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P h i l i p p e W e a l e r reviews 3 essays on 'the consumption of music': Finnegan, R. (1997) Music, Performance and Enactment. In Mackay, H. (ed.) Consumption and Everyday Life. London: Sage, pp. 114-153 Miles, S. (1998) Consumerism as a Way of Life. London: Sage Chapter 7: Consuming Popular Music, pp.107-125 Lury, C. (1996) Consumer Culture. Oxford: Blackwell Chapter 6: Changing Races, Changing Places, pp. 156-91 Email address: ph.wealer@gmx.net How to Reference this Article: Wealer, P. (2004) Consuming Music, Vanguard Online, March 2004, http://www,vanguardonline.f9.co.uk/040315.doc Please send correspondence and letters on this article to ed@vanguard-online.co.uk

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This text delivers a critical review of three chapters dealing with the sociocultural processes of music exchange. A first aim is to examine the contents of Lurys (1996)1, Finnegans (1997)2 and Miles (1998)3 contributions towards our knowledge and understanding of the consumption of music. Special attention will be paid to uncovering any neglected black racial issues which seem to be of particular importance in postmodern consumption in general, and in music in particular (Hall, 1992). Secondly, an overview of the scientific approaches to music will be sketched. Relevant methodological decisions made by the three authors will be exposed and located into the broader context of contemporary consumption studies. Before turning to the individual chapters, let us first have a brief look at the volumes in which they appear. Music is an inter-human activity, an art, of such a great complexity, that the idea of analyzing or even defining it might appear off-putting, if not perverted. However, the point made clear by Miles volume is that everyday consumption in post-industrial societies has begun to adopt increasingly rigid, material and ideological pattern. Also Mackay (1997) is concerned to distill general consumption trends from a number of local case-studies, focusing on creative and critical, everyday practices. Lurys book is interested in how social roles of class, gender, age and race structure individual participation in consumer culture. This essay attempts to explains how the selected authors have tried to understand the production of music by people for people and the reception of music by people (hereafter consumption of music) by categorizing and interpreting these highly interlacing practices. In as far as its theoretical commitment reaches, this work is an attempt to situate the cultural field of music into the landscapes of social power relations, the dynamics of which it refracts rather than reflects (Crang, 1997:8). It will moreover be argued alongside the reviews that no up-to-date investigation into the consumption of

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music can afford to ignore the cultural movement of rap and hip hop. In fact, this is to agree with Ogg and Upshal in that ... if the post-war music boom is often referred to as The Rock n Roll Years, perhaps the centurys final quarter may come to be seen as The Hip Hop Years (1999:7)4. In her chapter Changing Races, Changing Places, Celia Lury (1996) relies on a range of social factors that she believes, underlie consumer culture. She draws upon previous research in that domain, especially (Hall, 1992), (Gilroy, 1987) and (West, 1992) to show that the mainstream media fail to present these: She emphasizes that multicultural pastiches in pictures and music tend to dissimulate, or at least distort, a persisting reality of racial segregation (Harvey, 1989). To demonstrate this, the author defines the notion of style as a negotiator between racial identity and consumption activities. Whereas racial identity is so taken for granted by white people ... that their whiteness is invisible to themselves, she argues that this is different for black consumers. She quotes West (1992:38) to show that the latter are ...hungry for identity, meaning and self-worth because of their historical past of oppression and degradation (Both quotes found in Lury, 1996:186-187). Hence, the resulting cultural style as characterized by the attitudes of idiosyncrasy and resistance often found in the musical styles of diasporic minorities. Complexities arise with her recognition that white and black cultures have been persisting in a constant dialogue over the past century. She argues that any attempt to understand the collapse of the hierarchy in traditional Western culture must take into account the intervention of diasporic, creoling modes of consumption (see also Bourdieu, 1984; Featherstone, 1991 and Gilroy, 1992). In fact, as her argument moves on, it becomes clear that various osmoses have largely relied on the particular music styles of the past century, of which rag, blues, Elvis and Michael Jacksons performances are only the most obvious examples given to illustrate this

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point. The strength of Lurys historical materialist account is clearly that it gives insight into the consumption of music by black minorities as an ambivalent ingredient of a predominantly white mainstream. However, some post-structuralist scholars (e.g. Thrift and Dewsbury, 2000; Spivak, 1988) might accuse Lury of cementing pre-existing roles of the Western Self and the subaltern Others. Issues that are mentioned, but remain unanswered by her text are those relating to the respective authenticity of black and white cultural roles. If all post-classical and post-romanticist musical styles are influenced by the black culture, what, then, is the point of opposing both groups in the first place, if not to conceptually reinitiate active segregation? Another point of critique is that Lury fails to recognise rap as a recent change in the complicated sets of responses and counterresponses between black and white music. Especially as she successfully combines racial segregation with the consumption of black music, one might expect her to have noted the recent overspill of violence in rap scenes. In fact, Cartwright (2002) notes the third murder of a popular rap artist in the United States within four years5. Form and content of Finnegans chapter, Music Performance and Enactment (1997), radically differ from Lurys contribution to the debate. Rather than drawing on numerous different authors in order to inter-subjectively establish a social reality, Finnegan presents a case-study (Finnegan, 1989) about the consumption of music in Milton Keynes between 1980 and 1984. This study summarises her insight into several hundred music groups, functioning in the towns multiple spaces. On this basis, the author exposes the consumption of music as an inherently subjective practice that difficultly allows for generalizations. At first sight, the method of empirically gathering information in the (regionally delimited) field thus appears to be a successful means of bypassing the debate between the structuralist and post-

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structuralist understanding of consumer culture. Finnegan postulates music as collective action, concluding that, therefore, the only valid method of researching it, should be that of performance, as defined by Becker (1982). Although this is an important point to make (because it subverts the ways in which many structuralist scholars think of the consumption of music), in practice, she does not succeed in reconciling it with her ethnographic findings. Attempts to let her descriptions (of e.g. how a rock band composes a new song) emerge from their local context to more general statements about musical communication are correspondingly uneasy. Her analysis lacks the fluidity and her synthesis, the interconnectedness, of typical poststructuralist thinking (see Thrift and Dewsbury, 2000). Also, after a closer look at Finnegans arguments, one discovers generalisations which are not acknowledged as such by the author: For example, she agrees with Lury (1996) in that black music has brought rhythm, vocal expressivity and audience-participation to the more rigid western tradition of music consumption. From her reading of a (limited) range of music styles 6 she goes on to state that music has a non-linguistic basis and that, by extension, any logocentric (word-based) [sic] approach to music bypasses the music itself (Finnegan, 1997:130 and 136). However these two claims fail to prepare the analytical ground for the perception of the rap movement which has increasingly permeated the popular music scenes in towns all over the world since the 1980s (Ogg and Upshal, 1999). Because, as a matter of fact, Rap music originally relies on a speaking voice accompanied by more or less crude, electronic beats. Here, the artists voice becomes the main instrument; semiotic and asemiotic (i.e. timbre) at the same time. Therefore, if music is to be studied as an unstructured performance one will have to leave behind any a priori conceptions of what music should, or should not be, in the first place.

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Social or stylistic issues surrounding Rap or any other style embraced by the vast ensemble of Jazz are not at all addressed by Finnegans article. It can be assumed that this is less so because of a cultural-stylistic homogeneity in Milton Keynes (although the Newtowns demographic composition may have a certain relevance) than because of the early date of the study on which she draws (1980-84, see above). Her intervention can, then, be criticised of first, recycling a study in 1997 that has been overrun by 20 years of evolution in the relevant music scenes and secondly, of generalizing her local findings from a British-centred perspective. In fact her account has missed the influence of the diasporic influences, noted by Lury and (Miles, see below), by marginalizing (an imprecise notion of) Jazz, ignoring the current issues of rap and falsely associating Pop with Brit Rock. In his chapter, Consuming Popular Music, Miles seeks to explore whether popular consumption of music can be seen as a means for creative expression and protest or must rather be condemned as a catalyst for global control and audience exploitation. This binary analytical mould persists throughout the chapter, revealing musical exchange processes as economically guided by the music industry (1998:108). Ontologically, then, his approach is much more structural and top-down than Lurys, and certainly, Finnegans account. As in Lurys chapter, a full methodological account is missing, and lot of claims are simply set in the context of other authors opinions on the topic. On one hand Miles believes that consumption offers a framework in which audiences can find and fix their identities. The author makes a continuous effort to let, both, structures and agencies act and react upon the points he makes. Hence, his critique of Horkenheimer and Adorno (1988), urging to abandon elitist, a priori classifications of consumer behaviour (see also Middleton, 1990 and Longhurst,

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1995). Miles notes that it is possible for musicians and audiences alike to consume music without subjecting to the laws of supply and demand. To support his claim, he draws attention to the existence of alternative forms of music, such as world music, dance music, and to the following words of Frith in relation to rap: ...the most exciting and political music of the early 1990s should be the hip hop sounds of young urban black bands like Public Enemy, groups that are heavily dependent on, both, the latest technology and street credibility (Frith, 1992:74, quoted in Miles 1998:113). Public Enemy have initiated the northern American gangsta rap, a style marked by its aggressive lyrics of protest, in the early eighties. However, the argument does not stop here. Miles goes on to argue that it is an especially important characteristic of modern society to assimilate marginal ideas within the dominant culture, such as those rebellious aspects of popular music, ...which could potentially serve to negate that culture (1998:107). Although this perspective overlaps with Lurys, the relationships that it invokes are certainly less flexible. Eventually, Miles sees consumers as dupes, and the industry of popular music as a system of audience exploitation, mass deception and global control. On the other hand, then, Miles way of thinking forces consumers into a rigid structure, distinguishing those who are passively trapped within the system of consumption, and the others who (unsuccessfully) try to resist it. In reality, then, the chapter is opposing itself less successfully against the position taken by Horkenheimer and Adorno (1988) than its author might want to admit. It is rather another example of social enquiry which practices identity politics instead of patiently excavating the grain of component social worlds (Philo, 2000). The post-structuralist critique which holds that too rigid academic definitions are vulnerable of automatically reproducing a social status quo, is certainly applicable here.

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In terms of the matter exposed by this review, we can conclude that specific stylistic interventions (as somehow correlative with nuances in skin colors) in the consumption of music have proved far more complex and fluid than rigid forms of binary thinking might allow for. Whereas Lury and Miles focus on authoring sites, arguing that culture is structured by economic laws, Finnegan tends to prefer reading culture as this great diversity of political identities, essentially resulting from the agents responses to each other. Although Lury has most skillfully set musical performances into the wider context of relatively flexible, social structures, upheld by racial divides, Miles account displays the full range of difficulties, top-down approaches can entail. In addition to this, Finnegans work demonstrates that, no matter how vigorously descriptions are specified, generalizations are inevitable. Although the theoretical ground has been well prepared for various combinations of both strands (Jackson, 1993), the practical hand-in-hand conception of structure and agency still seems to be fraught with difficulties. Must we then conclude that empirical work can only follow the inductive track towards generalizations and that post-structuralist approaches impair, rather than enrich the established methods? Consumption cultures rely on producers and consumers, authors and readers, allusions and inferences; especially in the case of music, boundaries between these are spatially and temporally fluid. Therefore, it can be argued that performance must persist as a valid method for investigation (because it allows for fluidity), but that it cannot stand on its own. It must be inclusive of agentic descriptions and structural speculations, where the latter can only act as an extension to the arguments brought in by the former. Any further research in the consumption of music should make an attempt to take both strands into account. Examining the nature of the violence which seems to have erupted in rap circles as a

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consequence to the styles sanitization by mainstream culture, would be an example for further work in this domain.

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Becker, H. S. (1982) Art Worlds. Berkley (CA): Uni of California Press Bourdieu, P. (1984) Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. London: Routlege and Kegan Paul Bryman, A. (2001) Social Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press Burnett, R. (1996) The Global Jukebox: the international music industry. London: Routlege Cartwright, G. (2002) DJ who pioneered hip-hop: Jam Master Jay. In The Guardian, Friday, November 1st 2002, p. 25 Crang, P. (1997) Cultural turns and the (re)constitution of economic geography, introduction to section one. In Lee, R. and Willis, J. (eds.) Geographies of Economies. London: Arnold pp. 315 Featherstone, M. (1991) Consumer Culture and Postmodernism. London:Sage Finnegan, R. (1989) The hidden musicians: music-making in an English town. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni Press Finnegan, R. (1997) Music, Performance and Enactment. In Mackay, H. (ed.) Consumption and Everyday Life. London: Sage, pp. 114-153 Frith, S. (1988) Music for Pleasure. Cambridge: Polity Press Frith, S. (1992) The industrialization of popular music. In Lull, J. (ed.) Popular Music and Communication. London: Sage, pp. 47-92 Gilroy, P. (1987) There Aint No Black in the Union Jack. London: Unwin Hyman Gilroy, P. (1992) Wearing your art on the sleeve. In Ten-8 Vol. 2, Nb. 3, pp. 128-39 Hall, S. (1992) What is Black in Black popular culture? In Dent, G. (ed.), Black Popular Culture. Seattle: Bay Press, pp. 21-37 Horkenheimer, M. and Adorno, T. (1988) Dialektik der Aufklrung Philosophische Fragmente. 12th Edition. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer David Harvey (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity An Enquiry into the Origins of cultural Change, Oxford: Blackwell Jackson, P. (1993) Towards a Cultural Politics of Consumption. In Bird, J. (et. al.) (eds) Mapping the Futures. London: Routlege, pp. 207-28 Longhurst, B. (1995) Popular Music and Society. Cambridge: Polity Press Lury, C. (1996) Consumer Culture. Oxford: Blackwell Middleton, R. (1990) Studying Popular Music. Milton Keynes: Open Uni Press Miles, S. (1998) Consumerism as a Way of Life. London: Sage

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Negus, K. (1992) Producing Pop: Culture and Conflict in the Popular Music Industry. London: Edward Arnold Ogg, A. and Upshal, D. (1999) The hip hop years A HISTORY OF RAP. London: Macmillan

Philo, Ch. (2000) More words, more worlds reflections on the 'cultural turn' and human geography. In Cook, I., Naylor, D. and Ryan, S. (eds.) (2000) Cultural Turns/Geographical Turns: Perspectives of Cultural Geography, London: Prentice Hall, pp. 26-53 Rowe, D. (1995) Popular Cultures: Rock Music, Sport and the Politics of Pleasure. London: Sage Sanjel, R. and Sanjek, D. (1991) American Popular Music Business in the 20th century. Oxford: Oxford Uni Press Silverstone, R. (1994) The Power of the Ordinary: On cultural studies and the sociology of culture. In Sociology Vol28 No4 pp991-1001 Spivak, G. C. (1988) Can the Subaltern Speak? In Nelson, C. and Grossberg, L. (eds.) Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. London: Macmillan, pp. 24-28 Thrift, N. and Dewsbury, J. D. (2000); Dead Geographies And how to make them live. In Environment and Planning D: Society and Space. Vol. 18, pp. 411-32 West, C. (1992) Nihilism in Black America. In Dent, G. (ed.), Black Popular Culture. Seattle: Bay Press, pp. 37-47

endnotes

Lury, C. (1996) Consumer Culture. Oxford: Blackwell Chapter 6: Changing Races, Changing Places, pp. 156-91

Finnegan, R. (1997) Music, Performance and Enactment. In Mackay, H. (ed.) Consumption and Everyday Life. London: Sage, pp. 114-153

Miles, S. (1998) Consumerism as a Way of Life. London: Sage

Chapter 7: Consuming Popular Music, pp.107-125

In the context of this essay, Hip Hop and Rap can be used to refer to the same style of music.

Jason Mizell Jam Master Jay, a peacemaker, in the scene, was shot dead in a recording studio on Oct 30th

2002. He was amongst the first to introduce rap music to a world wide audience by incorporating rock tunes into his sound. (Cartwright, 2002)

classical, jazz, folk, brass band, country, western and rock styles