correlation matrix to see which variables are highly correlated with each other A cluster of varia 344 The researcher is trying to show that one hypothesis (the research (alternative) hypothesis) is supported345 the data by show by If we reject the null hypothesis, the observed difference is statistically significant The researcher decides346 alpha level by es the 1) Formulate alternative and null hypotheses based on research hypothesis; 2) Decide on an alpha level;347 3) Collect data; 4) Pe Reject the null when you should accept it (false positive) 348 Accept the null when you should reject it (False Negative) Probability of making a Type II error is called beta () 349 t test: compare two means ANOVA: compare or more means chi squared: compare nominal data 350 Estimates how much group means differ from each other by comparing the between-group variance to the within-group vari 351 Work with categorical (nominal), rather than numerical data Work with frequencies and proportions 352 Each level of a given independent variable occurs with each level of the other independent variables 353 When the effects of one independent variable are not consistent for all levels of the other independent variables 354 A statistical procedure that can be used to make conclusions on the basis of data from different studies If researcher A publis 355 Involves assessing an individual's performance in terms of how that individual performs in comparison to others Test norms a 356 Sometimes called criterion-referenced testing Concerned with the question of what the test taker knows or can do Ex.: the w 357 The consistency with which a test measures whatever it is that the test measures High reliability means that the test measure 358 Validity Reliability Standardizaion 359 Standard error of measurement An index of how much, on average, we expect a person's observed score to vary from the sco 360 Test-retest method Alternate-form method Split-half reliability In all of these methods a correlation coefficient is then calcula 361 The same test is administered to the same group of people twice This method estimates the inter-individual stability of test s 362 The examinees are given two different forms of a test that are taken at two different times 363 Test-takers only take one test, but that one test is divided into equal halves Scores on one half are correlated with the scores 364 Content Face Criterion Cross Construct Convergent Discriminant 365 Concerned with the extent to which a test actually measures what it is supposed to measure All types of366 validity assessment e Refers to the test's coverage of the particular skill or knowledge area that it is supposed to measure 367 Whether or not the test items appear to measure what they are supposed to measure 368 Has to do with how well the test can predict an individual's performance on an established test of the same skill or knowledg 369 How well performance on the test fits into the theoretical framework related to what it is you want the 370 to measure (con test tionship between Validity and Reliability A test with zero reliability will have zero validity A test can have perfect reliability and very little 371 Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio 372 Also called categorical Labels observations so that observations can be categorized 373 Ranks Observations are ranked in terms of size or magnitude 374 Equal Intervals Uses actual numbers (not ranks) 375 Equal intervals True zero point that indicates the total absence of the quantity being measure A temperature of degrees doe 376

Aptitude Tests: used to predict what one can accomplish through training Include intelligence tests Achievement Tests: Attem 377 (Mental Age/Chronological Age)* 378 Indicates how well a person performed on an IQ test relative to her/his same-age peers 379 After a certain age, chronological age increases while mental age does not Even if your mental age remains constant, your IQ 380 Unlike the Stanford-Binet, which is organized by age levels, the Wechsler tests have all items of a given type grouped into sub 381 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI; now WPPSI-R) Wechsler Intelligence Scale382 Children (WISC; n for Frequently used in psychological research Divided into personality inventories and projective tests 383 Self-rating device usually consisting of - statements Subject is asked to determine if the given statements apply to him/her Re 384 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) California Psychological Inventory (CPI) 385 Developed by Hathaway and McKinley using the empirical criterion-keying approach Consists of statements to which subject 386 Tested s of questions and retained those that differentiated between patient and nonpatient populations, even if the item did 387 Revision of MMPI Added content scales these scales were formed using items derived from theoretical concerns rather than 388 Based on MMPI Developed to be used with normal populations age + Specially oriented to high school and college students T 389 Rorschach Inkblot Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Blacky Pictures Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank 390 Stimuli are relatively ambiguous Test-taker is not limited to a small number of possible responses A test-taker is given the stim 391 Created by Hermann Rorschach; Made up of cards that are reproductions of inkblots Cards are presented to the subject in a 392 Devised by Morgan and Murray and consists of simple pictures depicting scenes that have ambiguous meanings (boy staring 393 Specifically for children; developed according to psychoanalytic theory Consists of cartoonlike pictures that feature a little do 394 An example of a sentence completion test Test taker is provided with sentence stems and is asked to complete them Theory 395 Form of pseudovalidation Refers to the tendency of people to accept and approve of the interpretation of their personality th 396 Usually used to assess an individual's interest in different lines of work Best known test is the Strong-Campbell Interest Inven 397 Organized like a personality inventory and was developed using an empirical criterion-keying approach Test-takers are given l 398 RIASEC Holland divided interests into six types: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional 399 Developed the Binet-Simon intelligence test; introduced the concept of mental age 400 Developed the RIASEC model of occupational themes 401 Suggested that there were genetically based racial differences in IQ This suggestion has been much criticized 402 Developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a projective test designed to measure personality 403 Developed the Rorschach inkblot test, a projective test designed to measure personality 404 Developed a sentence completion test; a projective test designed to measure personality 405 Developed the concept of the ratio IQ 406 Developed the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory Used to assess interest in different lines of work (actually, they didn't wor 407 Revised the Binet-Simon intelligence test Revision became known as the Stanford-Binet IQ Test 408 Developed several intelligence tests for use with different ages (the WPPSI, WISC, and WAIS) These tests yield three deviation 409 SIOLOGICAL/BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 410 Brain Spinal Cord 411 The pathway that runs to and from the CNS Afferent fibers run toward the CNS Efferent fibers run away 412 the CNS Made u from Interacts with internal environment Responsible for the fight or flight response Controls involuntary functions including move 413 Interacts with external environment by controlling voluntary movements of striated muscles 414 Controls arousal mechanisms such as blood circulation, pupil dilation, and threat and fear response Lie detector tests rely on 415 Responsible for the recuperation after arousal by doing things like lowering heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration 416 Spine consists of an inner core of gray matter (cell bodies and dendrites) and an outer covering of white 417 matter (nerve fibers, Hindbrain Mesencephalon (midbrain) Forebrain 418 Myelincephalon (medulla) Metencephalon Reticular formation 419 AKA the medulla Mainly controls reflexes but also controls sleep, attention, and movement 420 Contains the pons (connects brain parts to spine) and cerebellum (controls muscle coordination, balance, and posture) 421 Base is located in the hindbrain, and the rest is located in the midbrain The functions of the reticular formation are similar in 422 AKA Midbrain Comprised of: Tectum Tegmentum 423

Controls vision and hearing 424 Houses the rest of the reticular formation - Involved in the sensorimotor system, and the analgesic effect of opiates 425 Can be divided into diencephalon and telecephalon Also includes: Corticospinal tract Pituitary gland Cerebral cortex 426 Connections between brain and spine 427 contains thalamus and hypothalamus 428 Channels sensory information to the cerebral cortex 429 Controls ANS biological motivations, such as hunger and thirst, and the pituitary gland 430 The "master gland" of the body's hormone producing system, which releases hormones that direct the function of many glan 431 Limbic system Hippocampus Amygdala Cingulate gyrus 432 A group of structure around the brainstem Involved in the four F's Fleeing Feeding Fighting Fornicating/Fucking 433 Involved in memory, specifically transferring short-term memory into long-term memory Recent research indicates that new 434 Controls emotional reactions such as fear and anger 435 Links areas in the brain dealing with emotion and decisions 436 Outer half-inch of cerebral hemispheres % is neocortex; The other % has fewer than layers and is more437 primitive Divided int New in evolution -layered cortex 438 Controls Speech Reasoning Problem solving Houses Broca's area 439 Responsible for Vision 440 Responsible for the somatosensory system 441 Responsible for hearing Includes Wernicke's area 442 Tough connective tissues that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord 443 Protects the brain by making it difficult for toxic substances to pass from the blood into the brain The cells that make up the b 444 Chambers filled with cerebrospinal fluid that insulate the brain from shock 445 Appear as bumps on the brainstem Superior: Controls visual reflexes Inferior: Controls auditory reflexes 446 Control large, voluntary muscle movements Degeneration is related to motor dysfunction in Parkinson's447 Huntington's dis and Areas on the cortex that correspond to certain functions The larger the area, the more sensitive and highly accessed is the co 448 loss of ability to carry out coordinated body movement 449 The inability to view or perceive things 450 Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernick 451 The inability to read 452 The inability to write 453 Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscles movement 454 Area of the brain's left hemisphere that is involved in language comprehension 455 Overeating with no satiation of hunger leads to obesity damage to the ventromedial region of hypothalamus has produced th 456 Incredible rage easily provoked with the cerebral cortex is removed 457 used to plant electrodes into animals' brains in experiments 458 Stereotaxic instrument - Measures oxygen flow in different areas of the brain - Used most frequently in cognitive psychology 459 Stereotaxic Instrument Scans glucose metabolism to measure activity in various brain regions 460 Children go through this process Neural pathways are connected and then some are allowed to die out 461 Neuron branches that receive impulses Their branching patterns change throughout life 462 Where the soma and the axon connect 463 A fatty, insulating sheath on some axons that allows faster conduction of axon impulses Looks like beads on a string 464 The jumping off points for impulses Contain synaptic vessels that hold neurotransmitters 465 Covers the whole neuron and has selective permeability Sometimes it lets positive charges (ions) through 466 The end of the neuron that is passing along information 467 The beginning of the other neuron in the cell receiving the signal on the other side of the synapse 468 Non-neuron cells which provide a supportive function Hold the neurons in place, nourish and insulate neurons 469 Oligodendrocytes (provide myelin in the CNS) Schwann cells (Provide myelin in the Peripheral Nervous system) 470

In Postsynaptic cell Detect the presence of neurotransmitters and cause the ion channels to open 471 Changes in a nerve cell's charge as the result of stimulation Two forms: EPSP IPSP 472 The time after a neuron fires in which it cannot respond to stimulation 473 The time after the absolute refractory period when the neuron can fire, but it needs a much stronger stimulus 474 It is either reabsorbed by the presynaptic cell in a process called reuptake, or it's deactivated by enzymes. These processes ke 475 Released at the neuromuscular junction to cause the contraction of skeletal muscles It is also involved in476 parasympathetic the Linked to pleasure and analgesis Exogenous endorphins (like morphine and heroin) are highly addictive) 477 Comprise two classes of neurotransmitters: Indolamines (serotonin) Catecholamines (dopamine) 478 Frequently present in fast-acting, directed synapses Two important amino acids: Glutamate (the most abundant excitatory ne 479 Alter transmission of neutrotransmitters 480 - Cause long-term changes in the postsynaptic cells - Like neurotransmitters 481 Drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter SSRIs increase serotonin activity 482 Drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter 483 Organizational Activational 484 H-Y Antigen Androgens Estrogen Menarche 485 - Presence during development causes a fetus to develop into a male - Absence cause develop into a female 486 Increase in the release of androgens (i.e. testosterone) in males and estrogen in females during puberty 487 causes the genitals to Onset of menstrual cycle in females 488 Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Oxytocin 489 Regulate the development of ovum and trigger ovulation in females In males they regulate the development of sperm cells an 490 Released from the pituitary and facilitates birth and breast feeding Also involved in pair bonding (mother/child or romantic p 491 helps regulate water levels in the body and therefore also helps to regulate blood pressure 492 Activates thyroid 493 Stress hormone that increases the production of androgens and cortisol 494 Stage - transitional state btwn wakefulness and sleep Stage - we spend > half of our sleeping time EEG waves are larger and o 495 % of sleep Interspersed with non-REM sleep every - minutes Dreams Fast-frequency, low-amplitude beta waves Paradoxical s 496 Occurs when people are deprived of REM sleep They will compensate by spending more time in REM sleep later in the night 497 - per night Lasts about min. Early in the night time is spend in Stage and sleep Stage and REM sleep predominate later in th 498 An infant sleeps about hr per day, in contrast to an elderly person who sleeps only about hours REM sleep comprises about 499 Drawing from Darwin's ideas of natural selection, Lorenz argued that certain kinds of aggression were necessary for the survi 500 Studied by Lorenz and Tinbergen An action by one individual which elicits an automatic, instinctual chain of behaviors from an 501 Instinctual, complex chains of behaviours triggered by releasing stimuli; four defining characteristics: are502 uniform patterns are one of the founders of modern ethology know for his use of models in naturalistic settings continued Lorenz's work with rele 503 Hungry chicks peck at the end of their parents' bills which have a red spot on the tip, the parent then regurgitates food for th 504 major figure in the study of animal behaviour discovered that honeybees communicate through a dance505 they perform al that Coined the term "fight or flight" Proposed the idea of homeostasis, the internal regulation of body to maintain equilibrium 506 Sperm/ovum in humans Haploid (contains single chromosomes) 507 Having pairs of chromosomes in each cell 508 How particular genotypes are selected out or eliminate from a population over time 509 Animals will be invested in the survival of not only their own genes but also the genes of their kin Kin selection creates inclusi 510 Internal rhythms that keep an animal in sync with the environment Circadian rhythms are endogenous rhythms that revolved 511 Also known as irrelevant behaviors Behaviors that seem out of place and illogical, and have no particular survival function (e. 512 The period in which a female of the species is sexual receptive Usually used to describe non-human mammals 513 An evolved form of deception Some harmless species of snakes, for example, mimic the coloration and patterning of poisono 514 Occurs when an animal replaces a trained or forced response with a natural or instinctive response 515 Chemicals detected by the vomeronasal organ that act as messengers between animals Exchange of pheromones is thought t 516 Prevent interbreeding between different species Behavioral isolation Geographic isolation Mechanical isolation Isolation by s 517

Courtship of display behavior of a particular species allows an individual to identify a mate within its own species Only a mem 518 Different species breed in different areas to prevent confusion or genetic mixing 519 Different species have incompatible genetic structures 520 When potentially compatible species mate during different seasons 521 SIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY 522 One of the earliest theories that behavior, intellect, and even personality might be linked to brain anatomy Franz Gall If a spe 523 AKA Ablation Various parts of the brain are surgically removed, and the behavioral consequences are observed 524 The First person to study the functions of the major sections of the brain Did this by extirpation on pigeons His work led to hi 525 Lived - Believed that it was important to study how the mind functioned in adapting to the environment526 view was among His A system of thought in psychology that was concerned with studying how mental processes help individuals adapt to their en 527 Lived from - His article is seen as functionalism's inception Criticized the concept of the reflex arc Believed that psychology sh 528 Examined the behavioral deficits of people with brain damage First person to demonstrate that specific functional impairmen 529 Injured in when an explosive charge sent an iron rod through the front of his skull Survived the injury with relatively minor ph 530 Identified the law of specific nerve energies States that each sensory nerve is excited by only one kind of531 energy Furthermore The first to measure the speed of a nerve impulse Often credited with the transition of psychology into the field of the natura 532 First inferred the existence of synapses 533 Sensory neurons Motor neurons Interneurons 534 AKA afferent neurons Transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain 535 AKA Efferent neurons Transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles 536 Found between other neurons and are the most numerous of the three types of neurons Located predominately in the brain 537 Receptors detect stimulus Sensation signal is transmitted by sensory neurons up to the spinal cord Sensory neurons connect 538 Receptors detect stimulus Sensation signal is transmitted by sensory neurons up to the spinal cord Sensory neurons connect 539 Criticized the breaking down of reflex processes into separate stimuli and responses Preferred to study the process as a whol 540 . The Peripheral Nervous System and . The Central Nervous System 541 -the brain -the spinal cord 542 Made up of the nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body Div 543 Parasympathetic & Sympathetic 544 Consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin and muscles Sensory neurons transmit information th 545 Functions that are automatic and not under conscious control Heartbeat; Respiration; Digestion; Glandular Secretions; Body t 546 Antagonistic; Often act in opposition to one another The sympathetic nervous system acts to accelerate547 heartbeat and inhibi Main role is to conserve energy Associated with resting and sleeping states Acts to reduce heart and respiration rates Respon 548 Activated whenever you face stressful situations (from mild stress to critical situations) Closely associate549 fear and rage re with Increase in heart rate, blood-sugar level, and respiration; Decrease digestive process Cause pupils to dilate in order to increas 550 Hindbrain Midbrain Forebrain The brain structure associated with basic survival are located at the base of the brain, and that 551 Located where the brain meets the spinal cord Primary functions include balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, a 552 Located just above the hindbrain Manages sensorimotor reflexes that also promote survival Receives sensory and motor info 553 Located above the midbrain Associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes Associated with emotio 554 In evolutionary terms, the most necessary areas for survival were created first, and are at the bottom 555 Brainstem (hindbrain and midbrain) Limbic system Cerebral cortex 556 The term for evolutionary development in humans 557 A group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory Aggression, fear, pleasure, an dpain 558 The outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres Associated with everything from language processing to559 problem solving, and In the hindbrain A lower brain structure Responsible for regulating vital functions such for regulating vital functions such as br 560 Lies above the medulla Contains sensory and motor tracts between the cortex and the medulla 561 At the top of the hindbrain, mushrooming out of the pons A structure that helps maintain posture and balance and coordinat 562 Associate with arousal, alertness, and attention Extends from the hindbrain into the midbrain Composed of an intricate netw 563 Associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli 564

Prominent nuclei in the midbrain Superior colliculus receives visual sensory input Inferior colliculus receives auditory sensory 565 Above the midbrain Divided into two cerebral hemispheres 566 In the forebrain Serves as an important relay station for incoming sensory information, including all senses except for smell A 567 In the forebrain; Subdivided into the lateral hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalamus, and anterior hypothalamus; Serves h 568 Homeostatic functions are self-regulatory processes that maintain a stable equilibrium within the body Walter Cannon develo 569 Referred to as the hunger center Has special receptors thought to detect when your body needs more food or fluids When th 570 Refusal to eat and drink 571 "Satiety center" Tell you when you've had enough to eat Lesions in this area usually lead to obesity 572 Excessive eating 573 When cerebral cortex was removed but hypo. left in place, the cat displayed a pattern of pseudo-aggressive behavior called " 574 Sexual Activity Stimulation causes an increase in aggressive sexual behavior Lab animals are willing to mount just about anyth 575 Coordinates muscle movement as it receives information from the cortex and relays this information (via the extrapyramidal 576 Gathers information about body position from areas such as the basal ganglia and carries this information to the brain and sp 577 Fluid-filled cavities in the middle of the brain that link up with the spinal canal that runs down the middle of the spinal cord V 578 Comprises a group of interconnected structures looping around the central portion of the brain, and is primarily associated w 579 One of the primary pleasure centers in the brain Mild stimulaion is reported to be intensely pleasurable 580 sexually arousing and Discovered septum in the s Demonstrated that when rats could stimulate their septal regions at will, the581 found it so plea rats Plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors Has a dual effect on behavior When damaged, aggression and f 582 Performed studies that linked the amydala with defensive and aggressive behavior in monkeys Identified changes in animals t 583 Plays a vital role in learning and memory proccesses 584 Suffered from epileptic seizures Underwent surgery to to remove parts of the temporal lobes, including 585 amygdala and hip the Characterized by not being able to establish new long-term memories, whereas memory for distant events is usually intact 586 The inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or operation 587 Outer surface of the brain AKA neocortex--latest brain region to evolve Has convolution, which provides588 increased cellular ma Folding-in and out of the cerebral cortex that increases surface area of the brain Numerous bumps and folds 589 Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Temporal lobe 590 Comprised of two basic regions: Prefrontal lobes Motor corted 591 Serves an executive function in which itsupervises/directs operations of other brain regions; Supervises processesassociated 592 An area that combines input from diverse brain regions Ex.: Multiple inputs may be necessary to solve a 593 complex puzzle, to p Receives incoming sensory information Sends out motor-impulse commands Examples include the visual cortex, which receiv 594 Impairs its overall supervisory functions A person with a prefrontal lesion may be more impulsive and generally less in contro 595 Used in the s to treat schizophrenia Surgeons would insert a scalpel through ahold in the skull and disconnect the frontal lobe 596 Initiates voluntary moves by sending neural impulses down spinal cord toward muscles Neurons are arranged according to th 597 Part of the frontal lobe Articulation center Vitally important for speech production Controls muscles necessary for speech pro 598 Located to the rear of the frontal lobe Contains the somatosensory cortex Central region of the lobe is associated with spatia 599 In the forward part of the parietal lobe Destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain 600 At the very rear of the brain Contain the visual cortex Also associated with learning and motor control 601 Furrowed or striped Primary visual cortex In occipital lobe 602 Contain auditory cortex and Wernike's area Serves in memory processing, emotional control, and language Stimulation and e 603 Associated with language reception and comprehension This area of the brain that enables us to understand spoken and writ 604 Usually, one side of the brain communicates with opposite side of the body (contralaterally) Ex. Motor Neurons In other case 605 Because the brain mostly communicates contralaterally with the body, the dominant hemisphere is generally located opposit 606 Primarily analytic in function Usually left Well-suited to manage details Language, logic, and math skills are all located in the d 607 Serves a less prominent role in language More sensitive to the emotional tone of spoken language, and permits us to recogni 608 Studied the effects of severing corpus callosum in epileptic patients with severe seizures Sperry determined that the cc allow 609 Cell body (aka soma) Dendrites Axon Terminal Buttons 610 Contains nucleus of the cell, making it the neuron's energy center 611

Branch out form the cell body to receive incoming information from other neurons via postsynaptic receptors External stimul 612 The part of neuron that transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or glands 613 Exist in great number at the end of the axon Contain tiny vesicles, or sacs, filled with neurotransmitters 614 Chemical substances that the vesicles release whenever the neuron "fires" Flow into the tiny space separating terminal butto 615 All info passing btwn neurons via neurotransmitters must make it across a tiny gap called the synapse Depending on which ne 616 Insulate axons by enclosing individual axons in a protective myelin sheath (though not all axons are myelinated) 617 Insulates nerve fibers from one another Divided into myelinate and unmyelinated areas along the axons, which allows an imp 618 Most axons are myelinated; dendrites are not Axons keep their shape; dendrites' branching pattern can 619 change over lifetime Within the neuron Electrical process 620 Between the neurons Chemical process 621 Slight negative electrical charge--just waiting to be transformed into a nerve impulse Stored inside the neuron's cell membran 622 Semipermeable thin layer of fatty molecules that separates the inside of the neuron from the outside Plays an important role 623 Smaller ions can pass through the cell membrane, but larger ions are blocked Many large ions trapped inside the cell membra 624 A special transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that transports sodium (positive) out of the cell and potas 625 Resting potential Depolarization Action Potential Spike Hyperpolarization 626 When a cell membrane is at its resting potential, it is polarized The polarization associated with the resting potential is about 627 2nd stage in action potential Actual "firing of the neuron" Occurs when a stimulus has been significant enough to cause the m 628 3rd stage of fire Membrane allows Na into the cell Charge become positive Then the cell membrane is repolarized, and quickl 629 Last stage in fire The restoration of membrane's negative charge happens so quickly that the membrane630 briefly overshoots it Once an action potential is triggered, the neuron can't fire again until the action potential completes part of its firing cycle Div 631 Period corresponding to the depolarization (the inrush of Na+_ Achievement of the action potential During this period, the ne 632 Begins once the neuron has achieved its action potential spike Corresponds to repolarization (when K+ ions rush out) Often th 633 When depolarization reaches the critical threshold, - mV, the neuron is going to fire, each time, every time Once the action p 634 A small elevation on a neuron where the axon meets the cell body Point of origin of action potential Where graded potential 635 Basic function is to insulate the axon and to speed up conduction 636 Efficient conduction along a myelinated axon 637 Gaps between myelin sheath on axon The depolarization actually occurs at the nodes, the conduction jumping from node to n 638 End of the axon Positioned close to, but not touching, the dendrite of an adjacent neuron (Space between terminal button an 639 The membrane of the terminal button that faces the synapse In this are tiny sacks called vesicles that store neurotransmitter 640 Within the dendrite Has receptors on it 641 These chemical substances flood into the synapse Within the synapse, things can happen They can attach themselves to re 642 Specific kinds of neurotransmitters bind to specific kinds receptor sites in a lock and key fashion If the transmitter does fit and 643 Postsynaptic potentials' (in the dendrites) voltage vary in intensity Not subject to the all-or-nothing law that applies to action 644 Studied sea slug Aplysia, because they have few, large, easily identifiable nerve cells Would touch their gills; they'd gradually 645 Neurotransmitter found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems In the parasympathetic nervous system, acetylch 646 An illness resulting in progressive and incurable memory loss Alzheimer's disease is specifically associated with a loss of acety 647 Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine are three clsoely related neurotransmitters Due to similarities in the molecular c 648 AKA noradrenaline Helps control alertness and wakefulness Implicated in mood disorders such as depression and mania One 649 Neurotransmitter that plays an important role in movement and posture High concentrations of dopamine are normally foun 650 Delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from an overs 651 Enhance the action of dopamine at the synapse If taken over a long period of time amphetamines produce excessive dopami 652 Thought to reduce the sensitivity of dopamine receptors The less sensitive the receptors are to dopamine, the less likely the p 653 Parkinson's is thought to result from a loss of dopamine-sensitive neurons n the basil ganglia (spec. the substantia nigra) Disru 654 When antipsychotic medication is given to people with schizophrenia over a long period of time, there is an interference with 655 Researchers tried giving Parkinson's patients oral doses of dopamine, but this did not work When ingested orally, the dopami 656 Synthetic substance that increases dopamine levels in the brain L-dopa can make it past the blood-brain657 barrier to increase p Loosely classified as a monoamine or biogenic amine transmitter Generally thought to play roles in regulating mood, eating, s 658

It is worth emphasizing the similarities between theories linking oversupplies of norepinephrine or serotonin to mania, and u 659 Gamma-amino butyric acid Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials Thought to play an important role in stabilizing neura 660 Two or more amino acids joined together Also involved in neurotransmission Ex: Neuromodulaters; Endorphins; Enkephalins 661 Peptides AKA neuropeptides Synaptic action involves a more complicated chain of events in the postsynaptic cell than that of 662 Natural painkillers produced in the brain Most important peptides to know about Endorphins and enkephalins are very simila 663 AKA adrenaline Associated with "Fight or flight" responses 664 AKA depressants Act to slow down the functioning of the CNS At low doses, these drugs reduce anxiety; 665 at medium doses, th Drugs are additive in effect Their combined effect is greater than either drug alone 666 Tranquilizers often used to reduce anxiety Facilitate and enhance the action of GABA, which stabilizes brain activity Ex: Valium 667 Relatively potent tranquilizers used as sedatives These drugs facilitate and enhance the action of GABA, 668 stabilizes brain which A common sedative-hypnotic Abuse can result in memory disturbances, such as blackouts 669 Produces serious disturbances in memory One of the major symptoms is anterograde amnesia Sometimes indirectly results fr 670 A class of drugs that increase behavioral activity by increasing motor activity or by counteracting fatigue671 Amphetamines spee Classified as behavioral stimulants Used to treat symptoms of clinical depression Often elevate mood, increase overall activit 672 Thought to reduce depression by facilitating the transmission of norepinephrine or serotonin at the synapse They are called t 673 Inhibit the action of an enzyme called MAO, which normally breaks down and deactivates norepinephrine and serotonin in th 674 Better known as Ritalin Amphetamine used to treat hyperactive children who suffer from ADD This behavioral stimulant incre 675 Thorazine, chlorpromazine, phenothiazine, and haloperidol (Haldol) Effective in treating the delusional thinking, hallucination 676 Prescribed to treat bipolar disorder Effective mood stabilizer and eliminates - percent of symptoms of bipolar disorder Preven 677 Opium, heroin, and morphine Among the most effective pain-relieving drugs available Man bind directly678opiate receptors i to Mixed class of drugs that alter sensory perception and cognitive processes Illegal Cannabis, mescaline, psilocybin 679 Internal communication network Uses chemical messengers called hormones Slower than nervous system, bc hormones trav 680 Produces the hormone adrenaline (aka norephinephrine) that increases energy available for fight or flight reactions Adrenalin 681 "Master gland" of the endocrine system; Works with the hypothalamus; Divided into anterior and posterior pitutaries; Secret 682 The master Releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands Controlled by the hypothalamus 683 Hormones that are regulated by the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary also play a role in initiating, maintaining and halting 684 kinds: X chromosomes and Y chromosomes At conception, an embryo always inherits an X chromosome685 mom but may r from Hormones required during critical stages of male fetal development Most important androgen is testosterone Just after conc 686 If the genetically male fetus does not produce or cannot use androgens, development will follow the female pattern 687 Anatomic development of a female fetus does not need female hormones, but merely the absence of androgens 688 Chemical messengers produced and released by pituitary gland during puberty Activate a dramatic increase in the production 689 Secreted by pituitary gland for menstrual cycle Stimulates the growth of an ovarian follicle, which is a small-protective sphere 690 Hormone produced by the pituitary gland Promotes ovulation 691 The release of the egg from one of the ovaries During this cycle the ovaries manufacture and secrete two hormones: estroge 692 Increasing levels of estrogen are associated with maturation and release of the egg from the ovary 693 The function of progesterone is to prepare the uterus for implantation of the fertilized egg 694 AKA Extirpation Refers to any surgically induced brain lesion Researchers might also produce lesions by inserting tiny electrod 695 Device used to locate brain areas when electrodes are implanted to make lesions or stimulate nerve cell696 activity Mapped the motor cortex and the somatosensory cortex Worked with epileptic patients by destroying neural cells where the 697 Detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain When a specific cogniti 698 Neurological disorders characterized by a loss in intellectual functioning Alzheimer's (most severe); Huntington's chorea; Park 699 Impairment of language functions Broca's aphasia: disturbs ability to produce language Wernicke's aphasia: Disturbs ability to 700 Impairment of memory functions Anterograde amnesia: disturbs memory for events after brain injury occurs Retrograde amn 701 Impairment in perceptual recognition of objects Visual agnosia: disturbs visual recognition Tactile agnosia: disturbs tactile (to 702 Impairment of skilled motor movements 703 A neural structure in the brain stem Keeps our cortex awake and alert If disconnected from the cortex, the result will be that 704 Internally generated rhythms that regulate daily cycle of waking / sleeping Approximates a -hr cycle that705 is somewhat affecte

Have a high frequency Occur when the person is alert or attending to some mental task that requires concentration Occur wh 706 Occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed, and are somewhat slower than beta waves707 synchronized t More Detected on the EEG by short bursts of alpha waves EEG activity is characterized by slower frequencies and the waveform be 708 EEG shows Theta Waves Progressively slower K complexes occur (spindles) 709 EEG activity grows progressively slower until only a few sleep waves per second are seen These low-frequency, high voltage 710 Deepest sleep state of the full sleep cycle The delta waveform reaches its slowest rate and the sleep spindles are at their stee 711 We spend proportionally more time in REM sleep than during any other time in the life span Also called 712 desynchronized sleep People begin to experience extreme distress They sometimes have hallucinations that resemble symptoms of psychotic disor 713 Tend to become irritable during waking states Have trouble concentrating After they are allowed to sleep without being distu 714 A disturbance affecting the ability to fall asleep and/or stay asleep 715 A condition characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep The narcoleptic has sudden, brief periods of sle 716 An inability to breathe during sleep, sometimes for more than a minute People with this disorder awaken often during the nig 717 William James and Carl Lange; Proposed late th century We become aware of our emotion after we notice our physiological r 718 Walter Cannon and Philip Bard Awareness of emotions reflects our physiological arousal and our cognitive experience of emo 719 AKA Two-Factor Theory of Emotion; Stanley Schacter & J. E. Singer; Experience of emotion is based on the interaction betwee 720 French anatomist who identified the part of the brain primarily associated with producing spoken language (Broca's area) 721 Physiologist who studied the autonomic nervous system, including "fight of flight" reactions Investigated homeostasis With B 722 Demonstrated that simple learning behavior in sea snails (aplaysia) is associated with changes in neurotransmission 723 Proposed the James-Lange two-factor theory of emotions 724 Studied loss of normal fear and rage reactions in monkeys resulting from damage to temporal lobes Also studied the amygda 725 Russian neurologist who studied how brain damage leads to impairment in sensory, motor, and language functions 726 Studied severe anterograde amnesia in H.M., a patient whose hippocampus and temporal lobes were removed surgically to c 727 Demonstrated existence of pleasure center in the brain using "self-stimulation" studies in rats 728 Canadian neurosurgeon who used electrodes and electrical simulation techniques to "map" out different parts of the brain du 729 Proposed the Schachter-Singer theory of emotions 730 English physiologist who first inferred the existence of synapse 731 Investigated functional differences between left and right cerebral hemispheres using "split-brain" studies 732 German neurologist who identified the part of the brain primarily associated with understanding spoken733 language--i.e. Werni SONALITY AND ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY 734 Characterized people by body type and related it to personality Endomorphic (soft and spherical) Mesomorphic (hard, muscu 735 Suggested that the development of psychology is due not primarily to the efforts of people, but to Zeitgeist, or the changing s 736 Method of introspection formed the system of psychology called structuralism 737 Developed mid th century Opposed the pessimism of of the psychoanalysis and the robotic concepts of behaviorism Believe i 738 Started mental asylum reform in 739 From to she was a zealous advocate of treating the hospitalized mentally ill in a humane way Her campaign was instrumenta 740 A disorder characterized by delusions of grandeur, mental deterioration, eventual paralysis, and death Discovered late th cen 741 Introduced the use of the electroshock for the artificial production of convulsive seizures in psychiatric patients in They thou 742 Introduced in the s Caused an end to lobotomies and ECT treatment Many patients were able to return to society 743 In , published a textbook in which he noted that some symptoms of mental disorders occurred together 744 regularly enough tha Governed by the id Functioning according to the pleasure principle Id's response to frustration operating under the dictum of 745 Sigmund Freud's theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled 746 Freud Functioning of the ego 747 Operates according to the reality principle 748 Conscious -punishment of improper behavior - guilt is a function of Ego-ideal - rewards for proper behavior -inferiority feeling 749 An innate psychological representation of a bodily excitation Primary part of Freud's dynamic theory of personality Two gene 750 Freud AKA Eros Serve the purpose of individual survival (hunger, thirst, and sex) The form of energy by which the life instincts 751 People have a death instinct- an unconscious desire to be dead. Aggression is the deflection of the death instinct toward othe 752

Ego's recourse to releasing excessive pressures due to anxiety Deny, falsify, or distort reality Operate unconsciously 753 1.) Repression 2.) Denial 3.) Projection 4.) Reaction formation 5.) Rationalization 6.) Displacement 7.) Regression 8.) Sublimat 754 In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings 755 More deliberate, conscious form of forgetting 756 Psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others. 757 Psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thu 758 Developing a socially acceptable explanation for inappropriate behavior or thoughts 759 Transforming unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors 760 Pent-up feelings (usually hostility) are discharged on objects and people less dangerous than those causing the feelings 761 General life energy, of which sexual urges are only one aspect. This life force or energy manifests itself in our diverse feelings 762 The conscious mind 763 Divided into personal and collective 764 A powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors 765 Part of, and building blocks of, the collective unconscious Images that are a record of common experiences, such as having pa 766 Persona Anima/Animus Shadow Self 767 Jungian archetype a mask that is adopted by a person in response to the demands of social convention Originates from social 768 Anima is feminine Animus is masculine They help us to understand: Gender Feminine behaviors in males769 Masculine behaviors Jungian Archetype Consists of animal instincts humans inherited in their evolution from lower forms of life Responsible for th 770 Jungian The person's striving for unity, and is the point of intersection between the collective unconscious and the conscious 771 Extroversion Orientation to the external, objective world Introversion Orientation to the inner, subjective world Both present 772 Thinking, feeling, sensing, intuiting One of the four is more differentiated than the other three Believed that these systems, a 773 Focused on the immediate social imperatives of family and society and their effects on unconscious factors Originator of the 774 Adler The force by which each individual shapes his or her uniqueness and makes his or her own personality 775 Adler Represents the manifestation of the creative self Describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority Family enviro 776 Adler An individual is motivated more by his or her expectations of the future than by past experiences Human goals are base 777 Postulated that the neurotic personality is governed by one of ten needs Each of these needs is directed778 toward making life a . Affection . To be dominated . Power . Exploitation . Prestige . Admiration . Achievement . Independence . Perfection . Need t 779 Disproportionate in intensity Indiscriminate in application Partially disregard reality They have a tendency to provoke intense 780 Based on the premise that a child's early perception of the self is important A sense of helplessness as a 781 confuses the ch child Moving toward people to obtain the good will of people who provide security Moving against people, or782 fighting them to obt Healthy people use all three strategies, depending on the situation Unhealthy children, and adults, use one of the strategies r 783 Founder of Ego Psychology Worked with children Suggested that psychoanalytic theory and psychotherapy could profit from 784 Ego psychologist Extended psychoanalysis into the psychosocial realm His developmental framework to 785 describe the healthy Psychodynamic "Object" usually refers to the symbolic representation of a significant part of the young child's personality The 786 Used to free repressed thought from the patient's unconscious He stopped using this method in favor of787 methods other A technique whereby the client says whatever comes to his or her conscious mind regardless of how personal, painful, or see 788 Believed that the defenses are relaxed and the mind is freer to express forbidden wishes and desires during dream states Und 789 Unwillingness or inability to relate to certain dream material Missing a session Blocking associations Switching topics rapidly 790 Involves attributing to the therapist attitudes and feelings that developed in the patient's relations with 791 significant others in t Therapist has feelings toward the patient 792 Focus on current interpersonal relationships/life experiences, not childhood/psychosexual development793 Look first and foremost at behavior 794 Blended psychoanalytic concepts in a behavioral stimulus-response reinforcement learning theory approach Focused on conf 795 Considered personality to be a collection of behavior that happens to have been sufficiently reinforced to persist 796 Also contends that learning principles are sufficient to account for personality development Social learning theory: modeling 797 Learned helplessness (Dogs) Extrapolated this to the realm of human depression and locus of control Individuals who consiste 798 Consider the symptoms to be the disorder Proved to be successful with phobias, impulse control, and personal care maintena 799

Psychoanalysts do not believe that symptom relief is adequate therapy Underlying cause is still there, so800 symptoms will d new Gestalt theory Saw personality as dynamic Personality can be divided up into ever changing regions that801called systems Un he Must satisfy lower needs first Self-Actualization (most people don't get here) Esteem Love/Belonging Safety Physiological 802 Nonhostile sense of humor Originality Creativity Spontaneity Need for privacy More likely to have peak experiences Profound 803 People devise/test predictions about behaviors of people based on knowledge, perception, and their relationship with the pe 804 A process of insight in which the individual acquires new constructs that will allow him or her to successfully predict troubleso 805 Tend to emphasize the process of finding meaning in one's life by making one's own choices Tend to be viewed as stemming 806 Humanistic Most known for his psychotherapy technique known as client-centered, person-centered, nondirective Believed t 807 Survivor of Nazi Concentration camps Closely identified with the human search for meaning to existence808 Mental illness and m Attempt to characterize people according to specific types of personality 809 Type A personality is characterized by behavior that tends to be competitive and compulsive Type B is laid-back and relaxed T 810 Use factor analysis to measure personality in a comprehensive way, attempting to account for the underlying factors that det 811 Used factor analysis to develop a theory of personality Determined that the broad dimensions of personality were types, whi 812 Listed types of traits Cardinal Central Secondary Functional autonomy Distinguished between an idiographic and nomothetic 813 Allport Traits around which a person organinzed their whole life Not everyone develops cardinal traits 814 Allport Represent major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, such as honesty or fatalism 815 Allport More personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence 816 Allport A given activity or form of behavior may become an end or goal in itself, regardless of its original817 reason for existence Identified trait called the need for achievement (nAch) Ppl who are rated high in this tend to be concerned with achievement 818 Endeavored to draw a relationship between personality and world view Classified people according to their degree of field-de 819 Worked on internal and external locus of control Ppl with an internal loc tend to think that they can control their own destiny 820 Personality trait that refers to someone who is manipulative and deceitful Ppl who score high tend to agree with statements 821 The state as being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine 822 Theory on gender identity holds that because people can achieve high scores on measures of both masculinity and femininity 823 Challenged the idea of stable personality traits Believes that human behavior is largely determined by the characteristics of th 824 Axis I- clinical disorders Axis II- Personality Disorders/ mental retardation Axis III- General Medical Conditions Axis IV- psychos 825 ADD/ADHD Developmentally atypical inattention and/or impulsivity-hyperactivity Short attention spans 826 difficulty staying and Lack of responsiveness to others Repetitive behaviors; Inflexibly routined and stereotyped May not cuddle or make eye conta 827 Occurs in about two to five out of , individuals Only a small percentage of these individuals will be able to achieve an autonom 828 Tic disorder Characterized by multiple motor tics (eye blinking, skipping, deep knee bends) One or more 829 tics (grunts, ba vocal Coined in by Eugen Bleuler Before, it was called dementia praecox Means "split mind" Mind is split from reality 830 Behaviors, thoughts, or affects added to normal behavior Delusions and hallucinations Disorganized speech Disorganized and 831 Symptoms that involve the absence of normal or desired behavior Ex.: Flat affect 832 False beliefs Discordant with reality Maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary 833 An individual's belief that others are talking about him or her May believe that common elements in the834 environment are dire Involve the belief that the person is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, or threatened 835 The belief that he or she is a remarkable person, such as an inventor, historical figure, or even the Queen of England 836 Schizophrenic belief that one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to the external world 837 The schizophrenic belief that thoughts are inserted in one's head 838 Perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality Can occur in all sensory modalities Mo 839 Characterized by the loosening of associations Speech topics shift from one subject to another on unrelated subjects in such a 840 Schizophrenic behavior Speech so disorganzied that it will seem to have no structure 841 Schizophrenic patients will sometimes invent new words 842 Sever reduction in the intensity of affect expressing Common characteristic of schizophrenia 843 Common characteristic of schizophrenia There are virtually no signs of affective expression 844 Common characteristic of schizophrenia Affect is clearly discordant with the content of the individual's speech or ideation 845 Refers to various extreme behaviors characteristic of some people with schizophrenia Spontaneous movement and activity m 846

Before schizophrenia is diagnosed Characterized by poor adjustment Exemplified by clear evidence of deterioration, social wi 847 Development is slow and insidious Prognosis is poor 848 Onset of symptoms is sudden Prognosis is better 849 Primary symptom is a disturbance in motor behavior Alternation between extreme withdrawal of behavior (no movement, m 850 Characterized by a preoccupation with one or more delusions of frequent auditory hallucinations Relative preservation of cog 851 Formerly called hebephrenic schizophrenia Characterized by flat or inappropriate affect and disorganized speech and behavio 852 Diagnosed when the general criteria for the other categories are not met 853 There has been a previous schizophrenic episode, but positive psychotic symptoms are not currently displayed, although pati 854 Leading biochemical explanation Suggests that delusions, hallucinations and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise fro 855 As a child, the person with schizophrenia received contradictory and mutually incompatible messages from his or her primary 856 Bipolar I = One or more manic episodes or mixed episodes. Bipolar II = One or more Major Depressive Episodes combined wit 857 yrs Numerous cycling of moods that do not fit the criteria for Major Depressive episode or Mania 858 Hold that too much norepinephrine and serotonin lead to mania Too little leads to depression Theory is 859 simplistic An irrational fear of something that results in a compelling desire to avoid it 860 Anxiety is produced by a specific object or situation 861 Irrational fear of closed spaces 862 Irrational fear of heights 863 An irrational fear of dogs 864 Fear of being in open places or in situations where escape might be difficult Tend to be uncomfortable going outside their ho 865 Characterized by unexplained symptoms affective voluntary motor or sensory functions Examples include paralysis when the 866 Characterized by an inability to recall past experience 867 Amnesia that accompanies a sudden, unexpected move away from one's home or location of usual daily868 activities Confused a Person feels detached, like an outside observer of his or her mental processes and/or behavior Still has an intact sense of rea 869 Refusal to maintain a minimal normal body weight Has a distorted body image Believes that he or she is 870 overweight even wh Binge-eating accompanied by excessive attempts to compensate for it by purging, fasting, or excessive eating Maintain a norm 871 Pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression Show little desire fo 872 Grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation with fantasies of success, an exhibitionistic need for consta 873 Behavior that has features of both personality disorders and some of the more severe psychological disorders; Pervasive inst 874 Pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others Repeated illegal acts Deceitfulness Aggressiveness Lack of remo 875 Excessive stress operating on a person with a predisposition (diathesis) may lead to the development of 876 specific mental d the Efforts to seek out and eradicate conditions that foster mental illness and establish the conditions that foster mental health P 877 Studied the effect of diagnostic labels on the perception of behavior In experiment (), normal pseudopatients were admitted 878 Outspoken critic of labeling people "mentally ill" Symptoms are merely behaviors or traits that differ from cultural norm Wro 879 Titchener Breaks consciousness into elements by using introspection 880 James, Dewey Stream of consciousness Studies how mind functions to help people adapt to environment Attacked structural 881 Watson, Skinner Psychology as objective study of behavior Attacked mentalism and the use of introspection Attacked structu 882 Wertheimer, Khler, Koffka Whole is something other than the sum of its parts Attacked structuralism and behaviorism 883 Chomsky Behaviorism is not an adequate explanation for human behavior Humans think, believe, and are creative 884 Freud, Jung, Adler Behavior is a result of unconscious conflicts, repression, defense, mechansisms 885 Psychodynamic theorist best known for the concept of inferiority complex 886 Trait theorist known for the concept of functional autonomy Also distinguished between idiographic and nomothetic approac 887 Behaviorist theorist known for his social learning theory Did modeling experiment using Bobo doll 888 Suggested that masculinity and femininity were two separate dimensions Also linked with androgyny 889 Trait theorist who used factor analysis to study personality 890 Behaviorist theorists who attempted to study psychoanalytic concepts within a behaviorist framework Also known for their w 891 Ego psychologist whose psychosocial stages of development encompass entire lifespan 892 Trait theorist who proposed two main dimensions on which human personalities differ Introversion-Extroversion Emotional s 893

Founder of ego psychology 894 Originator of the psychodynamic approach to personality 895 Psychodynamic theorist who suggested there were tree ways to relate to others Moving toward Moving896 against Moving awa Psychodynamic theorist who broke with Freud over the concept of libido Suggested that the unconscious could be divided int 897 Based personality theory on the notion of "individual as scientist" 898 Object-relations theorist 899 Object-relations theorist 900 Phrenomenological personality theorist who developed field theory 901 Object Relations Theorist 902 Phenomenological personality theorist Known for developing the hierarchy of needs and for the concept of self-actualization 903 Studied need for achievement (nAch) 904 Critic of trait theories of personality 905 Pheonomenological personality theorist 906 Studied locus of control 907 Attempted to relate somatotype (body type) to personality type 908 Behaviorist 909 Object-relations Theorist 910 Studied field-dependence and field-independence using the rod and frame test A personality style characterized by an inabilit 911 912 Sensory, Short term, Long term 913 Lasts only for seconds Forms the connection between perception and memory 914 Sensory memory for vision studied by George Sperling found that people could see more than they can remember Partial rep 915 Coined the term icon for brief visual memory and found that an icon lasts for about one second Found backward masking: wh 916 Sensory memory for auditory sensations 917 Temporary Lasts for seconds or minutes 918 Temporary memory that i sneeded to perform the task that someone is working on at that moment 919 Found that short-term memory has the capacity of about seven items +/920 Grouping items Can increase capacity of STM 921 STM is thought to be largely auditory Items are coded phonologically 922 Repeating or practicing The key to keeping items in the STM and to transferring items to the long term memory Primary (mai 923 STM is susceptible Other information or distractions cause one to forget items in STM 924 Disrupting information that was learned before the new items were presented, such as a list of similar words Problematic for 925 Disrupting information that was learned after the new items were presented Problematic for recall and causes retroactive inh 926 Capable of permanent retention Most items are learned semantically, for meaning Measured by recognition, recall, and savin 927 Requires subjects to recognize things learned in the past Multiple choice tests 928 Subjects generate information on their own Cued recall begins the task (fill in the blank) Free recall is remembering with no c 929 Measures how much information about a subject remains in LTM by assessing how long it takes to learn930 something the secon Material in LTM is more likely to be remembered if it is retrieved in the same context in which it was stored 931 LTM is not subject to primacy and recency effects Subject to the same interference effects as STM 932 Episodic memory: Details, events, and discrete knowledge Semantic memory: general knowledge about 933 world the Procedural memory is knowing "how to" do something. Declarative memory is knowing a fact. 934 Knowing something and being consciously aware of knowing it 935 Knowing something without being aware of knowing it 936 Memory is reconstructive rather than rote Using the store of "War of the Ghosts", he discovered that people are more likely 937 Suggested the dual code hypothesis: items will be better remembered if they are coded both visually (icons/imagery) and sem 938 Asserted that learning and recall depend on the depth of processing Different levels of processing exist from the most superf 939 Explain memory through paired-associate learning One item is learned with, and then cues the recall of, 940 another

Found that memory of traumatic events is altered by the event itself and by the way that questions about the event are phra 941 Found that memories are stored diffusely in the brain 942 Posited that memory involves changes of synapses and neural pathways, making a "memory tree" 943 Similar ideas of Donald Hebb Studied the sea slug Aplysia Brain studies of young chicks show that their brains are altered with 944 Wrote about patient HM who was given a lesion of the hippocampus to treat severe epilepsy While he remembered things fr 945 A list (e.g. presidents) is learned and recalled in order Feedback on the correct responses in the correct order is given after th 946 Similar to serial learning Instead of being asked to recall the entire list, the subject is asked to recall one 947 at a time Given item We use this type of learning when we study foreign languages Learn that one word translates to a word 948 in native language A list of items is learned then must be recalled in any order with no cue 949 Acoustic dissimilarity Semantic dissimilarity Brevity (both in the length of the term and in the length of the list) Familiarity Con 950 Proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time. 951 Proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material 952 Memory cues that help learning and recall 953 Suggests that anything that one might recall should be easily recognized 954 Being on the verge of retrieval but not successfully doing so 955 Retrieval is more successful if it occurs in the same emotional state or physical state in which encoding occurred 956 Brain's tendency to group together similar items in memory whether they are learned together or not. Most often they are g 957 Subjects can more quickly state the order of two items that are far apart on the list than two items that are close together. Su 958 Accidental learning Measured through presenting subjects with items they are not supposed to try to memorize and then tes 959 Photographic memory 960 Recollections that seem burned into the brain 961 An instrument often used in cognitive or memory experiments Presents visual material (word or images) to subjects for a frac 962 Tendency to recall uncompleted tasks better than completed ones 963 964 Suggested the law of effect, which was the precursor of operant conditioning Law of effect postulated a 965 cause-and-effect cha Developed the theory of association, which was a forerunner of behaviorism Association is grouping things together based on 966 Won Nobel Prize for work on digestion Discovered classical conditioning 967 Expanded the ideas of Pavlov Founded the school of behaviorism Idea of learning (and all behavior) was 968 everything could that Conducted the first scientific experiments to prove the concepts in Thorndike's law of effect and in Watson's idea of the caus 969 UCS and CS are presented at the same time 970 AKA second order conditioning st CS is used as UCS to create a new CS 971 Pairing of the CS and the UCS in which the CS is presented before the UCS Two types of forward conditioning are delayed con 972 Presentation of the CS begins before that of the UCS Lasts until the UCS is presented 973 CS stimulus is presented and terminated before the UCS is presented 974 CS is presented after the UCS is presented Ineffective Accomplished inhibitory conditioning (forward conditioning less likely t 975 Shaping 976 A natural reinforcement Something that is reinforcing on its own without learning Food/water 977 A learned reinforcer Money/prestige/awards 978 Instinctual drives Hunger/thirst 979 Acquired drives Money or other learned reinforcers 980 Individuals are motivated simply to try something new or to explore their environment 981 Homeostasis 982 - Performance = Drive x Habit - Individuals are first motivated by drive and then they act according to old successful habits - T 983 Proposed expectancy-value theory Performance = Expectation x Value People are motivated by goals that they think they mig 984 Applied Tolman's expectancy-value theory to individual behaviour in large organizations Individuals who985 lowest on the to are Studied the possibility that people are motivated by a need for achievement This may be manifested through a need to pursu 986 Studied the possibility that people are motivated by a need for achievement This may be manifested through a need to pursu 987

Suggested a theory of motivation in which people who set realistic goals with intermediate risk sets feel 988 with accomplis pride - Approach-avoidance conflict - State one feels when a certain goal has both pros and cons - Further one989 is from the goal, the Theory that individuals are motivated solely by what brings the most pleasure and the least pain 990 Idea that people are motivated to do what they do not want to do by rewarding themselves afterward with something they l 991 Part of motivation An individual must be adequately aroused to learn or perform 992 Postulated that a medium amount of arousal is best for performance For simple tasks, the optimal level 993 of arousal is toward t On a graph, optimal arousal looks like an inverted U-curve, with lowest performance at the extremes of 994 arousal Any event that an organism reacts to The stimulus is the first link in a stimulus-response chain 995 The ability to discriminate between different but similar stimuli to tell what each it 996 Make the same response to a group of similar stimuli Though not all fire alarms sound alike, we know that they all require the 997 Failure to generalize a stimulus 998 Form of learning in which one links together chains of stimuli and responses One learns what to do in response to particular t 999 Refers to learning about something in general rather than learning-specific stimulus-response chains An individual learns abo 1000 Uses punishment to decrease the likelihood of a behavior People take antabuse, which makes them nauseous, to treat alcoho 1001 Teaches an animal how to avoid something the animal does not want 1002 Teaches an animal to perform a desired behavior to get away from a negative stimulus 1003 Evoking responses for the autonomic nervous system through training 1004 The concept that what a person learns in one state is best recalled in that state 1005 Takes place without reinforcement Actual learning is revealed at another time Ex. Observation 1006 Accidental Learning Unrelated items are grouped together 1007 When someone learns that a specific action causes an event, then the two are really unrelated 1008 Act of linking together a series of behaviors that ultimately result in reinforcement One behavior triggers the next and so on L 1009 Decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus as a result of increasing familiarity with the stimulus 1010 Increased sensitivity to the environment following the presentation of a strong stimulus 1011 Classical conditioning concept referring to an animal's inability to infer a relationship between a particular stimulus and respo 1012 Experiments in which an apparatus allows an animal to control its reinforcements through behaviors, such as bar pressing or 1013 Individuals learn through their culture People learn what are acceptable and unacceptable behaviors through interacting in so 1014 Learning something by watching 1015 Social learning concept Learning and behaving by imitating others Bandura: Bobo doll 1016 Studied conditioned nausea with rats and found that invariably nausea was perceived to be connected 1017 or drink; was u to food Performed experiments in which electrical stimulation of pleasure centers in the brain were used as positive reinforcement; a 1018 Continuous are easier to learn (riding a bicycle) Discrete are divided up into parts that don't facilitate the recall of each other 1019 Previous learning that makes it easier to learn another task later 1020 Previous learning that makes it more difficult to learn a new task 1021 Age affects learning Humans are primed to learn between the ages of and Ability to learn remains constant from - After , ab 1022 Wrote the first educational psychology textbook in Developed various methods to assess students' skills and teaching effecti 1023 A set of characteristics that are indicative of a person's ability to learn 1024 Students working together on a project in small groups 1025 Occurs when a teacher encourages the student to learn independently and only provides assistance with topics or concepts t 1026 A mental construct that cannot be specifically be defined Not IQ 1027 The score one receives on an "intelligence" test It is unlikely that IQ captures all facets of intelligence Still most commonly com 1028 Developed both the concept of the IQ and the first intelligence test (Binet scale) 1029 Mental age is the age level of a person's functioning according to the IQ test The highest chronological 1030 age used in the compu SD of or depending on the test 1031 Revised the Binet test to make the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale Used with children and is organized by age level Of all the 1032 WAIS Most commonly used intelligence test for adults Like all of the Wechsler intelligence tests, it is organized by subtests th 1033 WISC-R For children aged six to sixteen 1034

WPPSI For children aged 1035 For children Notable for its (relatively) cross-cultural application and simple directions "Make a picture 1036man. Make the v of a IQ of biological parents SES status of parents (measured by income or job-type) 1037 Found that fluid intelligence (knowing how to do something) declines with old age while crystallized intelligence (knowing a f 1038 Found that firstborns were slightly more intelligent than second-borns and so on He also found that the more children in a fa 1039 Believed there was a general factor in human intelligence, which he termed "g" 1040 Measure how well you know a particular subject They measure past learning 1041 Supposedly measure your innate ability to learn (but this is constantly debated) These tests are intended to predict later perf 1042 Do not allow subjects to make up their own answers, so these tests are relatively structured Structured tests are often seen a 1043 Q-measure technique is the process of sorting cards into a normal distribution Each card has a different statement on it perta 1044 MMPI; originally created to determine mental illness, but it is now used as a personality measure; The MMPI consists of "tru 1045 CPI A personality measure generally used for more "normal" and less clinical groups than the MMPI It was developed by Harr 1046 MBTI A personality test derived form Carl Jung's personality theory The MBTI consists of questions, which each have answer 1047 Introverted vs. Extroverted Sensing vs. Intuition Feeling vs. Thinking Judgment vs. Perception 1048 Created the Internal-External Locus of Control Scale to determine whether a person feels responsible for the things that happ 1049 Allow the subject to create his own answer, thus facilitating the expression of conflicts, needs, and impulses The content of th 1050 Requires that the subject describe what he sees in each of ten inkblots Scoring is complex The validity of the test is questiona 1051 TAT Made up of cards ( blank and with pics) The pictures show various interpersonal scenes with ppl facing each other The s 1052 Consists of cartoons in which one person is frustrating another person The subject is asked to describe 1053 the frustrated pe how Originally used in conjunction with free-association techniques A word is called out by a psychologist, and the subject says the 1054 Similar to word association Subjects finish incomplete sentences 1055 Asks the subject to draw a person of each sex and to tell a story about them 1056 BDI Not used to diagnose depression Rather, it is used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms Can be used by a resear 1057 AKA Criterion keying approach An way of constructing assessment instruments Selects items that discriminate between group 1058 Assess to what extent an individual's interests and strengths match those already found by professionals in a particular job fie 1059 Measure the arousal of the sympathetic nervous system, which becomes stimulated by lying (and anxiety) 1060 Extremely critical of personality trait-theory and of personality tests in general Felt that situations (not 1061 decide actions traits) Researched intelligence in relation to performance 1062 F-Ratio Measurement of fascism or authoritarian personality 1063 Not intelligence tests They measure the sensory and motor development of infants in order to identify 1064 mentally retarded chil Refers to how a researcher attempts to examine a hypothesis Different questions call for different approaches Some approac 1065 A testable hypothesis A reproducible experiment that can be replicated by other scientists An operationalized definition (obs 1066 An experiment that takes place in a naturalistic setting Generally have much less control over the environment than laborato 1067 Takes placein a controlled setting, usually a lab In order to draw causal conclusions from an experiment, the researcher must 1068 Aims to match the demographic characteristics of the population with the demographic characteristics1069 sample of the Studying the same objects at different points in the lifespan and provides better, more valid results than most other methods 1070 Different subjects of different ages are compared Faster and easier than longitudinal design 1071 Combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches Design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal elements by fol 1072 Tests the same person at multiple time points and looks at changes within that person 1073 Compares groups of people at the same time point 1074 Compares groups of people like an experiment, but there isn't random selection 1075 Neither the subject nor the experimental knows whether the subject is assigned to the treatment or to1076control group the An inactive substance or condition disguised as a treatment substance or condition It is used for the control group 1077 The degree to which an independent variable can predict a dependent variable 1078 The degree to which the results from an experiment can be applied to the population and the real world 1079 Research problem When people agree with opposing statements 1080 Research problem The effects that might result when a group is born and raised in a particular time period 1081

Research problem When subjects act in ways they think the experimenter wants or expects 1082 Research problem When researcher see what they want to see AKA Rosenthal effect Minimized in double-blind study 1083 Research problem When subjects alter their behavior because they are being observed This also applied to workers altering t 1084 Problematic type of control group Used when an equivalent control group cannot be isolated 1085 When subjects behave differently just because they think that they have received the treatment substance or condition 1086 An attitude change in response to feeling that options are limited 1087 When the subjects that drop out of an experiment are different from those that remain The remaining 1088 is no longer ra sample When subjects do and say what they think puts them in a favorable light 1089 When a relationship is inferred when there actually is none 1090 A method of study that mathematically combines and summarizes the overall effects or research findings for a particular top 1091 A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure that ethical standards have been met. 1092 Process of representing or analyzing numerical data 1093 Organize data from a sample by showing it in a meaningful way They do not allow conclusions to be drawn beyond the sampl 1094 Percentiles . Frequency distributions . Graphs . Measures of central tendency . Variability 1095 Used most commonly on standardized tests Ranking shows percentage of test takers that scored lower1096 Explain how the data in a study looked The distributions might show how often different variables appeared 1097 These variables are simply given descriptive names There is no order or relationship among the variables except to separate t 1098 Variables need to be arranged by order and that is all Nothing else can be known because the variables1099not necessarily eq are Capable of showing order and spacing because equal spaces lie between the values 1100 Have order Equal intervals True zero 1101 Used to plot data 1102 Has plotted points connecting by lines Often used to plot continuous variables 1103 Consists of vertical bars in which the sides of the vertical bars touch Useful for discrete variables that have clear boundaries a 1104 Like a histogram except that the vertical bars do not touch Various vertical columns are separated by spaces 1105 Indicate where on a number line data falls in general 1106 Provides information about central tendency Tells you how the scores are spread out overall 1107 Bell curve Unimodal % within SD; another % (%) within ; another % (%) within SD 1108 A curvilinear relationship is not simple and linear It looks like a curved line Zero correlation There is no1109 correlation between t Range from - to + A value of - indicates a perfect negative correlation A value of + indicates a perfect positive relationship A v 1110 Used only when the data is in the form of ranks Determines the line that describes a linear relationship1111 The step beyond simple correlations A statistical regression allows you to not only identify a relationship between two variab 1112 Rejection of null hypothesis when it's really true AKA alpha error You thought the findings were significant but they weren't 1113 When you wrongly accept the null hypothesis Tests showed the findings to be insignificant when they 1114 significant Beta E were Compare the of two (and only ) different groups to see if the two groups are truly different This would mean the difference 1115 Used when the cases in a sample are classified into categories or cells Tell us whether the groups are significantly different in 1116 Highly utilized test because of its flexibility Similar to the t-test in that it analyzes the differences among means of continuous 1117 Simply tests whether the means on one outcome or dependent variable are significantly different across groups 1118 Can test the effects of two independent variables or treatment conditions at once 1119 Used when an experiment involves more than one IV Can separate the effects of different levels of different variables Can iso 1120 Tests whether at last two groups co-vary Can adjust for preexisting differences between groups 1121 Straight-line mathematical model to describe the functional relationships between independent and dependent variables Y=b 1122 Tried out on huge groups of people Used to create norms 1123 Measure mastery in a particular area or subject 1124 Attempt to measure less-defined properties Need to be checked for reliability and validity 1125 Means how stable the measure is Evaluated by test-retest and split-half 1126 Measured by the same individual taking the same test more than once 1127 Correlation of an individual's total score on / of the test w/ the total score on the other half Also evaluates Internal Consisten 1128

Internal consistency of a test Analyze how a large group responded to each item Weeds out bad questions 1129 Means how well the test is constructed 1130 Measures the extent to which the different items within a measure "hang together" and test the same 1131 thing The extent to which a test measures what it intends to measure aspects: Concurrent validity Construct1132 validity Content valid Whether scores on a new measure positively correlate with other measures known to test the same construct 1133 Whether the test really tests the abstract concept being measured 1134 Whether the content of the test covers a good sample of the construct being measured 1135 Whether the test items simply look like they measure the construct 1136 Created multitrait-multimethod technique to determine validity of tests LEARNING AND ETIOLOGY 1137 - Functionalist Studied learning Also considered a behaviorist; observed animals Developed the law of effect, which formed th 1138 Behaviorist In , did Little Albert experiment 1139 Became the dominant system of psychology after Watson Until around 1140 Theory of motivation, or drive-reduction theory Suggested that the goad of behavior is to reduce biological drives Reinforcem 1141 s Imprinted on baby geese 1142 Study animals in their natural environment, instead of labs 1143 Presenting the CS first, followed by the UCS 1144 Presenting the UCS first, followed by the CS Generally unsuccessful 1145 The period during which an organism is learning the association of the stimuli in CC 1146 Repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS 1147 After extinction and a period of rest, presenting the CS without the UCS will again elicit a weak CR 1148 After conditioning, the tendency for stimuli similar to the original CS to elicit the CR 1149 stages of classical conditioning Associate UCS with CS Pair CS with a neutral stimulus Eventually the neutral stimulus will elicit 1150 Associate two neutral stimuli (N and N) Associate N with UCS After learning, N will elicit CR even though N and UCS were neve 1151 Late s Contingency explanation of classical conditioning: To the extent that the CS is a good signal and that it has information 1152 CS must be a good signal for UCS and provides nonredundant information about the occurrence of the 1153Different from sec UCS Continguity: CS and UCS are near in time Contingency: CS is a good signal for UCS 1154 Pioneer of operant conditioning Proposed the law of effect If a response is followed by an annoying consequence, the animal 1155 Came up with the terms Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Extinction 1156 Behavior is encouraged by removing something undesirable Escape: action will remove a present undesirable stimulus Avoida 1157 Negative reinforcement wants to increase a certain behavior Punishment wants to decrease a certain behavior 1158 Stimulus that signals whether a certain response or behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished 1159 Extinction is longer for those whose action elicited positive reinforcement only sometimes 1160 Operant conditioning reinforcement schedule Behavior will be reinforced after a fixed number of responses 1161 Operant conditioning reinforcement schedule Behavior will be reinforced after a varying number of responses 1162 Operant conditioning reinforcement schedule Behavior will be reinforced for the first response after a fixed period of time ha 1163 Operant conditioning reinforcement schedule Behavior will be reinforced for the first response after varying period has elaps 1164 Operant conditioning reinforcement schedule Reinforcement occurs after every response 1165 Operant conditioning procedure Reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior 1166 Based on either classical or operant conditioning 1167 Used primarily for phobias but also OCD Flooding Implosion Systematic desensitization Conditioned aversion 1168 Based on CC Expose client to CS with the UCS that originally elicited the fear 1169 Based on CC Same principle as flooding Client only imagines the fearful situation By intensely concentrating on the fearful sti 1170 Joseph Wolpe Based on CC Forcing the client to imagine the feared object in increasingly anxiety-provoking situations while s 1171 Want to stop a behavior Based on CC Pair unwanted behavior with aversive UCS 1172 Goal is to change the client's behavior by changing the reinforcement contingency that is associated with the behavior Called 1173 Based on operant conditioning A written agreement that explicitly states that consequences of certain 1174Useful in resolving acts Based on operant conditioning Idea is that the environment in which an undesirable behavior occurs reinforces behavior Rem 1175

Based on operant conditioning Tokens are given for desirable behaviors and taken away for undesirable behaviors Can later b 1176 Based on operant conditioning A more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity I.e. Letting a child p 1177 Put cat in a box Cat had to perform an action to get himself out of the box and to food Cat will perform1178 faster on repea action Co-founder of Gestalt psychology Disagreed with Thorndike--said that animals could learn by insight 1179 Placed food out of their reach They tried different approaches to get to it using items in the cage 1180 Experimented with rats and mazes Cognitive map: a mental representation of a physical space Rats used cognitive maps to ge 1181 Principles governing what each species can learn easily and what it cannot learn at all 1182 Rats who had sweet water and given nauseating drug were conditioned but not those who had a shock; Rats who had plain w 1183 Garcia effect Biological predisposition 1184 Patients are nauseous as a result of chemo They can psychologically associate this with food they eat Better to give them som 1185 Can occur after only one trial Can take place even if the UCS occurs up to hours after the CS (Usual optimal time period is sev 1186 Instinctual drift s 1187 Used shaping Tried to train a raccoon to put coins in a piggy bank Most they would do is rub it together1188 dip it into a piggy and Bobo doll experiment Vicarious reinforcement (learn by observation) 1189 Instinctual ways of behaving are able to override behaviors learned through operant conditioning 1190 Study of animal behavior under natural conditions Radically different from behaviorism Concerned with species-specific beha 1191 Animal behavior patterns that are relatively stereotyped, species-specific, and do not have to be learned by the animal Trigge 1192 Features of a stimulus sufficient to bring about a particular FAP (fixed-action pattern) Releaser: an environmental sign stimulu 1193 Male sticklebacks establish territories during breeding season If one goes into another's territory, he is 1194 to be attacked R likely FAP follows automatically once the organism receives the sign stimulus Even if the stimulus is removed1195 middle of the b in the Behaviors that prevent animals of one species from attempting to mate with animals of a closely related species They work b 1196 Major figure in the study of animal behavior Discovered that honeybees communicate through a [waggle] dance that they pe 1197 Genetic differences between species If differences help species, passed down to next generation. If not, it will not be passed 1198 The number of offspring that live to be old enough to reproduce Animals will act to increase their reproductive fitness 1199 Difficult to explain with classical Darwinian theory Animals act against reproductive fitness Animals are1200 to put themsel known Suggests that animals act to increase their inclusive fitness, rather than their reproductive fitness Inclusive fitness takes into a 1201 Generally considered to be a branch of biology, zoology, or sociobiology Studies how various social behaviors increase fitness 1202 Founder with sociobiology Adamant in his belief that behavior is due to a complex and dynamic interplay between genetics a 1203 Studied observational learning 1204 Discovered and studied instinctual drift 1205 Proposed a theory of evolution with natural selection as its centerpiece 1206 Studied taste-aversion learning and proposed that some species are biologically prepared to learn connections between certa 1207 Studied insight in problem solving 1208 Ethologist who studied unlearned, instinctual behaviors in the natural environment 1209 Discovered the basic principles of classical conditioning 1210 Suggested the Premack principle That a more-preferred activity could be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity 1211 Performed experiments which showed that contiguity could not fully explain classical conditioning Proposed contingency the 1212 Developed principles of operant conditioning 1213 Proposed law of effect Used puzzle boxes to study problem solving in cats 1214 Ethologist who introduced experimental methods into field stituations 1215 Ethologist who studied communication in honey bees 1216 Performed experiment on Little Albert that suggested that the acquisition of phobias was due to classical conditioning 1217 Developed sociobiology 1218 Developed method of systematic desensitization to eliminate phobias 1219 1220 Discrete sounds that make up words but carry no meaning, such as ee, p, or sh Infants first make these1221 when learning sounds Smallest units of meaning in a language Made up of phonemes Words or parts of words that have meaning 1222

A group of words that when put together function as a single syntatic part of a sentence 1223 The arrangement of words into sentences as prescribed by a particular language 1224 The overall rules of the interrelationship between morphemes and syntax that make up a certain language 1225 Morphological Rules Grammar rules How to group morphemes 1226 Aspects of pronunciation that carry meaning Tone inflections Accents 1227 Most important figure in psycholinguistics Transformational grammar Surface structure Deep structure1228 Language acquisition Chomsky Differentiates between surface structure and deep structure in language 1229 The way that words are organized Changing surface structure without changing deep structure does not change meaning 1230 Underlying meaning of a sentence 1231 Chomsky Humans have an inborn ability to adopt generative grammar rules of the language that they hear; Rules are then us 1232 Overapplication of grammar rules Children often use the suffix -ed to indicate past tense even when not grammatically correc 1233 Generalizing with names for things Often done through chaining characteristics rather than through logic Children may call an 1234 Refers to speech without the articles or extras "Me go" 1235 A child uses one word (holophrases) to convey a whole sentence "Me" may mean "give that to me" 1236 Girls are faster and more accurate with language learning 1237 Slower at language learning 1238 Processed in the same regions of the brain as producing and understanding speech Slight differences People who are unable 1239 Children usually use nouns first, then verbs The first phrases children speak consist of one noun and one verb or two nouns 1240 year: speaks first word(s) years: > spoken words, usually in two- (and then three-) word phrases years: , word vocabular, but 1241 From studies of Hopi language Posited that language, or how a culture says things, influences that culture's perspectives 1242 Used as an argument for the importance of nonsexist language It has been found that cultures that don't have words for cert 1243 Researched areas of social, developmental, and linguistic psychology Found that children's understanding of grammatical rule 1244 Language really begins to develop with the onset of active speech, rather than during the first year of only listening 1245 Studied "Black" English (Ebonics) Had its own complex internal structure Not simply incorrect English 1246 Studied the development of word meanings Found them to be complex Altered by interpersonal experience Asserted that lan 1247 Created semantic differential charts, which allowed people to plot the meanings of words on graphs People with similar back 1248 To describe and explain changes in human behavior over time 1249 Children were thought of as small, inferior adults who were expected to conform to adult standards for behavior at a very yo 1250 Children were actually depicted in their own clothing and pictured at play Following the Renaissance, we see the beginnings o 1251 John Locke Thomas Hobbes George Berkeley David Hume James Mill John Stuart Mill 1252 Believed that all knowledge is gained through experience 1253 Asserted that a child's mind is considered a tabula rasa, or a blank slate, at birth Children are born without predetermined ten 1254 Believed that society was not only unnecessary but detrimental to optimal development Published his thoughts in Emile: Con 1255 Evolutionary theory stressed the importance of studying the mind as it functioned to help the individual adapt to the environ 1256 -; The "Father of Developmental Psychology" One of the first psychologists to do empirical research on1257 children He compiled - Believed in Tabula Rasa; Emotions and thoughts are acquiredthrough learning Placed a lot of responsibility on parents Behav 1258 Worked in the s & s Nativist; Believed development occurred as a biological process regardless of practice or training Much o 1259 - Psychodynamic orientation System of thought that arose out of a clinical rather than academic or research setting Stressed 1260 Jean Piaget (-) Saw children as more actively involved in their development Construct knowledge of the world through their e 1261 Cross-sectional studies Compare groups of subjects at different ages Longitudinal studies Compare a specific group of people 1262 Nature--holds that human capabilities are innate and that individual differences are therefore largely an effect of the person' 1263 Lived in the th century Observed the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants Hypothesized the existence of the gene Sugges 1264 Both parents contribute a gene for each trait if both parents contribute a dominant allele or if one contributes a dominant all 1265 Genotype: the genetic makeup of an individual Phenotype: the observable characteristic 1266 Location of genes There are a total of , or pairs rd pair determines sex 1267 Sex cells; gametes; haploid (only contain chromosomes to join and make a diploid cell All other cells; diploid; contain pairs o 1268 Each child has an average of % of their genes in common with each parent Siblings have % of their genes in common with eac 1269

Study published in Tested rats on a maze Divided rats into: Maze-bright Maze-dull Intermediate 1270 Bred maze-bright rats with each other, and maze-dull rats with each other The maze-bright rats' offspring continued to do inc 1271 Maze-bright rats didn't do any better than the maze-dull rats on other types of mazes 1272 Family studies Twin studies Adoption studies 1273 Compare similarity among family members to similarity among unrelated individuals Limited because families also share envi 1274 Compare similarity rates between identical (monozygotic) twins and fraternal (dizygotic) twins The assumption is that both M 1275 Can compare twins (both MZ and DZ) that were raised together to those that were raised apart Help us to understand enviro 1276 His study compared a group of children with high IQs ( and above) with groups of children typical of the general population, t 1277 Genetic anomaly in which the individual has an extra st chromosome Individuals have varying levels of 1278 retardation One factor Phenylketonuria; a genetic disorder Degenerative disease of the nervous system Results when the enzyme to digest phylalan 1279 Sex chromosome abnormality Males have an extra X chromosome Causes sterility and mental retardation 1280 Sex chromosome abnormality Female with only X chromosome Causes a failure to develop secondary 1281 sex characteristics Oft Fertilization Germinal period Embryonic stage Fetal period 1282 Conception takes place in the fallopian tubes where the ovum is fertilized by the male sperm cell These1283 types of cells are two The zygote begins to divide in two The cells continue to develop and divide so that their numbers increase from to to to , et 1284 Lasts approximately weeks During this stage, the embryo increases in size by about million percent, or about , times The em 1285 Takes place during the rd month ( weeks after germinal period) Marked by the beginning of measurable electrical activity in t 1286 Within the womb, temp, chem. balance, orientation of the fetus with respect to gravity, and atmos. press., are all carefully co 1287 Infants whose mothers contract rubella, or German measles, before the end of the nd month run a high risk of cataracts, dea 1288 An unfortunate side effect of the revolution in pharmacology is that many drugs that help the mother can have damaging effe 1289 Maternal malnutrition (abnormal development) Protein deficiency (retard growth, mental retardation,1290 immunities to reduce Maternal narcotic addiction produces chemically dependent infants who must undergo a traumatic withdrawal syndrome Re 1291 After birth, although they may seem helpless, infants are actually equipped with well-developed somatic structures and a bro 1292 Automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek, such as a nipple during feeding 1293 Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, extending their fingers, bringing their arms back 1294 Causes toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated 1295 Automatically close fingers around objects placed in hands 1296 One of the most influential figures in developmental psychology, insisting that there are qualitative differences between adul 1297 According to Piaget, children learn during infancy from interacting with the environment through reflexive behaviors These o 1298 An important part of Piaget's theory Takes place through two complementary processes: Assimilation Accommodation 1299 The process of interpreting new information in terms of existing schemata 1300 Occurs when new information doesn't really fit into existing schemata It is the process of modifying existing schemata to ada 1301 Sensorimotor; . Preoperational; . Concrete Operational; . Formal operational During each stage the child's mental processes 1302 Birth- years Primary and secondary circular reactions Object permanence 1303 In primary circular reactions, the infant begins to coordinate separate aspects of movement of body--the advent of goal-direc 1304 Occurs when the child realizes that objects continue to exist even though the child cannot see or hear it Marks the beginning 1305 - Characterized as the beginning of representational thought Centtration Egocentric No conservation 1306 A characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child focuses on one idea, excluding all others 1307 An inability to see the world from others' perspectives 1308 The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, an 1309 - Children can conserve Can take the perspective of others into account Are limited to working with concrete objects or inform 1310 + Can think like a scientist Can think logically about abstract ideas Pendulum experiment (adolescents were able to figure out 1311 Believed that how we use language depends on which cognitive stage we are in Believed that is was the development of thou 1312 Preferred observation to statistical measures Researchers have failed to find evidence of formal operations in adolescents an 1313 Cognitivist The engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of various aspects of the culture--rules, lang 1314 Vygotsky Refers to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development The child 1315 Phonology Semantics Syntax Pragmatics 1316

Actual sound stem of language Children must learn to produce and recognize the sounds of language, distinguishing them fro 1317 The ability to distinguish between differences in sound that do not denote differences in meaning and those differences in so 1318 Word definition A child must lean that certain combinations of phonemes represent certain physical objects or events, and th 1319 Refers to how words are put together to form sentences The child must notice the effects of word order on meaning 1320 Consists of the actual efficient use of a language Often the same sentence spoken will have two or more very different meani 1321 An important precursor to language Virtually all children spontaneously begin to babble within their first year 1322 Showed that the age babbling begins is about the same for hearing children with hearing parents, hearing children with deaf 1323 Suggests that deaf children with parents using sign language appear to babble using their hands 1324 mo.: Know dozens of words; only utter at a time - mo.: Begin combining words .- yr.: Begin producing 1325 sentences yr: L longer The ability to produce novel, grammatically correct sentences while refraining from producing non-grammatically correct one 1326 AKA overregulation As children begin to master complex general rules--many of these errors are universal not environmental 1327 Nativist Studied transformational grammar Believed in Language Acquisition device (LAD) Believed in critical period for langua 1328 Focused on syntactic transformations, or changes in word order that differ with meaning Noted that children learn to make s 1329 Resulted from Chomsky's study of transformational grammar Thought to be triggered by exposure to language The LAD enab 1330 Nativists believe in a critical period between age yrs and puberty for language acquisition They believe1331 if a child was not that Almost completely isolated from age - Although she had been exposed to no language during this time,1332 training she was after A pioneer in charting personality and emotional growth Human psychology and human sexuality are inextricably linked Made 1333 Hypothesized five distinct stages of psychosexualdevelopment In each stage children are faced with a conflict btwnsocietal de 1334 Freud Occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development In response, the child then form 1335 Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital 1336 - yr Gratification is obtained primarily through the putting of objects into the mouth by biting and sucking Libidinal energy is c 1337 - yr The libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through the elimination and retention1338 of waste materials Fix - yr AKA Oedipal stage Boys go through Oedipal conflict Girls go through Electra conflict 1339 Male child envies his fathers intimate relationship with hismother and fears castration at his fathers hands; Wishes to elimin 1340 Freud did not elaborate much on the Electra complex, although he theorized a similar process for females Since females cann 1341 yr-Puberty Libido is largely sublimated during this stage 1342 Puberty through adulthood If prior development has proceeded correctly, at this point the person should enter into healthy h 1343 Psychosocial theory Holds that development is a sequence of central life crises In each, there is a possible favorable/unfavora 1344 Trust v. Mistrust . Autonomy v. Shame & Doubt . Initiative v. Guilt . Industry v. Inferiority . Identity v. Role confusion . Intimac 1345 st yr of life If +, The child will come to trust his/her environment as well as himself If --, the child will often be suspicious of th 1346 - yr If +, feeling of will and an ability to exercise choice as well as self-restraint. A child will have a sense of competence and a 1347 - yr If +, purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment If --, sense of 1348 inadequacy, a sense of Adolescence Encompasses what Erikson termed "physiological revolution" If +, the ability to see oneself as a unique and integ 1349 Young Adulthood If +, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, the ability to commit oneself to another person a 1350 Middle Age If +, Individual capable of being a productive, caring, contributing member of society If --, one acquires a sense of 1351 Old age; One reflects on his or her life with either a sense of integrity or with a sense of despair If +, we1352see wisdom, whic will Considered by many psychologists to be the central aspect of an individual's personality Refers to individual differences as we 1353 There are core concepts common to many temperament theories, such as: Activity level Negative emotionality Sociability 1354 Longitudinal study to examine temperament Proposed categories of infant emotional and behavioral style: Easy (generally d 1355 Parental Reports Observations in naturalistic settings (at home) Observations in laboratory settings 1356 Experimenter can be certain that the information is coming from someone knowledgeable about the infant Parents see their 1357 Allow for objective measures Time-consuming 1358 Experimental methods can be used to measure specific behaviors during controlled conditions Observations occur during an 1359 Crying Social Smiling Fear response 1360 Studied infant crying Identified distinct patterns of crying: the basic cry (usually hunger); the angry cry 1361 (frustration); the pain One of the earliest social and communicative signals to appear in infants is the smile At first, the smiling response is undiffere 1362 At first, will respond to any change in stimulation During the st yr., may have separation or stranger anxiety By the end of st y 1363

Took newborn Rhesus monkeys from their mothers - hrs after birth, and placed them in cages with so-called surrogate mothe 1364 Tried raising monkeys exclusively with either cloth or wire mothers and observed subsequent social interactions Wire-mothe 1365 Raised some monkeys in total isolation and he found that these monkeys were severely dysfunctional Monkeys that were iso 1366 Performed naturalistic study in the late s Studied children who were brought up in institutions such as foster homes and orph 1367 - mo: Pre-attachment; reacts same to every adult and smiling face; mo.: Infant discriminates btwn familiar & unfamiliar faces 1368 Called "strange situation procedure" Ugandan infants minute episodes 1369 Mother brings child into unfamiliar room and plays with toys Child is free to explore the room and play1370 toys Stranger ent with types of attachment Insecure/avoidant (Type A): infants not distressed when left alone and avoid contact with mother upon h 1371 Konrad Lorenz The rapid formation of an attachment between an organism and an object in the environment Ethologists hav 1372 When he imitated the strut of a jackdaw, an infant jackdaw became attached to Lorenz (became imprinted) The bird followed 1373 Believed that there were three phases of moral thought with each phase consisting of stages each, for1374 of stages Each a total Phase : Pre-conventional morality Phase : Conventional morality Phase : Post conventional morality 1375 Stage : Orientation toward punishment and obedience Right and wrong are defined by the hedonistic consequences of a give 1376 Stage : "Good girl, nice boy" orientation Looking for others' approval Stage : "Law-and-order" orientation Morality is defined 1377 Stage : Social Contract Orientation Moral rules are seen as convention that is designed to ensure the greater good Stage : Act 1378 Designed to assess children's moral reasoning. In this story, Heinz faces an ethical dilemma when a pharmacist refused to pro 1379 Criticized Kohlberg on the basis that his research was solely done with males, and should not be used to describe the moral d 1380 Sociobiologists believe that gender role differences should be understood according to an evolutionary1381 perspective--that men Gender labeling Gender stability Gender consistency 1382 Children achieve gender identity They realize that they are a a member of a particular sex and accept they are a boy or a girl a 1383 Children can predict that they will still be a boy or a girl when they grow up This understanding is superficial and dependent u 1384 Children understand the permanency of gender, regardless of what one wears or how one behaves 1385 Proposed by Martin and Halverson Builds on Kohlberg's theory As soon as children are able to label themselves, they begin co 1386 By measuring parental control, nurturance, clarity of communication, and maturity demands, she proposed distinct parentin 1387 Tend to use punitive control methods Lack emotional warmth Children tend to have difficulties in school and in peer relation 1388 Score very low on control/demand measures Children tend to have difficulties in school and in peer relations 1389 Have high demands for child compliance Score low on punitive control methods Utilize positive reinforcement Score high on 1390 Fathers tend to play more vigorously with their children than mothers do Mothers tend to stress verbal over physical interact 1391 Devised the "strange situation" to study attachment 1392 Studied the relationship between parental style and aggression 1393 Studied attachment in human children 1394 Linguist who suggested that children have an innate capacity for language acquisition 1395 Outline eight stages of psychosocial development covering the entire lifespan 1396 Outlined five stages of psychosexual development Stressed the importance of the Oedipal conflict in psychosexual developm 1397 Believed that development was due primarily to maturation 1398 Suggested that males and females have different orientations toward morality 1399 The founder of developmental psychology 1400 Used monkeys and "surrogate mothers" to study the role of contact comfort in bond formation 1401 Studied moral development using moral dilemmas 1402 British philosopher who suggested that infants had no predetermined tendencies, that they were blank slates (tabulas rasa) t 1403 Studied imprinting in birds 1404 Outlined four stages of cognitive development 1405 French philosopher who suggested that development could unfold without help from society 1406 Performed longitudinal study on gifted children 1407 Studied the genetic basis of maze-running ability in rats 1408 Studied cognitive development Stressed the importance of the zone of proximal development 1409 NITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 1410

Structuralist Used the method of introspection, he asked subjects to report on their current conscious experiences Studied th 1411 Break consciousness down into its elements, or specific mental structures 1412 Reaction time Eye movements Brain imaging 1413 The measurement of the time elapsed between a stimulus presentation and subject's response to it Has provided insight into 1414 Has been used to study reading and language comprehension Especially useful because the eye movements are an "on-line" m 1415 Used to associate various cognitive processes with various parts of the brain 1416 Studied memory using himself as a subject Would memorize list of nonsense syllables Distracted himself Then measured how 1417 Ebbinghaus Can calculate how much time you save learning something the second time 1418 Originally forget rapidly After a certain time, forgetting occurs at a much lesser rate 1419 Encoding Storage Retrieval 1420 Putting information into memory 1421 Retaining information in memory 1422 Recovering information in memory 1423 Recall Involves independently reproducing the information that you have been previously exposed to Recognition Realizing th 1424 An attempt to explain why you can usually recognize more than you can recall Model suggests that recall involves the same m 1425 Words presented at the end of a list are remembered best 1426 Words presented at the beginning of a list are remembered second-best 1427 When asked to recall a list of words, people tend to recall words belonging to the same category 1428 Theory holds there are three different memory systems and memories enter the various systems in a specific order Sensory m 1429 Contains fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli Visual memory is sometimes called iconic memory Auditory memory is some 1430 Method to find out how much information could be retained in sensory memory Subjects looked at a visual display of nine ite 1431 Disagreed with whole report procedure findings Came up with partial-report procedure 1432 Used a x matrix of letters which flashed for a fraction of a second Asked subjects to only recall one row (did not tell them wh 1433 Information will only stay in short-term memory for seconds if not rehearsed If it is rehearsed, it can stay in short-term mem 1434 Getting information into long-term memory Organizing the information and associating it with information already in long-te 1435 Procedural memory Declarative memory 1436 Remembering how to do things How to tie shoes, how to swim, how to ride a bike, etc. 1437 Remembering explicit memory Sometimes called fact memory Semantic memory General knowledge (concepts and word me 1438 Encoding for verbal material in short-term memory tends to be phonological or acoustic, rather than visual Confusions occur 1439 The usual semantic priming task, the subject has to decide whether a stimulus is a word or a non-word 1440 Subjects were present Subjects are asked to indicate whether a simple statement is true or false The experimenter measures 1441 the response latency, o Semantic memory contains feature lists of concepts The key is the amount of overlap in the feature lists of the concepts 1442 Craik and Lockart; AKA Depth of processing theory There are ways or levels in which information can be process, increasing i 1443 Information can be stored (or encoded) in two ways: visually and verbally Abstract info --> coded verbally Concrete info --> co 1444 If the information in long-term memory is not used or rehearsed, it will eventually be forgotten One of 1445 the problems with thi