Journal of Social Sciences (COES&RJ-JSS) Complete October 2012 (1-1) Issue

October 2012 Contents Volume 1, No.
S. No
1
Title
Exploring the Multiple Benefits Performance: Case of Lebanon of CSR on Organizational
Page No.
1-23
Hussin Hejase, Cybelle Farha, Ziad Haddad, and Bassam Hamdar
Cross-Cultural Communication: Perspectives from Translation Studies and Applied Linguistics

Dr. Hosni Mostafa El-dali
24-46
Editorial
Dear Reader, It is our immense pleasure to present the 1st issue of our Journal, Journal of Social Sciences, from the platform of the Centre of Excellence for Scientific & Research Journals. We caters the publication needs of teachers, scientists, scholars and students around the globe. We thank all the forces with us, in the form of eminent advisory board and editorial board for all their cooperation and enthusiastic involvement in this blooming endeavor. We are inviting papers from the following fields of Social Sciences. Anthropology, Archaeology, Behavioral science, Business studies, Communication studies, Criminology, Demography, Development studies, Environmental studies, Economics, Education, Geography, History, International studies, Industrial relations, Information science, Journalism, Law, Legal management, Linguistics, Library science, Management, Media studies, Political science, Psychology, Public administration, Sociology, Legal Management, Political economy, Paralegal studies, International studies, Library Science, Information Science. I hope you find this journal informative and useful. It is a new initiative. Your comments will help us improve the quality and content of the journal. Editor Dr. Neda Khan Journal of Social Sci nces (COES&RJ-JSS) e ISSN (E) 2305-9249 Centre of Excellence for Scientific & Research Journals. Office # 36, Waqas Centre, Muhammad Bin Qasim Road, Off. M.A.Jinnah Road, Karachi-75400, Sindh, Pakistan. Email: editor.jss@centreofexcellence.net Website: centreofexcellence.net Join us on facebook: facebook.com/Centreo fexcellence Forscientificnresearchjournals facebook.com/Journal of Social Sciences (COES&R-JSS)
Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS Publisher: Centre of Excellence for Scientific & Research Journals Online Publication Date: 1 st October 2012
Exploring the Multiple Benefits of CSR on Organizational Performance: Case of Lebanon *Hussin Hejase, Cybelle Farha, Ziad Haddad, and Bassam Hamdar *hhejase@aust.edu.lb Faculty of Business and Economics, American University of Science and Technology Abstract Companies around the globe are recognizing the importance of engaging in Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) that is crucial to their survival and growth. It is evident that when an organization integrates appropriate CSR practices in its strategy that embed the societal and environmental concerns, these practices undoubtedly bring tangible benefits to the business along with a sustainable competitive advantage. In Lebanon, there is a consistent need for the Lebanese community to live in a safe, clean and healthy environment. Companies can no longer act as isolated entities that can run separately from the society and the environment in which they operate and with which they interact, disregarding the impact of their activities on the economy, the society, and the environment; these companies are assuming and acknowledging their responsibility not only towards shareholders through profit maximization but also towards all stakeholders through enhancing the welfare of the society and adopting environmentally-based behavior. However, there exists a substantial lack of awareness of CSR among Lebanese companies. The current practices in Lebanon have suffered from the lack of responsible behavior towards the employees, the economy, the society, and the environment. Consequently, the current research addresses the urgent managers need to understand what CSR is and assess the multiple benefits of its programs, and how they may help and end up in a win-win situation if CSR is implemented adequately. This research is exploratory in nature and uses a survey questionnaire distributed to a convenient sample of Lebanese managers and employees working in Lebanon. The purpose is to assess the knowledge and the implementation of CSR programs at selected number of Lebanese firms. This research attempts to define the gap between the existing socio-economic and environmental problems and the responsiveness levels of Lebanese firms to such problems. Key words: Corporate Social Responsibility, CSR, Exploratory, Lebanon, Organizational Performance
Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 1-23
Literature Review Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a concept that embodies similar approaches like corporate accountability, corporate sustainability, corporate sustainable development, corporate responsibility, corporate ethics, and corporate citizenship, and is also known as stewardship, triple bottom line and responsible business (Industry Canada, 2 012, May 03 a). While there is no agreed-upon universal definition of CSR, many see it as being a way whereby the business sector integrates into the economic, social, and environmental obligations in its corporate activities (Hohnen, 2007, p.15, Para. 2-3). In this context, CSR is viewed as the business pursuit of sustainable development and focus on the triple bottom line by which we mean the economic, social and environmental aspects altogether (Industry Canada, 2011, Para.2). In addition to integrating the social and environmental dimensions into corporate processes and structures, CSR is the response of businesses to societal and environmental challenges by creating proactive and innovative solutions, as well as collaborating with all stakeholders, whether they are internal or external to the company for the purpose of improving CSR performance (ibid). CSR involves a wide range of stakeholders, including shareholders, non-governmental organizations, business partners, lenders, insurers, communities, regulators, intergovernmental bodies, consumers, employees, and investors (Hohnen, 2007, p. 17, Para.3). Companies used to traditionally focus in their operations solely on the economic aspects through maximizing financial return to shareholders while neglecting other important areas, essentially the societal and environmental impacts (Carroll, 1991, Para.1- 2). CSR is a concept with a growing inclination in Lebanon and around the globe that mainly raises the notion of business accountability to a wider range of stakeholders, other than shareholders and investors (International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2012, Para.1). Concept Definition The International Institute for Sustainable Development (2012) defines Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), as primarily concerned about the environmental protection and the wellbeing of employees, the community and civil society in general, from both short-term and long-term perspectives (Para.1). Moreover, the Institute believes that the concept of CSR is rooted in the idea that corporations can no longer act as isolated economic entities that can operate separately from the wider society (ibid, Para 2). Therefore, it is imperative to align profitability with sustainability and human development (CSR Lebanon, 2010, Para.5). According to Seeger and Pickering (2011), and in accordance with the definition provided by ISO 26000 Working Group on Social Responsibility, Social responsibility (is the) responsibility of an organization for the impacts of its decisions and activities on society and the environment through transparent and ethical behavior that ? contributes to sustainable development, including health and the welfare of society ? takes into account the expectations of stakeholders ? is in compliance with applicable law and consistent with international norms of behavior ? is integrated throughout the organization and practiced in its relationships (Para 1). Moreover, corporate social responsibility attributes may differ from one comp any to another and for the same company at different times. Accordingly, there is no one standardized CSR formula or approach to be followed (Credit Union Central of Canada, 2010, p.4, Para 4). For instance, as per Idar Kreutzer (2005, cited in Hohnen, 2007)- CEO of Storebrand, a financial services company in Norway that is engaged in life insurance, investments and banking, We are committed to creating economic value, but we are not indifferent to how we do it. ... Progressive businesses are gaining competitive advantage by responding to societal signals. ...
Exploring the Multiple Benefits of CSR
We prosper by helping society to prosper. To Storebrand, they define CSR as an extension of the business itself (Hohnen, 2007, p.12 para.1). The organization Business for Social Responsibility defines CSR as Operating a business in a matter that meets or exceeds the ethical, legal, commercial, and public expectations that society has of business; this definition provides a broader dimension to CSR and it incorporates business decision-making that embraces and takes into account the ethical standards, legal obligations, along with a genuine respect for people, human welfare, and the environment (Kotler & Lee, 2005, p.3, Para 4). The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) has defined CSR as the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large (Watts, Holme& Tinto, 1998, p. 3). Hohnen (2007), provided another description of CSR as stated by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development; it stated that CSR is the contribution of business to sustainable economic development. Building on a base of compliance with legislation and regulations, CSR typically includes "beyond law" commitments and activities pertaining to: corporate governance and ethics, health and safety , environmental stewardship, human rights (including core labor rights), human resource management, community involvement, development and investment, involvement of and respect for Aboriginal peoples, corporate philanthropy and employee volunteering, customer satisfaction and adherence to principles of fair competition, anti-bribery and anti-corruption measures, accountability, transparency and performance reporting, supplier relations, for both domestic and international supply chains (p. 4, Para 4 & p. 5, Para.1). In short, CSR is commonly understood to be the manner by which organizations incorporate in a transparent and accountable way all social, environmental and economic issues into corporate values, culture, decision making, strategy and operations; thus, conducting better practices within the organization, creating wealth and helping society. These components of CSR are often interrelated and mutually dependent, and are applicable to organizations in every provided context (Hohnen, 2007, p. 5, Para 2-3). Finally, the European Commission defines CSR as a concept "whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis." (European Commission, 2001, p.170). In this sense, to act socially responsible means not only to abide by the legal regulations, but also going beyond compliance and investing more into human capital, the environment and the relations with stakeholders (Isaksson and Steimle (2009, p.170). The Business Case for CSR CSR has been accepted and evolved globally due to its active role to support environmental and health protection; in addition to the active adoption by intergovernmental bodies such as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), International Labor Organization (ILO), and the United Nations (UN) organizations. In addition, technological advances made it easier to track the organizational activities and to disseminate information about them. Increasing interests were witnessed among consumers and investors in sustaining responsible business customs and have claimed for more information about how organizations respond to the risks and opportunities related to the social and environmental concerns. A larger public has highlighted the need for enhanced corporate ethical standards, accountability and transparency (Hohnen, 2007, p.19, Para 5-7).
The aforementioned facts have encouraged international organizations to disseminate information about the status quo of social responsibility practices to create precedence and best business practices for other business entities to learn from and follow. One such example is the BSR/GlobeScan State of Sustainable Business Poll 2011 which was conducted in the year 2011, on a sample of 498 professionals from BSR member organizations from around the world. Results of the survey show the following: 1. For the second straight year, more than eight in 10 respondents (84 percent) are optimistic that global businesses will embrace CSR/sustainability as part of their core strategies and operations in the next five years. Two thirds of respondents (62 percent) identified the integration of sustainability into core business operations as the most important leadership challenge over the next year. Other challenges include convincing investors that sustainability enhances value (30 percent), and of planning for the long term (30 percent). Top sustainability priorities in years ahead were identified as: Human/Workers Rights (65 / 61 percent), Climate Change (63 percent), and Water availability/quality (54 percent). Drivers of public trust, business leadership, and ongoing success were rated as follows: A. Increasing the transparency of business practices (55 percent); B. Measuring and demonstrating positive social and environmental impacts (51 percent); and C. Creating innovative products and business models designed for sustainability (42 percent, up significantly from 34 percent last year) (BSR/GlobeScan Survey, 2011).
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3. 4.
Coulter, Chris (2012, May 8), President of GlobeScan, manifests that social responsibility expectations from Non Governmental Organizations (NGO)s and scientis ts, in comparison to other entities, are higher for the corporate sector: the trust in the scientists and non-governmental organizations is greater compared to that of the global and domestic companies. Moreover, the majority of those surveyed, have given a negative assessment of the CSR performance of large companies. Research also shows that 12-30% of consumers residing in well-developed countries are ethically active. Respondents believe that the social/environmental factors drive corporate reputation where the most important factors in forming impressions of companies are: Social Responsibility, Brand Quality/Reputation, and Business Fundamentals. Therefore, and based on the aforementioned studies, there are various factors which differentiate the business case for CSR from one business firm to another. This may include the firm's reputation, its leadership, supply chamber, placement, mechanisms, merchandise and size. (Hohnen, p. 20, Para 1). Components From an academic perspective, there were several scholars and authors who have adopted the construct proposed by Archie B. Carrolls pyramid of CSR that identifies the components of Corporate Social Responsibility. In fact, Carroll (1991) defined CSR as integrating the economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic dimensions expected from organizations by the society in a provided timeframe (p. 4, Para 2). Details are exposed in Exhibit 1.
Exhibit 1 Carrolls CSR components 1. The Economic Component First, organizations are the basic economic unit in the society. Intrinsically, companies are responsible for producing goods and services that meet the needs of society, and later selling these goods in order to make a profit. Companies should be managed in an economically sustainable way. They should satisfy their agreements with suppliers in time; they should also remunerate their employees properly, etcThe latter could be a hard task when the companies in question are having financial difficulties (p.4, Para 3). 2. The Legal Component Besides the fact that society presumes businesses to have profit, it similarly expects them to obey the law. The law embodies the rules by which companies are expected to operate upon. The minimum acceptable requirements in CSR are to adhere to legal requirements. Eventually, CSR strategies should go beyond the basic requirements. The other two components or accountabilities illustrate Carrolls attempt to stipulate the type or nature of the responsibilities that rise above the mere compliance with the law (p.5, Para 1). 3. The Ethical Component Carroll emphasized the ethical component of CSR. Ethical responsibilities are expected by society yet not codified by law. Ethical responsibilities embody those standards, norms, or expectations that reflect a concern for what consumers, employees, shareholders, and the community regard as fair, just, or in keeping with the respect or protection of stakeholders' moral rights. Moral values or ethics simply denote the essence of the organization and its constituent integral parts. Moreover, the business ethics movement has firmly established an ethical responsibility as a legitimate CSR component (p.5, Para 2 & p.6, Para 4). 4. The Philanthropic or Discretionary Component Lastly, philanthropic or discretionary responsibilities are those particular undertakings and activities that promote human welfare or goodwill, and which are driven by the aspiration of businesses to attain social roles that are not required by law and not expected under any ethical perspective, though they are increasingly strategic and positions the company as a good corporate citizen. The discretionary responsibilities include, but are not limited to, philanthropic contributions, financial donations, training of long-standing unemployed, offering day care for working mothers, etc (p.6, Para 5 & p.7, Para 1-2). Benefits of CSR Most of the companies that are introducing CSR programs to their businesses are gaining real and tangible benefits that are in turn impacting positively employees and consumers, as well as the community and environment in general in many aspects. It is true that such programs are very costly, but when a cost-benefit analysis is done, short-term and long-term benefits associated with the implementation of the right CSR programs are found to offset the costs. According to Hopkins (2004, May), There will be increased costs to implement CSR, but the benefits are likely to far outweigh the costs (p.11, Para.3). Furthermore, Porter and Kramer (2006) believe that The billions of dollars already being spent on CSR and Corporate Philanthropy would generate far more benefit to both business and society if consistently invested using the right approach (p.14, Para 3), i.e. via integrating social considerations effectively into core business operations and strategy (p.3, Para 7). Many researches that have been done show the benefits of engaging in social responsibility. In fact, CSR offers several of the paramount opportunities for the companies to benefit society. If instead, corporations were to analyze their prospects for social responsibility using the same fra meworks
that guide their core business choices, they would discover that CSR can be much more than a cost, a constraint, or a charitable deed- it can be a source of opportunity, innovation, and competitive advantage (Porter & Kramer, 2006, p.2, Para 3). These benefits are summarized in Exhibit 2. Exhibit 2 Companys benefits provided by CSR 1: Better business risk management. Effective management of business risks emanating from the external business environment, with larger oversight and stakeholder inspection of corporate activities, can enhance the security of supply and generally market stability. Taking into account the interests of members concerned about a firm's impact is one proactive approach of anticipating and managing risk (p.21, Para 4). 2: Improved organizational image. Reputation of an organization can be greatly improved either with retail brands which is of highvalue and/or organizations under the spotlight or with organizations that have indirect exposure of retails. Values such as credibility and quality are foundations of reputation (p.22, Para 1). 3: Enhanced Talent Management ability. Recruitment and development of staff are enhanced. This can be due to a dignified sense in the organizations merchandise and customs and also the result of its operations that improves the employees moral sense and their loyalty (p.22, para.2). 4: Improved innovation, competitiveness and market positioning. New markets are better accessed, due from the organizations innovation and differentiation of its products and its sound CSR practices (p.22, Para 3). 5: Enhanced operational efficiencies and cost savings. More efficient organizational operations and cost savings which may result from systematic approaches that involve constant improvement and bring in changes from wastes to revenues (p.22, Para 4). 6: Improved management of supply chain relationships. Inter-organizational relationships are strengthened, so as to yield a more profitable deal with suppliers. To attain this stage, both workers and suppliers compliance to the organizations codes and ethics is required (p.22, Para 5). 7: Enhanced ability to manage change. A firm that keeps consistent stakeholder dialogue is in a more favorable position to anticipate and attend to regulatory, economic, social and environmental changes that may arise. CSR is a tool that helps companies identify evolving trends in the marketplace (p.22, Para 6). 8: Building Corporate Social Capital in the community. Disseminating companys information, including its goals and activities, leads to better stakeholders relations which may consequently develop into stronger and long-term public, private and civil society alliances (p.22, Para 7). 9: Access to capital. Better capital access. Financial institutions who are believers of the socio-environmental criteria may support organizations with similar views. Therefore, providers of capital will rely on efficient CSR management indicators (p.23, Para 1). 10: Improved relations with regulators. Regulators approval processes are made easier to companies who have made socioenvironmental operations beyond what the regulation requires, yielding to a better corporate reputation and having close and invaluable interactions (p.23, para.2).
11: Acting as catalyst for responsible consumption. Firms with CSR strategies should assume their active role in supporting sustainable consumption patterns and lifestyles through the products and services they deliver and their production processes. Responsible consumerism does not only consist of altering consumers preferences but also viewing the nature of the supplied goods, their correlation to consumers rights and sustainability concerns, and how regulatory authorities manage the relationship between producers and consumers (p.23, Para 1). Source: Hohnen, P. (2007). Corporate Social Responsibility: An Implementation Guide for Business. Retrieved April 14, 2012, from International Institute for Sustainable Development: http://www.iisd.org/pdf/2007/csr_guide.pdf Benefits to the Community and the General Public According to the International Institute for Sustainable Development (2012), positive outcomes that arise when businesses adopt a policy of social responsibility are not only viewed on the business level, but also on the community and the general public level. The main CSR benefits to the community and general public are ? ? ? ? Charitable contributions Employee volunteer programs Corporate involvement in community education, employment and homelessness programs Product safety and quality (International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2012, Para 11).
Environmental Benefits The International Institute for Sustainable Development (2012) believes that in addition to the benefits that CSR offers to the community and general public, there are also environmental benefits that arise from the adoption and implementation of CSR. The main CSR environmental benefits are ? ? ? ? Greater material recyclability Better product durability and functionality Greater use of renewable resources Integration of environmental management tools into business plans, including life-cycle assessment and costing, environmental management standards, and eco-labeling (Para 12).
Limitations and Constraints Main CSR limitations could be summarized in the lack of awareness of the what CSR is, the unavailability of time and financial resources to contribute to CSR, and the lack of interest and desire to respond to CSRs regulations (Blurtit, 2012, Para 1-2). Lack of Awareness about CSR Some small businesses are not aware of what CSR stands for, and have little or no understanding of the concept; hence, it is n included in the scope of their activities and operations. Some ot companies may be aware of it yet they view it as a superfluity, a luxury which they cannot afford especially in difficult economic times. In such a case, the costs associated with CSR programs implementation are the main obstacle to integrate new CSR policies and initiatives in the business. In this context, companies with limited resources are most likely to consider the high costs of such programs rather than the outweighing benefits such as increased productivity, employee retentionthat may offset the costs incurred (Blurtit, 2012, Para 1-2).
The Free Market Perspective as a Limitation Heimann (2008) believes that the Free Market perspective also draws a limitation on CSR as it is viewed as disadvantageous for the following reasons which are intrinsic to the Free Market perspective (opposite to the Stakeholder Theory): 12345678The only social responsibility of business is to create shareholder wealth. The efficient use of resources will be reduced if businesses are restricted in how they can conduct their affairs. The pursuit of social goals dilutes businesses primary purpose. Costs will be passed on to customers. It will reduce economic efficiency and profit. Directors have a legal obligation to manage the company in the interest of the shareholders-and not for other stakeholders. CSR behavior imposes additional costs which reduce competitiveness. CSR places unwelcome responsibilities on businesses rather than on the government or individuals (p. 7).
Predefined Initiatives Barriers are present along the CSR life cycle, that is, in the companys standpoint about CSR and its resources availability conditions, in the process of creating and designing effective CSR policies and programs, and in the companies implementation of the predefined initiatives. In fact, translating written policies and putting programs into reality is a very challenging task that requires the firm to identify a senior official or committee to be responsible for the CSR implementation, and for allocating the various resources necessary to implement such programs. Specific departments, who have CSR assignments such as environmental, health and safety protection, worker relations, supplier relations, community relations, customer relations etc., must report to the assigned senior official or committee. CSR responsibilities must be integrated into the job descriptions and performance appraisal systems within the company (Industry Canada, 2012 b, Para10). Lack of Recognition of CSR by the Top Administrators Particularly top managers may not recognize the importance of CSR programs; they may underestimate this issue, even considering it one of HR or public relations or even marketing department duties and tasks. Hence, the top managements commitment from initial CSR assessment to strategy and commitment development is equally essential for the successful CSR integration (Industry Canada, 2011, Para 7). For instance, some senior managers and policy-makers tend to choose one single isolated issue and bring it up erroneously as CSR Management via highlighting and using it in their marketing and advertising campaigns in the purpose of enhancing the corporate image. Furthermore, managers may fail to think systemically about CSR, i.e. they may engage exclusively in the economic valuation of the CSR programs while missing out the big picture and thinking of CSR as an integrated system (Waldman, Kenett, & Zilberg, 2009, p.2, Para 3). The aforementioned limited approaches to CSR, along with the total absence of CSR leadership, may drive stakeholders to view the firm as not being genuine and authentic in its CSR endeavor; a fact that would surely backfire on the firm in the long-term. Managers will fail to truly realize the benefits of CSR if they dont possess a full understanding of CSR and its implications, and if they dont have a genuine desire to pursue CSR concept in management and leadership (Waldman et al., 2009, p.2, Para 4).
Lack of Commitment from the Personnel of an Organization Barriers to the implementation of CSR policies and programs do not only originate from the upperlevel management, they are also found at the bottom of the organization. For instance, when designing employee-related programs, known as work-life balance programs, managers should involve and actively engage employees in the program and its details in order to minimize their resistance to the programs implementation. So, if the employee did not get a proper education about the program or the policy, chances are that he/she would not be familiar with it, would not be comfortable benefiting from it or even would not understand it; therefore, he/she would not be able to implement it properly and back up the CSR culture. Accordingly, the program or policy will not reach its intended benefits in the absence of employee engagement and commitment (Hayashi, 2001, p.40). Applications of CSR in Lebanon As Lebanons economy recovers from the political turmoil after the countrys civil war, which ended in 1989, corporations are faced with rapid changes in the workforce, society and environment; changes that urge management to revise traditional relationships with stakeholders. Laws and Policies In general, Lebanese companies are required by law to apply laws and regulations that are enforced by the Lebanese Ministry of Work and Lebanese Ministry of Environment in order to safeguard the society and the environment and to encourage the employees to treat them in the right way while concurrently ensuring sustainable development. Although such policies do not allow managers to abuse employees, consumers rights and the environment, yet, they are not enough to ensure better standards of living in a fair, healthy and safe environment (Bodil, 2003, p.6). Lebanese companies are currently working- in partnership with employers, employees and unions in both the public and private sector to develop practical tools for implementing CSR initiatives in the Lebanese businesses and workplaces. These tools will be designed to meet the needs of both organizations and various stakeholders, and will address a wide range of CSR issues (ibid). Drawing up a clear policy can have a positive impact on management by making clear the circumstances in which a request for a certain CSR solution or program will be considered and approved. This saves management time and removes inconsistencies in management decisions. It can also help employees by explaining their rights and will also foster a more positive perception of the employer in the eye of the society. This can lead to better relations with employees, to greater staff loyalty, commitment and motivation, and to reducing staff turnover and recruitment costs while meeting socio-economic and environmental demands (Bodil, 2003, p.6). Examples of Corporate Social Responsibility in Lebanon Lebanese companies, mostly small and medium enterprises (SMEs), as well as Multi National Corporations (MNCs) operating in Lebanon, serve the society by designing and implementing various solutions and programs to respond to local social and environmental issues. A special report published by Executive Magazine (2008, September), Issue 110 highlights some of the best practices in CSR. Exhibit 3 presents a sample of the Lebanese companies as well as MNCs operating in Lebanon, and which are labeled CSR-active.
Exhibit 3 Best practices in CSR in Lebanon ALFA. Alfa Telecom is a Lebanese telecom company that had set in motion their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) plan 4life in the early months of 2006. 4life is an innovative short messaging service that aims to aid communication-disabled children. 4life enables subscriber donations to charitable organizations that aid orphans and children with psychiatric disorders, physical, developmental, sensory and cognitive disabilities. The 4life program insists on strictly working with charitable organizations which have no religious affiliations. This is an important policy since Lebanon is a religiously charged country with a history of inter-religious conflicts (Para 7-12). Bank Audi S.A.L. Bank Audi S.A.L founded in 1908, in Lebanon, is the countrys largest bank in terms of customer deposits and asset base. The bank also has operations in Qatar, U.A.E, Jordan, Syria, Egypt, Sudan, Switzerland and France. The bank implements a reactive CSR program. It does not have a strategic plan detailing future C operations, but reacts to situations that deserve immediate SR social responsibility response. For instance, the 2006 Israel-Hezbollah war in Lebanon resulted in a humanitarian disaster with 1200 casualties, one million Lebanese displaced, and with the infrastructure being severely damaged. Bank Audi responded to the need by providing drinking water to the affected through its Water Supply Operation (WSO). It also offered assistance to the Lebanese who crossed borders seeking refuge to Jordan and Syria. The help involved exigent financial services, medical checkup and legal assistance (ibid, Para13-17). Byblos Bank. Byblos Bank is the third largest bank in Lebanon, offering a wide range of financial services. In a recent interview, the banks head of communications, explained that the bank considered CSR to have a simple yet fundamental role. The bank considers it an essential duty to develop the societies it serves. The bank commissioned the $4 million repair of Fidar Bridge, which is the second tallest bridge in Lebanon and a key link between Tripoli and Beirut, following the destruction in the 2006 war. Moreover, the bank, as part of its contribution to CSR, ensures the continuity of the Lebanese culture through an initiative that urges Lebanese to embrace their culture and identity. Also, Byblos bank holds the 24- year old Child Week which nurtures and encourages children to achieve their creative talents. It is the bank that has partnership with UNICEF in its Adopt-a-School and with Lebanons Children Cancer Center (Para 18-20). Bassil Real Estate Investment (BREI). Bassil Real Estate Investment (BREI) is a Lebanese property development company. BREI, according to its chairman, considers CSR a component of its business policy which involves genuinely ma king a difference to Lebanon by improving its environs through exquisite establishments. BREI was involved in the constructions at Gemayze (neighborhood in Beirut with buildings of old heritage). The company chose to preserve the existing traditional design of the said buildings; thus, resulting in a culture-preserving and environmental friendly project (Para 2124). Banque Libano-Franaise. Banque Libano-Franaise is a forty-five-year old Lebanese bank and an important player in the Lebanese economy. According to its head of communications, the bank is involved in CSR for it believes that entities should seek more than just financial returns: they owe the society it serves social responsibility. The bank is committed to CSR on three strata consisting of its staff, clients and the society. Although the bank has strived to improve its staff welfare, it is in the society it serves that its CSR star shines more brightly. The bank has offered considerable financial backing to prominent Lebanese national festivals. The bank has also participated in an anti-smoking
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campaign among Lebanese youth dubbed the Snuff Free Initiative, and in the preservation of Lebanese historical establishments in partnership with the NGO, Help Lebanon. In collaboration with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, it sponsors and encourages the entrepreneurship among Arab youth (Para 25-27). CISCO-Systems. CISCO-Systems is an American corporation that deals in networking equipment, telecommunication gadgetry and specialist consumer electronics. CISCO considers the impact it has on a community within which it operates as a revealing indicator of its success. The company is committed to its CSR plan on a long term scale to ensure achievement of its objectives. The company believes that CSR broadly includes not only philanthropic activities but prudent business conduct. One of the most noteworthy CSR activities in Lebanon was during the IsraelHezbollah war in 2006 whereby the company contributed massive resources for post-war recovery and development (Para 31-34). Coca-Cola. Coca-Cola, the global soft drinks giant, considers CSR as part of its driving tenets. The company has global CSR objectives on which it spends millions. Beside its regional contributions in Palestine, Jordan, and Syria, Coca-Cola has also worked closely with Lebanons Ministry of Agriculture and United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in initiatives such as a 3000 seedling tree planting, irrigation farming and the Water for Life project (Para 38-42). HSBC. HSBC, a global banking institution, determines amounts to be spent on the CSR as a percentage of profits generated from the region. Upon determination, HSBC ascertains where best to focus its CSR operations. The bank partnered with The Climate Group, Earth Watch Institute, the WWF and Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in allocating $100 million, and has sponsored the Community Middle East Foundation which promotes education, social development and environmental conservation. HSBC also offers scholarships to Lebanese students (Para 43-47). CSR Lebanon. Other Lebanese firms, such as CSR Lebanon, provides advisory and consultancy services. CSR Lebanon, a leading consultancy firm in the CSR field in Lebanon, helps banks and companies do a responsible and sustainable business: It assists them in building strategies that are aligned with core business objectives and competencies; designing and implementing competitive and innovative CSR projects; setting CSR departments that implement and manage all CSR strategies, policies and activities and required training to meet desired goals; managing stakeholders engagement and enhancing relationships with them to put their perceptions and expectations at the center of the business equation; and lastly, in providing training to local companies on how to develop CSR reports that share the companies policies, initiatives, as well as these companies best practices and success stories about CSR (CSR Lebanon, 2010, Para1-7). Procter and Gamble Levant For Procter & Gamble (P&G Levant), CSR is perfectly integrated into the day-to-day business, and that is exactly our edge, clarified P&G Levant Corporate Communication and Reputation Manager. For us, CSR is not something we go out of our way to do; we see it as a tool for business growth. We see the full scope, the full picture of CSR (Executive, 2008, Para 59-64). As a matter of fact, the organization has been in the market for 170 years, and is operating in 140 countries worldwide. One of the reasons P&G has been around for so long is because the company is not simply after profits. The company genuinely believes in doing the right thing, and has continuously seen its mission not as merely selling products, but as selling products that improve the lives of consumers (ibid).
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P&G Levants approach to CSR in Lebanon serves as a benchmark for quality, creativity, innovation, and scope (Executive, 2008, Para 59-64).
Research Methodology Corporate Social Responsibility is considered today as a fundamental pillar for the sustainability of organizations, as such, this project aims at assessing a sample of Lebanese employees knowledge, attitude and performance within the context of CSR. The current research is exploratory in nature and uses a survey questionnaire as the research tool. Primary data is collected directly from a convenient sample of respondents. Results are used to assess to what extent CSR is playing a role in enhancing Lebanese organizational performance, and to what extent CSR approach is applied in the Lebanese market. Questionnaire Design The questionnaire design is made up of four sections entitled respectively: a. Demographics Information b. CSR Awareness c. Corporate Engagement d. User Involvement The questionnaire has been designed and ran by the Italian Ministry of Labor Ministero Del Lavoro E Delle Politiche Sociali in 2011. The researchers ran the same questionnaire in Lebanon. However, the intention of the current paper is not to perform a cultural comparison but to simply assess the Lebanese status quo of CSR, taking as sample Lebanese employees and managers. Another research will follow to assess cultural differences with respect to CSR by comparing the Italian and Lebanese respondents attitudes and opinions. Sample Selection The surveys sample consists of 150 employed respondents who were conveniently selected from different organizations irrespective of their age, gender, educational background and current position. Questionnaires that were partially filled were automatically abandoned from the analysis of the survey. 120 questionnaires were received, but only 100 questionnaires were considered valid for the analysis. The response rate was 66.67%. Filled questionnaires were sorted and c oded. Data entry was performed using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) tool. Data was mainly generated using descriptive statistics. Results and Findings The aim of this study is to provide a preliminary assessment of the level of awareness of CSR issues (or importance) among employees and managers within Lebanese organizations. The results provide insight as to how to increase awareness of Corporate Social Responsibility and the benefits that CSR has on organization overall performance, and how to encourage the adoption of CSR practices in the business sector. Demographic Information Findings show that respondents are 42% males and 58% females. Findings also show that two age categories are prominent, that is, respondents are either in the age bracket 26 to 35 years old or in the bracket 36 to 45 years old. These two categories consist of 71% of the overall sample: Respondents who are between 26 and 35 years old form 43% of the sample, those who are between 36 and 45 years old form 28% of the sample, those who are above 40 years old form 11%, while those who are less than 25 years old form 18%. The average age is around 35 years, indicating that the representative sample of respondents for this research is mature enough to reflect personal
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opinions about CSR in their working environments. Moreover, 71% of the respondents hold a university degree, while 29% do not. As for the respondents line of work, findings show that all respondents work: 15 of the respondents work in banks, 18 respondents work in restaurants, 17 respondents work in hospitals, 22 persons work in the industry, 7 respondents work in insurance, 6 persons work in education, and 15 respondents work in different other fields such as: engineers, doctors, etc The sample of respondents reflects a diverse Lebanese workforce across various industries. Respondents performed different tasks and responsibilities in different sectors and all acted in an environment characterized by continuous interaction between employees and managers. Finally, 43% of the respondents work in small-sized companies, 36% of them work in medium sized companies, while 21% of them work in large companies. This reflects the nature of the dominant size of Lebanese companies which are referred to by SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises). CSR Awareness 1. Knowing about CSR. Results show that 30% of the respondents did not have an idea about CSR, 28% of them had little knowledge, 35% of them are in the stage of assessing CSR cost benefit relations, and only a minority of 7% knew it well and intend to operationalize it in their institutions. 2. Practical assessment of CSR. Findings show that when respondents were asked if they were endeavoring to follow the evolution of CSR through their means of choice, 44% of the respondents did no effort, 23% of them sought information from the Internet, 25% of them educated themselves by attending workshops and seminars, and 8% of them educated themselves by personal readings. 3. Relating social responsibility to ones company. When respondents were asked if they were able to relate CSR to their companies, results show that 51% of the respondents are not able to relate their companies activities with social responsibility, 28% of the respondents related social responsibility with volunteer work or helping others, and the remaining respondents related the concept to environmental, ethical, and equal opportunities actions. These percentages clearly demonstrate low comprehension of the CSR management system. Apparently, respondents companies strategy still look at CSR as philanthropy and corporate support to non-profit institutions and other entities in the society; results show that CSR is visibly not integrated in most of Lebanese companies. 4. Active participation about CSR. Table 1 Active participation about CSR Frequency Valid Collaboration with other organizations Training courses/workshops on the subject Seminars / Colloquies / Conferences / Congresses Integration in a local CSR network Integration in an International CSR network I am not sure 6 13 15 5 4 57 Percent 6.0 13.0 15.0 5.0 4.0 57.0
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Frequency Collaboration with other organizations Training courses/workshops on the subject Seminars / Colloquies / Conferences / Congresses Integration in a local CSR network Integration in an International CSR network I am not sure Total 6 13 15 5 4 57 100
Percent 6.0 13.0 15.0 5.0 4.0 57.0 100.0
Table 1 shows that 57% of the respondents are not educated about active participation in CSR activities, 28% of the respondents related active participation with seminars, workshops and other professional meetings, while the remaining respondents or 15% re lated active participation in CSR with forming networks and collaboration efforts with national and international CSR entities. 5. Being acquainted with entities that are socially responsible. Results show that 42% of the respondents are not acquainted with organizations that are socially responsible, 36% of the respondents do not believe in the credibility of companies claiming to be socially responsible, and 22% of the respondents are positive that they are acquainted with such entities. 6. Relating companies efforts in CSR to external factors. Findings show that when respondents were asked about which external factors do their organizations efforts relate to? 56% of the respondents related their organizational efforts to economic forces, 22% of them related their organizations efforts to the environment, 17% of them related the efforts to social factors, and 5% chose other options. Results obviously show that the economic axis is the most considered aspect in CSR by the Lebanese organizations; a fact that categorizes these organizations in profit making, ignoring the growing concern for modifying the corporate mission to attend to environmental and social problems. 7. Relating companies efforts in CSR to specific factors. Respondents were asked to categorize the degree of importance attributed to a selection of active statements describing their respective companys CSR involvement. Table 2 shows the results. Table 2 Respondents reaction to companys CSR actions Statement Less Among the following actions, I consider that the Important importance attributed by my company to it is Meeting the legal obligations 3 Actively participating in the community 20 Treating the collaborators according to their 43 performance Developing practical solutions in the organization, on 45 the environment management level Owning a partnership relation with suppliers 50 Developing solutions on work & life balance for 65 employees Taking account of collaborators in decision making 66
Important
Fundamental
52 25 22 32 45 23 22
45 55 35 22 05 12 12
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Table 2 shows that respondents selected the specific attributes to represent their organizational actions categorized (in a decreasing order) by adding the important with the fundamental options versus the least important option. 1. Meeting the legal obligations (Fundamental: 45% + Important: 52%): 97% 2. Actively participating in the community (Fundamental: 55% + Important: 25%): 80% 3. Treating the collaborators according to their performance (Fundamental: 35% + Important: 22%): 57% 4. Developing practical solutions in the organization, on the environment management level (Fundamental: 23% + Important: 32%): 55% 5. Owning a partnership relation with suppliers (Fundamental: 5% + Important: 45%): 50% 6. Developing solutions on Work & Life balance for employees (Fundamental: 12% + Important: 23%): 35% 7. Taking account of collaborators in decision making (Fundamental: 12% + Important: 22%): 34% The highest scored items were meeting the legal obligations and the active participation in the community. These two activities reflect externally directed moves which contribute as strong influencing factors to the surrounding community; therefore, improving organizational image. Activities that may impact the well-being of the employees were categorized low, reflecting that the top management translates CSR into simply performing external activities which serve as strong marketing forces. Corporate Engagement 1. Owning CSR certificates. Findings show that only 12% of the respondents confirmed that their organizations have CSR certifications. Surprisingly, 53% of them had no knowledge while 35% negated the fact that their organizations have these certifications. Results show that few organizations have CSR certifications which employees possibly may not know about, or the companies own certifications such as ISO certifications related to the implementation of quality, environment and safety health management models. These data are indicators of the low valorisation of labels as an instrument able to give market reputation and visibility.
2. Organizational effectiveness and success if CSR policies and programs that meet societal and environmental needs are implemented. Results confirm that a majority of 86% of the respondents agree that their organizations will be effective and successful if they have CSR policies and programs that meet societal and environmental needs. This is a good pointer that indicates that the Lebanese working population is a fertile ground for CSR undertakings, and that emp loyees have the willingness to contribute positively to the organization if the management supported the CSR endeavor. 3. Organizational actions to improve effectiveness and success if organizations follow CSR. Respondents chose several organizational outcomes that reflected their belief that if their organizations implement CSR policies and programs that meet societal and environmental needs, their organizations will be more effective and successful. These outcomes are: 1. Better organizational reputation 2. Activities such as involvement in the community are ideal opportunities to generate positive press coverage. 3. Better competitive positioning. 4. Better compliance with regulatory requirements. 5. Better organization-employee relations, consequently, employees may stay longer, reducing the costs and disruption of recruitment retraining.
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User Involvement 1. Actions against irresponsible organizations. Results show that 55% of the respondents consider that, as consumers, they are able to penalize a company with a performance of reproving social activities; whereas, 45% do not agree with this behavior, showing indifference to a companys socially irresponsible attitude. Results show that there is no substantial power on the part of employees and managers as consumers to enforce companies to behave socially responsible. This in turn draws attention to the lack of awareness on the topic and to the inattentiveness to the influence that employees and managers have as consumers on those socially irresponsible organizations. 2. Readiness to pay more for products from socially responsible organizations. 77% of the respondents are ready to pay more for socially responsible goods, whereas 23% are not. Results show that products that provide economic, social and environmental values and attend to the common needs of society are welcomed, and that consumers in general are ready to pay a premium to purchase such goods. Some other respondents may have the willingness to support such goods yet probably consider it as consumers right which should not incur extra charges, or which consumers cannot afford to buy at a high price due to economic considerations. 3. Pay back for socially responsible organizations. Table 3 shows that 41% of the respondents expect that CSR will produce positive outcomes by enhancing the corporate image and reputation, 23% of them by adding value to products, 21% of them by jointly decreasing production cost unit and adding value, 12% of them by decreasing production cost per unit; while only 3% of them do not expect that CSR efforts will result in anything positive. Results attest the multiple benefits that CSR provides to organizational performance as mentioned in the literature review section. Table 3 Positive outcomes (pay back) for socially responsible organizations Frequency Valid Yes, by decreasing production cost per unit Yes, by adding value to products Both, decreasing production cost unit and adding value Yes, by improving company image in general I dont expect CSR efforts to pay back Total 12 23 21 41 3 100 Percent 12.0 23.0 21.0 41.0 3.0 100.0
4. Important for a company to inform stakeholders about CSR activity. Results show that 92% of the respondents consider it important to inform stakeholders of the CSR activities undertaken by the company, while only 8% doesnt find it important. Results show that reporting on CSR activities is very crucial, as the Literature Review has also previously demonstrated: reporting will improve overall work environment as the relationships among various stakeholders are built on the basis of trust and honesty about outside responsibilities. Summary This research was conducted in Lebanon; data was collected from 100 managers, executives and employees working across different industries. Demographic results show that 89% of the Lebanese workers are well-educated (11% less than High School, 18% High School and the remaining being BA/BS/MS/MA/PhD holders) with a mature working population (above 25 years), and a slight female dominance over male employees and managers (58%) which altogether gives
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credibility to the results. 79% of the respondents work in small and medium enterprises which represent the majority of Lebanese companies. As for CSR awareness, 58 % of the surveyed did not know about corporate social responsibility (30%) or have little knowledge about it (28%), while very few organizations actively think of integrating CSR into their organizational culture (7%). Most of the surveyed respondents are not doing any effort in that regard (44%), while some are participating mainly via Internet research (23%) and workshops (17%). CSR, if existent in the scope of the companys activities, is not properly articulated or communicated in almost half of the Lebanese companies (51%), where employees and managers do not know the CSR attributes or the standpoint of their organizations towards it. Most of the other segment attributes the socially responsible behavior to charitable and volunteering activities, and very few (6%) genuinely assume social and environmental care through organizations activities. Moreover, due to the lack of awareness and promotion of CSR on the part of the companies, 57% of the Lebanese workers are undecided about actively engaging in CSR activities, whether on an informative basis such as attending workshops, seminars, conferences, etc... or on a collaborative basis such as participating in national or international networks, collaborating with other organizations, etc On the other hand, 36% of the respondents do not believe in the credibility of these social responsibility labels, while 42% confirmed that they have not been acquainted with socially responsible organizations. Another major finding is that 56% of the companies focus more on the economic component of the triple bottom line, which is the most considered aspect in CSR. Such finding reflects a growing concern with the most relevant corporate mission: profit which raises again the business case of CSR and the urgency to attend to environmental and social problems that the literature has proven to generate long-term benefits to the organization. These results are justifiable. CSR is a new and relatively unknown phenomenon among SMEs in Lebanon as most respondents indicated that they have only little knowledge about the subject, and that they havent done much to enrich their knowledge or to participate in CSR programs or activities, though they seemed to have some idea of what CSR could mean for their companies. Perhaps the media attention on the subject has now aroused SMEs interest in something that they may have thought to be just applicable to large companies. Furthermore, 86% of the respondents believe that organizations will be more effective and successful if they establish and implement good CSR programs and activities that respond to the social and environmental needs. If CSR is considered to be fulfilling legal obligations and taking good care of employees and other stakeholders, then small and medium enterprises in Lebanon find CSR to be fundamental or at least very important. These are also the main reasons for companies to engage in CSR as they generate multiple and multi-dimensional benefits to the company, society, and environment. In short, the target behind implementing CSR is to create a good harmony at the workplace, to build a good reputation of the company, and to build a long term partnership based on trust with business partners. Respondents, if behaving as consumers, declared that they dont and wouldnt do business with socially irresponsible companies. This is what 55% of the respondents confirmed when they filled in the questionnaires. While the other 45% did not penalize the socially irresponsible company as they might be unaware of the importance of the topic or they are simply passive or indifferent about it. In the actual real market, respondents often dont know whether a company is socially responsible or not and if they know, price and quality are likely to be more important arguments for purchasing decisions.
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Besides, the idea of participating in a CSR national network did not stimulate much interest among the Lebanese respondents. Very few respondents (5%) showed interest in joining one, and the advantage of such a network was not that clear to them. Another indicator on the low interest in CSR was that only 12% of the companies owned a certification in that field. However, on a special note, 77% of the respondents showed their willingness to pay more for socially responsible goods. Finally, companies obviously expect CSR to produce positive outcomes (pay back) (97%). They think it is a way to improve the companys image (41%) or add value to the product (23%). However most of them agree that it is very essential that the company informs its stakeholders about its CSR activities in terms of social and environmental undertakings. 92% of the surveyed respondents attested to this fact. This is because research about corporate social responsibility showed that sustainability reporting remains crucial and a cornerstone to improve overall work performance and environment as the relationships among various stakeholders are built on the basis of trust and honesty about outside responsibilities. Conclusions After analyzing the data collected, some facts about CSR issues can be deduced reflecting of the overall opinion of that of managers, employees, consumers and the community at large. These truths speak to a number of CSR issues, from employees and consumers preferences and expectations regarding CSR programs and their effect on productivity and overall companys performance, to the likely complexity of CSR solutions and programs that a given company may adopt. Besides, they have implications for the Lebanese managers as the latter attempt to design programs that solve CSR problems, along with criticisms reported about such programs. The various interests, beliefs, and solutions presented attest to the fact that deciphering CSR issues is a complex process. The first step on the road to tackle these issues requires the manager to thoroughly explore and consider the perspectives of the various stakeholders via conducting societal and environmental analyses that takes into account the f eedback of all organizations stakeholders. Armed with an understanding of each party's interests as well as the knowledge of current, widely shared beliefs, the company can more effectively devise relevant CSR solutions that reflect its serious and genuine commitment and responsibility towards the society and the environment in which it operates along with its focus on economic variables. Implementing CSR in business defines how a company integrates core values and attitudes such as consumers needs and environmentally-friendly practices, and responsible decision-making. CSR implementation also involves a company's compliance with legal standards and adherence to internal rules and regulations. CSR integration in business organizations is a complex process that entails management involvement and efforts for it to be successfully implemented, and in order to reach its intended results. Effective management of CSR initiatives requires that organizations espouse flexibility at the workplace, expect managers to design effective programs and policies that solve CSR problems, measure improvement and effectiveness as well as responsiveness to societal and environmental needs, evaluate programs for their effectiveness, and provide meaningful related training for emp loyees. Management must perceive its social responsibility as a primary issue along with profit decision-making. Besides, at the internal operational level, one can derive the following inferences: ? Open dialogue between the company and its stakeholders is necessary: companies that adopt clear and effective mechanisms for communication between stakeholders when discussing CSR issues, policies and programs are experiencing remarkable results regarding increase in productivity and enhancing in reputation and brand name. Because effective communication enables company managers to understand different stakeholders as a whole (e.g. needs, knowledge, skills, abilities, competencies etc) this will allow the organization to efficiently use its competences to meet the economic, social, and environmental demands imposed by various stakeholders.
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Another point is that managers are able to detect and pinpoint, within their functional activities, work inefficiencies since they are closely examining processes and corporate activities along with these activities direct or indirect impact on society and the environment.
Looking at the external business environment and taking into account the multitude of dimensions and applications of CSR at the turn of the twenty first century and the present fragmentation of efforts and resources, one is witnessing a global increase in appreciation of the need for collaboration. A comprehensive systemic approach towards CSR is certainly likely to leverage opportunities, resources, capabilities and linkages; consequently, assisting in scaling-up of CSR activities while expanding and increasing these activities impact (Jamali, 2008, Para7). According to Jamali (2008), in the context of Lebanon, particularly, and the Middle East, largely, the need for collaboration is even more critical in view of the complexity and interdependence of challenges often observed in developing countries. Such challenges require more state-of-the-art innovative interactions and interventions; thus, a more systemic approach is more likely to take CSR deeper and further into comparable settings (Para 7). Each actor is therefore required to seriously consider CSR while having a positive tendency to assume responsibility during the instigation of change in orientation. Furthermore, as informed and sophisticated citizens, it is likewise required from us, to contribute in supporting, promoting and claiming for a proactive responsible orientation on behalf of our main societal actors and establishments (ibid). Moreover, CSR is a multi-dimensional model that offers various strategic directions and opportunities for both corporations and small and medium enterprises (SMEs); it remains the companys obligation to balance between organizational capabilities and CSR priorities (World Trade Center Beirut & United Management Bureau, 2011, p.4, Para 1-2). All in all, as suggested in the CSR conference entitled Unveiling the Moral Purpose of Business that was held in Moevenpick Hotel and Resort, Beirut, on January 27, 2011, and which was organized by World Trade Center Beirut and United Management Bureau (UMB) - companies need to make CSR their strategic goal for long-term survival and growth in the market, rather than use specific components of CSR as public relations and/or marketing tools that may only assist for a short-term if the strategic long-term orientation is not incorporated (ibid, p.2, Para 1). Recommendations It was clear from the results that in most Lebanese organizations little effort is made to highlight the importance of CSR and create awareness about it among employees. This in turn results in the need to capitalize more on CSR initiatives inside the organization to exploit and take advantage of the multiple business benefits that such initiatives generate. In fact, the importance of CSR in everyday operations and its effect on competitiveness and performance make it necessary for any organization to focus on devising solutions or programs that meet the increasing demands for it. Therefore, more effort on the part of Lebanese organizations must be demonstrated to promote CSR policies and programs and capitalize on them as a core competency. Lebanese companies should recognize the need for CSR as an organizational goal that is aligned with societal and environmental needs, which result in a win-win situation for all stakeholders. Some of the main recommendations to successfully integrate CSR would be ? Including the notion of CSR in the company's strategic intent i.e. mission statement, vision, strategies as well as in organizational policies and designed programs.
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? Designing training programs for managers and employees in order to highlight the importance of CSR in their decision-making, and to provide guidance as how to make decisions whenever faced with CSR-related problems. ? Creating awareness through educational/ training programs, workshops and seminars about the disadvantages of socially irresponsible behaviors and practices. ? Working together to define the main elements in corporate activities that may engender threats to the society and environment in an attempt to reduce them and their negative effect simultaneously; or look for opportunities where the company can contribute to alleviate an existing societal and/or environmental problem. ? Demonstrating constantly productivity gains in order for companies to build a convincing case for change. ? Conducting a careful analysis to how the work process is designed and the way it affects the economy, society, and environment, and examining the indirect or implicit demands placed on the organization; in others words, managers should make sure that the structure of work and work processes are aligned with giving back to the societys needs and major concerns ? Investing in a serious and consistent manner the proactive efforts and commitments to ensure that the company is attending to societal and environmental concerns. ? Emphasizing on designing a collaborative participatory program based on good conversation between managers and employees. Therefore, more effort on the part of Lebanese organizations must be demonstrated to promote CSR policies and programs and capitalize on them as a core competency. In fact, the importance of CSR in everyday operations and its effect on competitiveness and performance make it necessary for any organization to focus on devising CSR policies and solutions to the community. Lebanese companies should recognize the need for a corporate social environment tool that results in a win-win situation for employers, employees, the country, the economy, the environment and all other stakeholders. Some of the main recommendations, categorized in four main categories, that aim to successfully integrate CSR as part of the companys policies and standards would be: ? Improving the environment ? Improving human resource management practices ? Promoting diversity and human rights ? Helping the community (Industry Canada, 2012, Para.12-15).
Finally, the researchers believe that this paper acts as an invitation to further research studies to discern whether Lebanese businesses look forward to making a difference in their adoption of sound CSR applications, knowing that Lebanon is considered a nest of family/ private SMEs community. Since this study involved relatively a small population, which is a limiting factor to generalize results, the similarity of the value systems within the Lebanese job market may lead to similar
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results. More research including a wider array of respondents and commercial institutions is needed to highlight any differences. As for the overall learning experience observed in the current research, although at this point it can not be generalized because of the lack of more in depth interviews with top managers, it gives good motivation to continue the research. Since the field of CSR research is a rich and will continue to be widely spreading, the study encourages faculty, researchers, and trainers to introduce new approaches and designs to offer better understanding of the topic. In light of the attained results, we can safely deduce that awareness should be created in universities about the concept of CSR. This awareness is needed at the undergraduate level first, so that students become believers of the strong relationship that Corporate Social Responsibility has with their business education. Future Research Going forward, many companies may find that corporate social responsibility is a must in their business ethics and standards, and that CSR offerings are increasingly crucial to their overall competitiveness in the marketplace. As the strategic importance of such programs grows, additional questions will inevitably arise. How will such policies and programs change the role of organizations they play in the society, particularly in what concerns private sector vs. government? Is there a limit to how much a company should involve in societal and environmental issues? How much time and budget should companies allocate to provide and implement a socially responsible workplace? Will governments regulate and legislate laws, forcing companies to be more socially responsible? How will the consumers, employees and the general population act, as CSR becomes more known, toward socially irresponsible corporations and how will that affect the latters businesses? What will be the role of social responsibility in industries where human capital and environmental concerns are less valued? How will manufacturing / industrial firms and capitalintensive firms address CSR when telecommuting or CSR requirements are virtually impossible or cost-ineffective? Future research may also be conducted on other companies and other industries in order to be able to generalize the findings of this study and thus be more reliable and add more validity. As long as the company and all stakeholders maintain a mutual commitment to a proactive pursuit of a better society and a healthy and safe environment to live in, an understanding of these issues is likely to grow in the future. The authors would like to acknowledge the constructive criticism and editing performed by Mrs. Henriette Skaff, senior editor at AUSTs Publications Department.
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Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS Publisher: Centre of Excellence for Scientific & Research Journals Online Publication Date: 1 st October 2012
Cross-Cultural Communication: Perspectives from Translation Studies and Applied Linguistics

Dr. Hosni Mostafa El-dali Associate Professor of Linguistics, General Linguistics Programme, UAE University, P.O.Box: 17771, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates Abstract This paper has emerged out of the conviction that linguistic theory has more to offer to translation theory than is so far recognized and vice versa. One reason for the relative separation between the two fields is, perhaps, the domination of formal approaches to language study for a considerable period of time. But, with the spread of functional linguistics in the last three decades, there have been growing hopes for establishing links between linguistics and translation studies. Accordingly, the discussion, in the present study, proceeds primarily f om the perspectives of r Translation Studies and Applied Linguistics. One major goal is to show the interrelationships between linguistics and translation, and how they benefit from each other. The basic underlying theme, here, is that inside or between languages, human communication equals translation. A study of translation is a study of language (Bassnett-McGuire, 1980: 23). In addition, both translators and linguists deal with two linguistic systems, each with, perhaps, a different cultural system. So, if we agree that all communicators are translators (Bell, 1994), we must remember that the role of the translator is different from that of the normal communicator: the translator is a bilingual mediating agent between monolingual communication participants in two different language communities. On the other hand, there has been a great focus on using English only as a medium of instruction in all courses taught in the UAE University. Accordingly, the second goal of this study is to try to answer the questions, How much translation from L is permitted in FL teaching? and 1 What are the factors that determine the quantity to be used?. The view adopted in the present study is that disregarding L2 learners mother-tongue and considering it a bogey to be shunned at all costs is a myth. And, providing maximum exposure to the foreign language may help in learning that language (Krashen, 1982, 1985), but, sometimes, at the expense of understanding and intelligibility. Key words Communication across languages, Translation, Applied Linguistics.
Statement of the Problem One of the goals of the present study is to consider the impact of linguistics on the work of the translator and vice versa, and to look for areas where the theoretical study of language can continue to bring insights to the translators task. This paper has emerged out of the conviction that linguistic theory has more to offer to translation theory than is so far recognized, and vice versa. Perhaps one reason for the relative separation between the two fields is the domination of formal approaches to language study over modern linguistic thinking and research for a considerable period of time. Formal approaches to language, with their focus on structure and confinement to the sentence boundaries, are of limited benefit to translation theory and practice, for which a textually-oriented approach is more appropriate. With the spread of functional linguistics in the last three decades, there have been growing hopes for establishing links between linguistics and translation studies. Although there have been a number of contributions in this direction, much work is still possible, and still required, to help establish such links (Halliday, 1994; Al-Wahy, 1999; Hatim & Mason, 1990; Bake r, 2006; Chesterman, 2006).
Cross Cultural Communication
The translation theorists, almost without exception, have made little systematic use of the techniques and insights of contemporary linguistics (the linguistics of the last twenty years or so) and the linguists, for their part, have been at best neutral and at worst actually hostile to the notation of a theory of translation (Gutknecht, 2001). This state of affairs seems particularly paradoxical when one recognizes the stated goal of translation: the transformation of a text originally in one language into an equivalent text in a different language retaining, as far as is possible, the content of the message and the formal features and functional roles of the original text. It does seem strange that such a process should, apparently, be of no interest to linguistics, since the explanation of the phenomenon would present an enormous challenge to linguistic theories and provide an ideal testing ground for them. Equally, it is difficult to see how translation theorists can move beyond the subjective and normative evaluation of texts without drawing heavily on linguistics. The need for access to and familiarity with the accumulated knowledge about the nature and function of language and the methodology of linguistic enquiry must become more and more pressing and less and less deniable if translation theory is to shake off individualist anecdotalism and the tendency to issue arbitrary lists of rules for the creation of correct translations and set about providing systematic and objective description of the process of translation. This paradox has arisen as a result of a fundamental misunderstanding, by both translation theorists and linguists, of what is involved in translation; which has led, inevitably, to the failure to build a theory of translation which is at all satisfactory in a theoretical or an applied sense (Ibid, p. 693). Rationale: In his book, The Science of Linguistics [In] the Art of Translation: Some Tools from Linguistics for the Analysis and Practice of Translation, Malone (1988) explains that the use of the preposition in meant to convey that linguistics is being put at the service of translation. He, further, claims that it would be equally legitimate and important to study the interface of both on an equal basis or to subordinate translation to linguistics (p. 1). According to Hatim & Mason (1990: 22), the emergence of linguistics as a new discipline in the twentieth century brought a spirit of optimism to the pursuit of language study, a feeling that the groundwork was at last being laid for a systematic and scientific approach to the description of language. Insights into the way language functions as a system might be expected to shed light on the kinds of language problems experienced in social life. Many areas of social life called for investigation from a linguistic standpoint: the teaching of modern languages, the treatment of language disorders, the role of language in education, the status and treatment of minority languages, language planning policy in emergent notions and, of course, translation. Hatim & Mason (1990) suggest some of the reasons why earlier developments in linguistics theory were of relatively little interest to translators. Structural linguistics sought to describe language as a system of interdependent elements and to characterize the behaviour of individual items and categories on the basis on their distribution. Morphology and syntax constituted the main areas of analysis, largely to the exclusion of the intractable problem of meaning, which was either ignored or else dealt with purely in terms of the distribution of lexical items: The statement of meanings is therefore the weak point in language study, and will remain so until human knowledge advances very far beyond its present stale (Bloomfield, 1933: 140). In their evaluation of this issue, Hatim & Mason (1990: 25) argue that since meaning is at the very heart of the translators work, it follows that the postponement of semantic investigation in American linguistics was bound to create a gap between linguistics and translation studies. Quite simply, linguists and translators were not talking about the same thing (see Cobley, 2011; Delabastita et al., 2006). In addition, linguistic description was in general limited to single language systems. For the translator, every problem involved two language systems, a statement of the distribution of an item in one language is of no particular value. However, structuralist theories of language were, nevertheless, influential in translation theory and there were some serious attempts to apply structuralist notions to translation problems (Catford, 1965). As a result of Catfords work with its
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emphasis on contextual meaning and the social context of situation in which language activity takes place, translation theory becomes a branch of contrastive linguistics, and translation problems become a matter of the non-correspondence of certain formal categories in different languages. This has led to an investigation of equivalence probability: an attempt to arrive a t a statistical calculation of the degree of probability that a given SL category will, in any given text, be rendered by an equivalent TL category (Hatim & Mason, 1990: 26). According to Nida (1964), the noncorrespondence of grammatical and lexical categories is the main source of information loss and gain in translation. The influence of contrastive structural linguistics has made itself felt in translation teaching methodology. Many published manuals of translating devote separate sections to the translation of verbs, objectives, pronouns, prepositions (Astington, 1983). Among the insights brought by Chomsky and others to language analysis was the distinction between surface structure and deep structure; that is the notion that the arrangements of elements on the surface of discourse, the words on the page, so to speak, mask an underlying structural arrangement, reflecting the actual relations between the concepts and entities involved (Hatim & Mason, 1990: 31). In this regard, Nida (1964: 68) went as far as to suggest that the activity of translating involved (1) breaking down the SL text into its underlying representation or semantic kernels; (2) transfer of meaning from SL to TL on a structurally simple level, and (3) generation of stylistically and semantically equivalent expression in the TL. Moreover, in its insistence on according priority to the investigation of competence, over the investigation of performance, transformational grammar drew attention away from language as communication, the very substance of the translators work. It was Dell Hymes (1971) who questioned the limitations of the notion of grammatical competence as narrowly conceived within Chomskyan linguistics. Hymes recommends that linguistics addresses itself to accounting for the fact that children acquire the ability to produce utterances which are not only grammatical but also appropriate. They, in other words, acquire communicative competence. This concept is directly relevant to translation studies. As Hatim & Mason (1990: 33) point out, the translators communicative competence is attuned to what is communicatively appropriate in both SL and TL communities and individual acts of translation may be evaluated in terms of their appropriateness to the context of their use. In this regard, Widdowson (1979) makes a useful distinction between usage defined as a projection of the language system or code (p. 8), and use defined as the actual use of language in communication. As Hatim & Mason (1990: 33) claim, the preoccupation in translation studies with noncorrespondence of grammatical categories in individual languages was an exercise in usage rather than in use, in language-as-system rather than in language-as-communication. In recent years, the scope of linguistics has widened beyond the confines of the individual sentence. Text linguistics attempts to account for the form of texts in terms of their users. If we accept that meaning is something that is negotiated between producers and receivers of texts, it follows that the translator, as a special kind of text user, intervenes in this process of negotiation, to relay it across linguistic and cultural boundaries. In doing so, the translator is necessarily handling such mattes as intended meaning, implied meaning, presupposed meaning, all on the basis of the evidence which the text supplies. The various domains of sociolinguistics, pragmatics and discourse linguistics are all areas of study which are germane to this process (Hatim & Mason 1990: 33). In their evaluation of all these developments, Hatim & Mason (1990: 35) said that Taken together, all of these developments have provided a new direction for translation studies. It is one which restores to the translator the central role in a process of cross-cultural communication and ceases to regard equivalence merely as a matter of entities within texts.
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What is Translation? : Two Definitions / Two Issues The study of translation has been dominated, and to a degree still is, by the debate about its status as an art or a science. The linguist inevitable approaches translation from a scientific point of view, seeking to create some kind of objective description of the phenomenon. It could, however, be argued that translation is an art or a craft and therefore not amenable to objective, scientific description and explanation. Translation can be defined as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language (Meetham & Hudson, 1969). The authors continue and make the problem of equivalence very plain: Texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees (fully or partially equivalent), in respect of different levels of presentation (equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc.) and at different ranks (word for word, phrase for Phrase, sentence for- sentence (p. 10). Total equivalence is a chimera. Languages are different from each other; they are different in form having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language and these forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. Further, the contrasting forms convey meanings which cannot but fail to coincide totally; there is no absolute synonymy between words in the same language. Something is always lost in the process and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the authors intentions (Bell, 1994). Equivalence is probably the most controversial notion in Translation Studies. Some translation scholars reject this notion outright, arguing that by retaining equivalence in the vocabulary, translation scholars sidestep the issue that it is difference, not sameness or transparency or equality, which is inscribed in the operations of translation (Hermans, 1998: 61). This view is also expressed in current approaches that are inspired by postmodern theories and Cultural Studies, which argue that texts do not have any intrinsically stable meaning that could be repeated elsewhere (Arrojo, 1998; Venuti, 1995). For Venuti, the target text should be the site where a different culture emerges, where a reader gets a glimpse of a cultural other (Venuti, 1995: 306). The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context free semantic sense. The choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning for-meaning (free translation). As Bell (1994: 5) points out, pick the first and the translator is criticized for the ugliness of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a beautiful translation. Either way it seems, the translator cannot win, even though we recognize that the crucial variable is the purpose for which the translation is being made, not some inherent characteristic of the text itself. According to Hatim & Mason (1990), there is a problem concerning the use of the term equivalence in connection with translation. It implies that complete equivalence is an achievable goal, as if there were such a thing as a formally or dynamically equivalent target-language (TL) version of a source-language (SL) text. Accordingly, they argue that the term equivalence is usually intended in a relative sense, and the concept of adequacy in translation is perhaps a more useful one. Adequacy of a given translation procedure can then be judged in terms of the specification of the particular translation task to be performed and in terms of users needs. (p. 8). Nida (1964) made a distinction between formal and dynamic equivalence. Formal equivalence refers to the closest possible match of form and content between (SR) and (TT), whereas dynamic equivalence refers to the principle of equivalence of effect on reader of (TT). By making this distinction, Nida shifts attention away from the sterile debate of free versus literal towards the effects of different translation strategies. Nida (1964: 160) claims that the present direction is toward increasing emphasis on dynamic equivalence. In this connection, Newmark (1981: 39) prefers the terms semantic and communicative translation. Hatim & Mason (1990: 7) maintain
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that useful as these concepts are, however, they are beset with problems. On the one hand, all translation is, in a sense, communicative. Similarly, a translator who aims at formal equivalence usually has good reasons for doing so and the formally equivalent version may well, in fact, achieve equivalence of reader response. Consequently, it seems preferable to handle the issue in terms of equivalence of intended effects, thus linking judgements about what the translator seeks to achieve to judgements about the intended meaning of the ST speaker/writer. Here we are in the domain of pragmatics (see Field, 2011; Goddard & Geesin, 2011) Closely related to the literal versus free issue is the debate on the primacy of content over form or vice versa. The translator is here faced with what amounts to a conflict of interests. The ideal, according to Hatim & Mason (1990) would be to translate both form and content, but this is frequently not possible. According to Nida (1964), the overriding criteria are (1) type of discourse, and (2) reader response: the standards of stylistic acceptability for various types of discourse differ radically from language to language (p. 169). Thus, adherence to the style of the source text may, in certain circumstances, be unnecessary or even counterproductive. In this regard, Hatim & Mason (1990) maintained that the term style seems to have become a kind of umbrella heading, under which are lumped together all kinds of textual/contextual variables.. style may be seen as the result of motivated choices made by text producers (p. 10). This means that style in this sense, is not a property of the language system as a whole but of particular languages users in particular kinds of settings (see Gregorious, 2011; Hermans, 2006). In addition, there are two very different kinds or rule which control behavior, (1) those which regulate an already existing activity and (2) those which define an activity which neither preexists the formulation of the rules nor can be thought to have any existence without them. The rules and principles promulgated for translation have, for centuries, been of this first, normative, regulatory type. Translators have been told what to do prescriptive rules) and what not to do (proscriptive rules). The rules discussed in linguistics, on the other hand, seek to be of the second, descriptive, constitutive type. The contrast between what people ordinarily assume grammar to mean and this, descriptive, orientation of the linguists is clearly paralleled in translation theory; the frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product (Gutknecht, 2001). A.F. Tytler, whose Essay on the Principles of Translation, first published in 1971, was the first whole book in English devoted to translation studies, propounds the laws of translation: (1) That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original, and (3) that the translation should have all the ease of original composition (Tytler 1907: 9). A more recent formulation of the basic requirements of a translation are to be found in Nida (1964: 164): (1) making sense; (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original; (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. Nida suggests that correspondence of meaning should, in the last resort, have priority over correspondence of style. An alternative definition, given below, makes a second crucial point by distinguishing process from result. According to Meethan and Hudson (1969), translation is the process or result of converting information from one language or language variety into another. The aim is to reproduce as accurately as possible all grammatical and lexical features of the source language original by finding equivalents in the target language. At the same time all factual information contained in the original text. must be retained in the translation. There are, in fact, three distinguishable meanings for the word translation. It can refer to: (1) translating: the process (to translate; the activity rather than the tangible object); (2) a translation: the product of the process of translating (i.e. the translated text); (3) translation: the abstract concept which encompasses both the process of translating and the product of that process. A theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. Given that the process crucially involves language, we need to draw on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social
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aspect of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics (see Hua, 2011; Hung, 2005; Kimmel, 2010; Lathey, 2006). Translators Competence What is the translators need to know and be able to do in order to translate? We are seeking, in other words, a specification of translator competence. In this regard, Bill (1994) argues that the professional (technical) translator has access to five distinct kinds of knowledge; target language (TL) knowledge; text -type knowledge; source language (SL)knowledge; subject area (real world) knowledge; and contrastive knowledge. This means that the translator must know (a) how propositions are structured (semantic knowledge), (b) how clauses can be synthes ized to carry propositional content and analyzed to retrieve the content embedded in them (syntactic knowledge), and (c) how the clause can be realized as information bearing text and the text decomposed into the clause (pragmatic knowledge). Lack of knowledge or control in any of the there cases would mean that the translator could not translate. Without (a) and (b), even literal meaning would elude the translator. Without (c), meaning would be limited to the literal (semantic sense) carried by utterance which, though they might possess formal cohesion (being tangible realizations of clauses), would lack functional coherence and communicative value (Bell, 1994). As Raskin (1987) argues, given the goal of linguistics to match speakers competence, an applied linguistic theory of translation should aim at matching the bilingual native speakers translation competence. This would necessarily involve seeking an integration between the linguistic knowledge of the two languages with specific and general knowledge of the domain and of the world via comparative and contrastive linguistic knowledge (see Leeuwen, 2011). One approach would be to focus on the competence of the ideal translator or ideal bilingual who would be an abstraction from actual bilinguals engaged in imperfectly performing tasks of translation. but (unlike them) operating under none of the performance limitations that underlie the imperfections of actual translation (Katz, 1978). This approach reflects Chomskys view of the goal of the linguistic theory and his proposals for the specification of the competence of the ideal speaker-hearer. Accordingly translation theory is primarily concerned with an ideal bilingual reader-writer, who knows both languages perfectly and is unaffected by such theoretically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention or interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying this knowledge in actual performance. An alternative to the ideal translator model would be to adopt a less abstract approach and describe translation competence in terms of generalizations based on inferences drawn from the observation of translator performance. A study of this type suggests an inductive approach: finding features in the data of the product which suggest the existence of particular elements and systematic relations in the process. We would envisage a translator expert system (Bell, 1994). A final alternative would be to deny the competence-performance dichotomy and redefine our objective as the specification of a multi-component communicative competence which would consist, minimally, of four areas of knowledge and skills; grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, discourse competence and strategic competence (Swain, 1985; Hymes, 1971). This approach would lead us (adapting Hymes definition of communicative competence) to attempt to specify translator communicative competence: The knowledge and ability possessed by the translator which permits him/her to create communicative acts discourse which are not only (and not necessarily) grammatical butsocially appropriate (Halliday, 1985). A commitment to this position would make us assert the translator must possess linguistic competence in b oth languages and communicative competence in both cultures (see LoCastro, 2011). The issue of the impact of both native language and culture on L2 learning as a whole, and on translating, in particular, is of theoretical and pedagogical significance, not only for linguists and language teachers, but also for translators, as well. The second goal of the present study, then, is to examine this controversial issue. The following review will examine the mother-tongues effect on L learning according to (1) the contrastive analysis hypothesis, (2) the error analysis 2
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hypothesis; (3) interlanguage framework, (4) markedness hypothesis, (5) Chomskys universal grammar, (6) sociolinguistic framework, and (7) the cognitive theory. My review of these hypotheses or frameworks is not meant to provide a complete account of them, but rather to highlight how L1 is conceived, and how much influence it has on shaping L2 learners performance. Both linguists and translators must consider the results of such a research (See Anne Brooks-Lewis, 2009; Moutner, 2011). Communication: Translation Studies Perspective Communication between different individuals and nations is not always easy, especially when more than one language is involved. The job of the translator and/ or interpreter is to try to bridge the gap between two foreign languages. This can also include translation problems arising from historical developments within one language (Gutknecht, 2001). We are all involved in translating all the time, if not between languages, then between dialects, registers and styles. Translating was and is a profession, with its own codes of conduct and criteria of performance, not accessible to all. In short, inside or between languages, human communication equals translation. A study of translation is a study of language (Bassnett-McGuire, 1980). Translation and interpreting as activities have existed for many centuries, and there is a long tradition of thought and an enormous body of opinion about translation (Delisle & Woodsworth, 1995; Robinson, 1997). But it was not until the second half of this century that Translation Studies developed into a discipline in its own right (Holmes, 1998; Snell-Hornby et al;, 1992). Although at first conceived as a subdiscipline of applied linguistics, it has taken on concepts and methods of other disciplines, notably text linguistics, communication studies, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, pragmatics, comparative literature, and recently, cultural studies. Instead of a unified theory, we have a multiplicity of approaches, each of which focuses on specific aspects of translation, looks at the product or the process of translation from a specific angle, and uses specific terminology and research methods (Chesterman, 2000; Gentzlaer, 1993; Schaffner, 1997 a, b; 2004). Some researchers postulate an autonomous status for translation studies, arguing that these studies bring together work in a wide variety of fields, including literary study, anthropology, psychology, and linguistics. Others c laim that the domain of translation studies is an important sub-branch of applied linguistics. Proponents of both opinions would have to admit, however, that the field of translation studies has multidisciplinary dimensions and aspects (Owens, 1996; Sofer, 1997; Baker, 1997). Hatim & Mason (1990) points out that the gap between theory and practice in translation studies has existed for too long. Thanks to work being done in several different but related areas, there is an opportunity to narrow that gap. Recent trends in sociolinguistics, discourse studies, pragmatics and semantics, together with insights from the fields of artificial intelligence and conversation analysis, have advanced our understanding of the way communication works. The relevance to translation studies of all this is obvious as soon translation is regarded not as a sterile linguistic exercise but as an act of communication (see Numan, 2011). In the course of its development, the focus of Translation Studies has, thus, shifted markedly from linguistic towards contextual and cultural factors which affect translation. Major inspiration for the development of the discipline has also come from research conducted with the framework of Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS), aiming at the description of translating and translations as they manifest themselves in the world of our experience (Holmes, 1998: 71). Research here includes and received, identifying regularities in translators behavior and linking such regularities to translation norms which operate both in the social event and the cognitive act of translation (Toury, 1995). DTS and postmodern theories thus define translation as norm-governed behavior (Toury, 1995) and / or a cultural political practice (Venuti, 1996: 197). Modern translation studies sees itself increasingly as an empirical discipline, aiming to describe translations (both as products and processes), to explain why translators act in certain ways and produce target texts of a specific profile, and to assess effects of translations. The question, then, is what is it that the translation can characteristically bring to the linguists work which should not continue to be
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ignored? On the one hand, as linguists, there is an opportunity of seeking the universal through the particularity of languages, drawing on the comparisons and equivalences sought by the translator in professional work. Much more than this, however, if only translation research would focus more on it, is the opportunity translation (or more exactly, translating) gives to the linguists in understanding how it is that we do construct texts and how we do go about making meanings. In short, it concentrates our attention on the process in a very tangible and goal-directed way (Gutknecht, 2001). Translators as applied linguists do have certain obligations to the furthering of our understanding of language and of our ability to explain the acts of communicating in which we are continually engaged. As Candlin (1990: viii) points out, when we read or hear any language form the past, or when we receive as human beings any message from any other human being, we perform an act of translation. Such an act involves (1) an understanding of the cultural and experimental words that lie behind the original act of speaking or of writing, ways into their schemata; (2) an understanding of the potential of the two semiotic systems in terms of their imagemaking; (3) a making intelligible of the linguistic choices expressed in the message; (4) an opportunity to explore the social psychological intentions of the originator or the message matched against ones own, and (5) a challenge to match all of these with our appropriate response in our semiotic and linguistic system, and our culture. There has been an influence on linguistics of work done in the area of translation studies. The use of translating as a tool in language teaching has been of interest to many in applied linguistics (Widdowson, 1979), while psycholinguistics and the study of bilingualism are concerned with the evidence provided by natural or spontaneous translation. In this regard, Candin (1990: ix) maintains that translation allows us to put language into perspective by asserting the need to extend beyond the opposite selection of phrases to an investigative exploration of the signs of a culture, and to the social and individual motivations for particular choices. It offers the possibility of unraveling the complex of human and conceptual relations which go the make up the contexts in which we communicate. As such, it is as much social as linguistic .. It offers a broader conception of what it means to understand. Translation is a useful test case for examining the whole issue of the role of language in social life. In creating a new act of communication out of a previously existing one, translators are inevitably acting under the pressure of their own social conditioning while at the same time trying to assist in the negotiation of meaning between the producer of the source-language text (ST) and the reader of the target-language text (TT), both of whom exist within their own, different social frameworks. In studying this complex process at work, we are in effect seeking insights which take us beyond translation itself towards the whole relationship between the language activity and the social context in which it takes place (Hatim & Mason, 1990: 1). They further, argue that translation is a Communicative transaction taking place within a social framework (p. 2). As Robinson (2005: 142) points out, a useful way of thinking about translation and language is that translators do not translate words; they translate what people do with words. Translation is, after all, an operation performed both on and in language (see OKeeffe & Clancy, 2011). Applied Linguistics Perspective: Focus on Native Language and Culture Most SLA research in the 1960s was conducted within the frame work of Contrastive Analysis. As noted by James (1980: 27), constructivists see it as their goal to explain certain aspects of L2 learning; their means are descriptive accounts of the learners L1 and L2 to be learned, and techniques for the comparison of these descriptions. In other words, the goal belongs to psychology while the means are derived from linguistic science. In fact, there have been at least two significant approaches in the analysis of learner difficulty in acquiring L . The first approach 2 is Contrastive Analysis (CA). The second approach is Error Analysis (EA). The behaviorist view of learning provided the psychological bases of the CAH. Behaviorism assumes human behavior to be the sum of its components and language learning to be the acquisition of all these elements. It viewed language acquisition as the formation of habits.
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Similarly, the structural approach provided the theoretical linguistic bases for the CAH. Structural linguists assume that the comparison of the descriptions of the two languages in questions would enable them to determine valid contrasts between the two languages. In the course of the controversy over the viability of the CAH, two versions of this hypothesis have emerged: The strong vs. the weak or predictive vs. explanatory versions as proposed by Wardhaugh (1970). The idea of the strong version is that it is possible to contrast the system of one language with the system of L2 . On the basis of the result of this contrast, investigators can discover the similarities and differences between the two languages in question so that they can make predictions about what will be the points of difficulty for the learners of other languages. According to the strong version, wherever the two languages differed, interference would occur. That is, language transfer is basis for predicting which patterns of the target language will be learned most readily and which will prove most troublesome. This version relies on the assumption that similarities will be easier to learn and differences harder. In his evaluation of the strong version of CAH, Wardhaugh (1970) points out that although some writers tried to make this version the basis for their work, it is quite unrealistic and impractical. He made the following points: At the very least this version demands of linguists, that they have available a set of linguistic universals formulated within a comprehensive linguistic theory which deals adequately with syntax, semantics, and phonology (1970: 125). The weak version relies on two assumptions. First, EA may help investigators know, through errors the learners make, what the difficulties are. Second, investigators may realize the relative difficulty of specific errors through the frequency of their occurrence (Schachter 1974). The weak version may be easier and more practical than the strong version on the basis that it requires of the linguist that he use this linguistic knowledge to explain the observed difficult ies in L2 learning. It seems to me, however, that the CAH is not a reliable enough approach to be used in the analysis of learner difficulty in acquiring L. Neither the strong version nor the weak version can be used as an 2 effective predictor of the difficulties of L2 learning. L1 is no longer considered the only reason for the errors made by L learners. In neither child nor adult L performance do the majority of the 2 1 grammatical errors reflect the leaners native language according to a number of researchers. Scott and Tucker (1974) refer to the reason that the usefulness of the CAH has remained limited: no language has been well enough described, and it has become increasingly apparent that not all L 2 errors have their source in the mother tongue (See Dekeyser, 2003; Mangubhai, 2006; Lightbown & Spada, 2006; Robinson & Ellis, 2011). The assumption that similarities between the native and the target languages will be easier to learn and differences harder is rejected by a group of scholars. Pica (1984), for example, maintains that the divergent areas between the learners L1 and the target language do not represent the greatest learning difficulties may be attributable to those areas which share considerable similarity. Some differences between languages do not always lead to significant learning difficulties. More than this, language transfer can be a constraint on the acquisition process. Schachter (1983) sees that the learners previous knowledge is available for use in further L 2 learning. Another serious challenge for any contrastive description is the interaction of linguistic subsystems. As Sanford and Garrod (1981) and Bock (1982) point out, psycholinguistic research has demonstrated a strong interdependence among discourse, syntax, phonology and other subsystems in the comprehension and production of language. The second approach in the analysis of learner difficulty in acquiring L2 is Error Analysis (EA). This approach is based on the assumption that the frequency of errors, according to Brown (1988), is proportional to the degree of learning difficulty. As has been mentioned before, many of the errors could not be explained in terms of L1 transfer. The point which should be clear is that the EA can be characterized as an attempt to account for learner errors that could not be explained or predicted by the CAH. Schachter and Celce-Murcia (1977) have pointed out that it is difficult to be certain precisely what type of errors L2 learner is making or why the learner makes it. The reasons for errors made by L learners are numerous. In this regard, Taylor (1975) found that the early 2
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stages of language learning are characterized by a predominance of interlingual transfer, but once the learner has begun to acquire parts of the new system, generalization within the target language is manifested (See Ellis, N. 2002, 2005; Sebba et al., 2011; Segalowitz, 2011). On the other hand, many studies have shown that developmental factors provide another explanation for some of the errors made by L learners. Felix (1980) presents the theoretical 2 assumption of the developmental nature of L acquisition. As long as L learners produce 2 1 ungrammatical structures before they achieve adult competence, L2 learners appear to pass through developmental stages which reflect general regularities and universal process of language acquisition. These developmental stages are not determined by the structural properties of the learners L1 . The same idea is presented by Pica (1984) (See. Sharwood-Smith, 2004; Tyler, 2011). As a reaction to the product orientation of the morpheme studies and EA, and the feeling that a more process oriented approach was needed, researcher began to work according to the interlanguage framework, which was developed in the late 1970s and 1980s. So, rather than focusing on the first or the target language, researchers began to develop data analytic procedures that would yield information about the dynamic qualities of language change that made the interlanguage a unique system; both similar to and different from the first and target languages. The next section will discuss the interlanguage framework, and the how the issue of native language influence was analyzed by researchers working according to it. The term intelanguage was c oined by Selinker (1969: 1972) to refer to the interim grammars constructed by L learners on their way to the target language. The term won favour 2 over similar construct, such as approximate system (Nemser, 1971) and transitional competence (Corder, 1967). Since the early 1970s interlanguage has come to characterize a major approach to L2 research and theory. Unfortunately, the term has taken on various meanings, some authors using it as synonymous with L learning generally. Generally speaking, the term 2 interlanguage means two things: (1) the learners system at a single point in time, and (2) the range of interlockning systems that characterize the development of learners over time. The interlanguage is thought to be distinct from both the learners L and from the target language. It 1 evolves over time as learners employ various internal strategies to make a sense of the input and to control their own output. These strategies were central to Selinkers thinking about interlanguage. Specifically, Selinker (1972) argued that interlanguage was the product of five cognitive processes involved in L2 learning (1) language transfer from L ; (2) transfer of training process used to teach 1 L2 ; (3) strategies of L2 learning; (4) strategies of L2 communication; and (5) overgeneralization of the target language linguistic material. The development of the interlanguage was seen by Selinker as different from the process of L development because of the likelihood of fossilization in L . 1 2 Fossilization is the state of affairs that exists when the learner ceases to elaborate the ineterlanguage in some respect, no matter how long there is exposure, new data, or new teaching. Selinker maintained that such fossilization results especially from language transfer. In contrast to Selinkers cognitive emphasis, Adjeman (1976) argued that the systematicity of the inetrlanguage should be analyzed linguistically as rule-governed behavior. Whereas Selinkers use of inetlanguage stressed the structurally intermediate nature of the learners system between the first and the target language, Adjemain focused on the dynamic character of interlanguage systems, their permeability. Interlanguage systems are though to be by their nature incomplete and in a state of flux. In this view, the individuals L system is seen to be relatively 1 stable, but the interlanguage is not. The structure of the interlanguage may be invaded by L 1 when placed in a situation that cannot be avoided, L learner may use rules or items from L . 2 1 Similarly, the learner may stretch, distort, or overgeneralize a rule from the target language in an effort to produce, the intended meaning. Both process Adjemian saw to reflect the basis permeability of the ineterlanguage. A third approach to the interlanguage notion has been taken by Tarone (1979) who maintained that the interlanguage could be seen as analyzable into a set of styles that are dependent on the context of use. Tarone proposed capability continuum, which
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includes a set of styles ranging from a stable subordinate style virtually free of L influence to a 1 characteristically superiodinate style where the speaker pays a great deal of attention to form and where the influence of L1 is, paradoxically more likely to be felt. For Tarone, interlanguage is not a single system, but a set of styles that can be used in different social contexts. In this way, Tarone added to Adjemans linguistic perspective a sociolinguistic point of view (See Echevarria et.al., 2004; Ellis, R., 2006; Jiang, 2007; Walker, 2011). Researchers working according to the ineterlanguage framework began to examine transfer as a process, not as a product. For example, Keller-Cohen (1979) found that a Japanese, a Finnish, and a German child acquired the English interrogative in roughly the same developmental sequence, but that the Finnish child acquired the use of yes/no questions much slower than the other two children, presumably because of the lack of correspondence between L1 and L2 structures. The end result was the same, but the process differed because of differences in L . 1 Another difference in the developmental process that is due to L1 influence is the observation that speakers of some languages take longer to learn certain forms than do speakers of other language because their own first languages have similar forms. Thus Schmann (1982) reported that no + verb forms are more difficult to eliminate from the interlanguage of Spanish speakers than they are form the interlanguage of other speakers learning English because of the existence of this pattern in Spanish. Gass (1984) tells us that in addition to showing that transfer results in leaners taking different developmental paths to target-language mastery or makes it more difficult to learn certain constructions, recent work on transfer has looked at the following phenomena: (1) transfer of typological organization; (2) avoidance; (3) overproduction of certain elements; (4) language facilitation, and (5) modification of hypotheses. It can be seen from the above examples, as Gass (1984) maintained, that the concept of transfer has taken on a number of different meanings for researchers and that in much of this research the influence of L would have gone unobserved if the traditional, product-oriented 1 definition of transfer used (See Saeidi & Chong, 2003; De Bot et al., 2007). Markedness and Native Language Influence The notion of markedness dates back to the Prague school of linguistics. Originally, it was used to refer to two members of a phonological opposition, one of which contained a feature lacking in the other. The phoneme carrying the feature was called marked; the other unmarked. In L2 acquisition research, the term was used by Kellerman (1979, 1983) to predict when transfer is likely to occur from L . Kellerman has argued that transfer should be looked on as a cognitive 1 process in which decisions are made on the basis of (1) the leaners perception of the similarity between L1 and L2 structures, and (2) the degree of markedness of L structure. More marked 1 structures are those that the person thinks of as irregular, infrequent, and semantically opaque. Transfer is predicted to occur when the perceived similarity between the two languages is great and when the structures involved are unmarked. A number of studies (Gass, 1979; Rutherford, 1982) support these predictions. Other authors distinguish marked or unmarked structures according to their degree of complexity. Unmarked forms are thought to be less complex than marked. Specifically, Zobl (1984) proposed that one reason for transfer from L is that L2 rule is obscure. 1 There are two main reasons suggested for this obscurity: (1) L is typologically inconsistent in that 2 it violates a universal implicational pattern, or (2) the rule is itself typological variable, so that there are a large number of possibilities. In either of these cases, learners are likely to fall back on their L1 and L1 influence will be found in the interlanguage. Kellerman (1979) reported that learners initially transfer both marked and unmarked features from their L , but that in the more advanced 1 interlanguage, they resist transferring marked features. This not to imply that beginners will necessarily transfer marked features from their L. In this regard, Zobl (1984) noted that L 1 2 learners at all stages of development tend to avoid transferring marked L rules. Eckman (1985) 1 has argued that transfer occurs principally where L feature is unmarked and L2 feature is marked. 1 According to Eckmans Markedness Differential Hypothesis, those areas of the target that will be
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the most difficult for L learners are those that are both different from L and relatively more 2 1 marked. (See Ellis, R. et.al. 2001; Han, 2005). In recent Chomskyan thought, the rules of the core grammar are thought to be unmarked and those of the peripheral grammar are marked. Core grammar refers to those parts of the language that have grown in the child through the interaction of the Universal Grammar with the relevant language environment. In addition, however, it is assumed that every language also contains elements that are not constrained by Universal Grammar. These elements comprise the peripheral grammar. Peripheral elements are those that are derived from the history of language, that have been borrowed from other languages (Cook, 1985). Rules of the core grammar are seen to be easier to set than are rules of the peripheral grammar, which are thought to be outside of the childs preprogrammed instructions. (See Han et.al. 2005; Izumi, 2002). To conclude, the shift from a product to a process orientation has drawn attention to the more subtle and non-obvious effects of L1 on interlanguage development. It has become apparent that L does affect the course of interlanguage development but this influence is not always 1 predictable. In addition, as Mclaughlin (1988: 81) points out, more recent work on transfer has made apparent the folly of denying L influence any role in interlanguage development. He, 1 further, maintains that the bulk of the evidence suggests that language acquisition proceeds by mastering the easier unmarked properties before the more difficult marked ones (See Wong, 2004; Hoey, 2007; Poole, 2003; Lyster, 2004). Cognitive Theory and L1 Influence Cognitive theory is based on the work of psychologistics and psycholinguistics. Individuals working within this framework apply the principles and findings of contemporary cognitive psychology to the domain of L2 learning. According to McLaughlin (1988), the theory is, in this sense, derivative. That is, it represents the application of a broader framework to the domain of L research. Within this framework, L learning is viewed as the acquisition of a complex 2 2 cognitive skill. To learn L2 is to learn a skill, because various aspects of the task must be practiced and integrated into fluent performance. Learning is a cognitive process because it is thought to involve internal representations that regulate and guide performance. In the case of language acquisition, Lightbown (1985) pointed out that L2 acquisition is not simply linear and cumulative, but is characterized by backsliding and loss of forms that seemingly were mastered. She attributed this decline in performance to a process whereby learners have mastered some forms and then encounter new ones that cause a restructuring of the whole system: [Restructuring] occurs because language is a complex hierarchical system whose components interact in non-linear ways. Seen in these terms, an increase in error rate in one area may reflect an increase in complexity or accuracy in another, followed by overgeneralization of a newly acquired structure, or simply by a sort of overload of complexity which forces a restructuring, or at least a simplification, in another part of the system (Lightbown, 1985: 177). In their discussion of native language influence SLA theorists have argued whether bilingual individuals have two separate stores of information in long-term memory, one for each language, or a single information store accompanied by selection mechanism for using L or L 1 2 (McLaughlin, 1984). In this regard, OMalley, Chamot and Walker (1987) pointed out that if individuals have a separate store of information maintained in each language, they would select information for use appropriate to the language context. To transfer information that was acquired in L1 t o L would be difficult because of the independence of the two memory systems. An 2 individual in the early stages of proficiency in L would either have to translate information from 2 L1 t o L or relearn L information in L , capitalizing on existing knowledge where possible. A 2 1 2 contrast to this argument for separate L1 and L2 memory systems, Cummins (1984) has proposed a common underlying proficiency in cognitive and academic proficiency for bilinguals. Cummins argues that at least some of what is originally learned through L1 does not have to be relearned in L2 but can be transferred and expressed through the medium of L . L2 learners may be able to 2
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transfer what they already know from L into L2 by (a) selecting L2 as the language for expression, 1 (b) retrieving information originally stored through L but presently existing as non-language1 specific declarative knowledge, and (c) connecting the informa tion to L2 forms needed to express it. Learning strategy research (OMalley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Kupper and Russo I985a, I985b) indicates that students of English as L2 consciously and actively transfer information from their L1 for use in L2 (Basturkmen et.al2004, Sheen, 2005). L1 Culture and L2 Written Discourse In addition to L learners L as an influencing factor, their overall culture has been 2 1 suggested to be of an enormous effect on students composing in L . There has been a significant 2 revolution in our thinking about writing in recent years, and it has come from learning to view writing as a process that is emb edded in a context. In this regard, Hull (1989: 109) maintains that To say that writing is embedded in a context is to acknowledge that what counts as writing, or as any skill or any knowledge, is socially constructed. It depends for its meaning and its practice upon social institutions and conditions. According to this view, writing does not stand apart from people and communities.And, this new understanding carries with it different notions of how writing is acquired and by whom. It has been recognized that writers from different cultures have learned rhetorical patterns that may differ from those used in academic settings in the United States and that are reinforced by their educational experience in their specific cultures (Purves, 1988). Kaplan (1966) attempted to analyze how ones native thinking and discourse structures manifest themselves in the writing of ESL students. Influenced by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, Kaplan argued that his subject revealed evidence of culturally influenced styles of thought development that emerge in their writings in ways that can be structurally stylistically described. In fact, the notions that cultures express concepts and develop perceptions of the word and of relationships of various kinds in different ways are not new. What is new, as Heath (1983) suggests, is the current attempt to integrate the study of languages and their uses in society in such a way as to reflect differences in cultural habits and differences in styles of expression in various contents including that of written text. In certain cases, cultural traditions may encourage or discourage certain types of thinking, and those cultural patterns may be reinforced by the structural characteristics of a particular language. It has been widely recognized that culture and language are interrelated and that language is used as the main medium through which culture is expressed (Montgomery and Reid-Thomas, and Reid -Thomas, 1994, El-daly, 1991). To sum up, both the content and the language to express this content are culturally determined. To be effective, writers have to learn what is expected of them within their own culture. Consequently, differences in cultural expectations are an obstacle for those who are learning to write/or translate in a foreign language. Under the influence of the norms within their own culture, they may deviate from the norms of the foreign culture in what kind of material are to be included in a particular variety of w ritten discourse, what style is appropriate, and how the discourse is to be organized (Cooper & Greenbaum, 1988). Purves (1988: 19) points out that the differences among rhetorical patterns do not represent differences in cognitive ability, but differences in cognitive style. When students taught to write in one culture, enter another and do not write as do the members of the second culture, they should not be thought stupid or lacking in higher mental processes. Recently, Al-Samawi (2004) attempted to find out the erroneous redundant terms in the English writing of Yemeni students at the university level, and to trace their possible causes. Al Samawi found out that 58.3% o the errors were due to L1 transfer. The rest were a sign of either ignorance of concerned English rules (27.8) or overgeneralization (13.9). These results seem to be compatible with Hago (1998); Osman (2002); Al-Gadi (2000), Al-Hardalow (2001), and Gasmallab (2001).
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Views on the Place of Mother-tongue in FL Teaching and Translation The issue of the place of mother-tongue in FL instruction is one of the controversial topics in the field of foreign language teaching. Many arguments have been raised and the various language teaching methods (conventional and non-conventional) hold different fluctuating opinions. Some recommend while others condemn the use of mother-tongue in the FL classroom. There are two extremes which are represented by the Grammar Translation Method and the Direct Method. The former, as its name suggests, makes liberal use of mother-tongue. It depends on translation and considers L1 a reference system to which the foreign language learner can resort so as to understand the grammatical as well as the other features of the foreign language. The latter (the other extreme) tries to inhibit the use of mother-tongue. It depends on using the foreign language in explanation and communication in the language classroom and excluding L and 1 translation altogether. Those who condemn mother-tongue use view that optimal FL learning can be achieved through the intralingual tackling of the various levels of linguistic analysis as this helps provide maximum exposure to the foreign language. It is true that providing maximum exposure to the foreign language helps a lot in learning that language, as the following discussion will demonstrate. During the late 1970s Stephen Krashen put forward an account of SLA first known as the Monitor Model after its main claim about the role of monitoring in language learning (Krashen, 1979). In the early 1980s this was expanded into a broader-based model, described in Krashen (1981; 1982). The aspect of the model that became most developed was termed the Input Hypothesis, the title of Krashens major theoretical book (Krashen, 1985). The question that concerns us here is the linguistic aspect of Krashens views. According to the Input Hypothesis, humans acquire language in only one way-by understanding messages or by receiving comprehensible input (Krashen, 1985, p. 2). To be useful to the learner, the input must be neither too difficult to understand nor too easy. This is conceptualized by Krashen in terms of the learners current level, called i, and the level that the learner will get to next, called i+1. As Cook (1993) points out, for the learner to progress rather than remain static, the input has always to be slightly beyond the level at which he or she is completely at home: the gap between the learners i and the i+1 that he or she needs is bridged by information drawn from the situation and from the learners previous experience. Moreover, comprehensible input relies on the actual language forms being incomprehensible, not the total message. Learners have to struggle to derive meaning for the parts they do not understand rather than understanding the sentence completely (White, 1989). The question which imposes itself is why is not acquisition equally successful for all L learners, even 2 when they receive apparently identical comprehensible input?. According to Krashen (1982: 66), comprehension is a necessary condition for language acquisition but it is not sufficient: something more than comprehensible input is needed. For acquisition to take place, the learner has to be able to absorb the appropriate parts of the input. There can be a mental block that prevents acquirers from fully utilizing the comprehensible input they receive for language acquisition (Krashen, 1955, p. 3). This block is called the affective filter. That is, the acquirer may be unmotivated, lacking in self-confidence, or anxious. If the filter is up, comprehensible input cannot get through; if it is down, they can make effective use of it. In this connection, Krashen (1985) argues that the reason why younger learners are better at L acquisition over the long term is that the affective 2 filter gains dramatically in strength at around puberty (Krashen, 1985, p. 13). In Krashens words, comprehensible input and the strength of the filter are the true causes of second language acquisition (1982, p. 33). On the other hand, confining oneself to the foreign language only, may be done at the expense of understanding and intelligibility or in a routine and non-creative way. With careful and functional mother-tongue use intelligibility can be achieved and the time saved (by giving the meaning in the mother-tongue) can be used for practice. So, mother-tongue use does not mean wasting time that can be better used for providing maximum exposure to the foreign language. Disregarding the mother-tongue and considering it a bogey to be shunned at all costs is a myth.
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Those who recommend nothing but English in an English lesson neglect many important facts. First, they have forgotten that FL learners translate in their minds and think in their own language and this cannot be controlled: The teacher who says: I forbid the use of the pupils own language in my class; nothing but English in the English lessons is deceiving himself. He has forgotten the one thing he cannot control what goes on in the pupils mind, he cannot tell whether, or when, his pupils are thinking in their own language. When he meets a new English word, the pupil inevitably searches in his mind for the equivalent in his own language. When he finds it, he is happy and satisfied, he has a pleasurable feeling of success. (French, 1972: 94). Supporting this idea, Finocchiaro (1775: 35) says: We delude ourselves if we think the student is not translating each new English item into his native language when he first meets it. Second, they have also forgotten that the unknown (L2 pattern) cannot be explained via something less known (the L2 ) (Hammerly, 1971). This idea was supported by Seleim (1995). Third, they have forgotten that the mother-tongue is first in terms of acquisition and proficiency and so FL learners cannot escape its influence: The mother-tongue is so strongly ingrained that no amount of direct method drill can override its influence. Therefore, according to this line of thought it is better to capitalize on the students knowledge of (mother-tongue) than to pretend it is not there. (Grittner, 1977: 165). Fourth, they have forgotten that there are individual differences among students and that the weaker students may have difficulties in grasping a point in the foreign language (See Lee, 2000, Lyster & Mori, 2006). In a study conducted by Latke-Gajer (1984), she tried to look for a solution for what she observed while teaching English. The problem is that students, to understand an utterance in the foreign language, translate each word separately and then add together the meaning of individual words. This is harmful as it does not enable students to grasp the meaning of more complex statements, especially those that contain idiomatic expressions. She decided, in this study, to introduce English-English explanations of new words and expressions. She started the experiment with her advanced students by giving them a list of words to be explained in English at home and then they compared their explanations with the definition in Hombys dictionary. Although the experiment proved successful, especially with advanced students, it was not possible to totally eliminate Polish (as a mother-tongue) from the lessons. It was necessary to use it to explain several difficult and complicated grammatical patterns so that the weaker students could understand. With the beginners it was impossible to use this same method. For them, she suggests using different ways such as: opposition, describing pictures and using games. It becomes then clear that the mother-tongue cannot be totally excluded or disregarded. There are many situations in which a few words in the mother-tongue will help clarify something students may not have comprehended in English. It is a myth to believe that the best criterion for effective target language teaching is the absence of the mother-tongue in the classroom. Although the need for a target language environment in the classroom is controvertible, this does not imply, however, that the mother-tongue has no role to play in effective and efficient language teaching. Where a word of Arabic can save Egyptian learners of English from confusion or significant time lost from learning, its absence would be, in my view, pedagogically unsound (Altman, 1984: 79). Absence of the mother-tongue may result in meaningless and mechanical learning situations. This contradicts the recent research findings which stress that the two-way type of communication should be the ultimate goal of instruction and the tool which ensures better teaching results. With total exclusion of the mother-tongue the teaching-learning situations may degenerate into a mechanical process in which one may memorize (learn how to repeat) a phrase or a sentence in a foreign language, without knowing what it means. In such a case, one could say the person knows it (knows how to say it), but we could also say that the person does not understand what he or she is saying (comprehend its meaning) (Soltis, 1978: 55).
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Concluding Remarks It is pedagogically important to emphasize the element of meaningfulness in the teaching learning process. Students become motivated and active if they understand what is involved and if they know what they are doing. So, it is important not to disregard the learners need for the comprehension of what they learn or exclude the mother-tongue because it is their right that they should make sense in their own terms of what they are learning. It is also important to use the learners' native language so as to avoid misunderstanding and achieve intelligibility. The reasons for using the native language to get meaning across is that it prevents any misunderstanding, saves time and makes the gradation of the language free from physical demonstration (see Poole & sheorey, 2002). Mother-tongue plays a vital role in diminishing or at best eliminating the psychological factors that have an inhibiting effect on FL teaching and learning. It has been noticed that the nonconventional methods of language teaching make use of the mother-tongue and translation in FL/SL teaching and learning. They emphasize that mother-tongue employing removes the fear of incompetence, mistakes and apprehension regarding languages new and unfamiliar. One point is that, to overcome the problems of dissatisfaction and avoidance, FL teachers should permit some mother-tongue use. Students, having linguistic inadequacies, can get confused and become hesitant about their oral participation. They may abandon a message they have started because a certain idea or a thought is too difficult to continue expressing in the foreign language. To overcome the feeling of dissatisfaction and psychological avoidance, FL learners should come to terms with the frustrations of being unable to communicate in the foreign language and build up, cognitively and effectively, a new reference system which helps them communicate an idea. This reference system is the mother-tongue which is indeed very important for enhancing the FL learners feeling of success and satisfaction. Another point is that mother-tongue use helps create a climate that alleviates the learners tension, insecurity and anxiety. It makes the class atmosphere comfortable and productive and helps establish good relationships between the teacher and his students. In one of the most recent research, Anne Brooks-Lewis (2009) challenges the theory and practice of the exclusion of the adult learners first language by reporting learners overwhelmingly positive perceptions of its incorporation in foreign language teaching and learning. However, it must be kept in mind that mother-tongue should be used as little as possible, but as much as necessary. MT should be rule-governed and not be freely or randomly used: The individual is able to switch from one language to another... in a rule-governed rather than a random way (Bell, 1978: 140-41) It is important to emphasize the fact that mother-tongue should not be used in the wrong way. It is desirable in cases where it is necessary, inevitable and where otherwise valuable classroom time would be wasted. We do not want the FL teacher to use the mother-tongue freely and to automatically translate everything on the learners book. This unlimited use is so harmful that it discourages the learners from thinking in English (the language they are learning) and so it will not be taken seriously as a means of communication. Translating can be a hindrance to the learning process by discouraging the student from thinking in English (Haycraft, 1979: 12). Students in most cases think in their mother-tongue and lean too much on it. This makes them acquire and develop the habit of mental translation. They interpose the mother-tongue between thought and expression developing a three way process in production and expressing their intentions: Meaning to Mother-tongue to English Expression. They always think, while trying to express themselves (in the foreign language), in their mother-tongue and all their attempts to communicate in the foreign language are filtered through the mother-tongue: The mother-tongue is not relinquished, but it continues to accompany - and of course to dominate the whole complex fabric of language behavior.... all referent- whether linguistic or semantic - are through the Mothertongue. (Grittnerm 1977: 81). This is pedagogically dangerous as it makes the FL learners believe that, to express themselves in the foreign language, the process is mere verbal substitution of words of the mother-tongue to their equivalents in the foreign language and this is an extremely a tiring way to produce correct sentences in the foreign language and creates no direct bond between
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thought and expression. The nonexistence of this bond results in hindering fluency in speech and proficiency in productive writing. Interposing the mother-tongue between thought and exp ression hinders the intralingual associative process which is necessary for promoting fluency and automatic production of FL discourse. The explicit linkage of a word in one language with a word in another language may interfere with the facilitative effects of intra-language associations. Thus, for instance, if a student repeats many times the pair go: aller, the association between the two will become so strong that the French word will come to the students mind whenever he uses the English equivalent and inhibit the smooth transition from go to the other English words, a skill necessary for fluent speech (Anisfield, 1966: 113-114). FL teachers should guard against mental translation. This can be achieved by permitting the learners to express thems elves (in speech or writing) within their linguistic capacities and capabilities. This means that the student, for instance, should first practice expressing given ideas instead of trying to fit language to his free mental activities and if he is freed from the obligation to seek what to say, he will be able to concentrate on form and gradually acquire the correct habits on which he may subsequently depend. It is important to familiarize the learners with the fact that no word in one language can have or rightly be said to have the same meaning of a word in another language. FL teachers should provide more than one native equivalent for the FL word, give the meaning on the sentential level and in various contexts. According to Byram et al. (1994: 18), cultural learning positively affects students linguistic success in foreign language learning. Culture can be used as an instrument in the processes of communication when culturally-determined behavioural conventions are taught. Tavares and Cavalcanti (1996), further, claims that culture shouldnt be seen as a support to language teaching but that it should be placed on an equal footing with foreign language teaching. Post and Rathet (1996) support the use of students native culture as cultural content in the English language classroom. In fact, a wide range of studies has shown that using content familiar to students rather than unfamiliar content, can influence student comprehension of L (Anderson and Barnitz, 1984; Long, 1990). In other words, unfamiliar 2 information can impede students learning of the linguistic information used to convey the content. So why overburden our students with both new linguistic content and new cultural information simultaneously? If we can, especially for lower-level students, use familiar cultural content while teaching English, we can reduce the processing load that students experience (Post and Rathet, 1996: 12). In this regard, Tavares and Cavalcanti (1996) argue that the development of peoples cultural awareness leads us to more critical thinking as citizens with political and social understanding of our own and other communities. To conclude, the problem does not lie in whether mother-tongue has a place in FL, teaching/learning or not, but in how much of it is permitted. In this respect, it can be said that there are many factors determining the quantity to be used. The quantification will differ according to the maturity level of the learners and their linguistic level. It also depends on the competence of the teacher, the material to be taught and the availability of teaching aids. Another point is that it is the individual teacher who sensitizes when to switch codes and when not to. It is also the teacher who can decide the pragmatic quantity to be used because what is workable in a certain class may not be so in another.
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Hussin Hejase, Cybelle Farha, Ziad Haddad, and Bassam Hamdar

Cross-Cultural Communication: Perspectives from Translation Studies and Applied Linguistics

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 1-23

Exploring the Multiple Benefits of CSR

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 1-23

Exploring the Multiple Benefits of CSR

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 1-23

Exploring the Multiple Benefits of CSR

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 1-23

Exploring the Multiple Benefits of CSR

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 1-23

Exploring the Multiple Benefits of CSR

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 1-23

Exploring the Multiple Benefits of CSR

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 1-23

Percent 6.0 13.0 15.0 5.0 4.0 57.0 100.0

Exploring the Multiple Benefits of CSR

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 1-23

Exploring the Multiple Benefits of CSR

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 1-23

Exploring the Multiple Benefits of CSR

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 1-23

Exploring the Multiple Benefits of CSR

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 1-23

Exploring the Multiple Benefits of CSR

Cross-Cultural Communication: Perspectives from Translation Studies and Applied Linguistics

Cross Cultural Communication

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 24-46

Cross Cultural Communication

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 24-46

Cross Cultural Communication

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 24-46

Cross Cultural Communication

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 24-46

Cross Cultural Communication

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 24-46

Cross Cultural Communication

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 24-46

Cross Cultural Communication

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 24-46

Cross Cultural Communication

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 24-46

Cross Cultural Communication

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 24-46

Cross Cultural Communication

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 24-46

Cross Cultural Communication

Journal of Social Sciences, COES&R-JSS, 1(1), pp. 24-46

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Journal of Social Sciences (COES&RJ-JSS) Complete October 2012 (1-1) Issue

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