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PLANT KINGDOM OUTLINE KEVIN LIU I. Bryophytes a. Origin and Structure of Reproduction i. Origin: 1.

The first land plants to evolve from fresh water algae, bryophytes may be considered the first species to live exclusively on dry land. For this manner, they are integral to the existence of humanity. If bryophytes, the initial colonizing species and producers, had not managed to subsist on life, no other forms would due to lack of food. 2. The first primitive bryophytes lived in an amphibious environment on the fringes of ponds. They evolved adaptations essential for terrestrial survival that are prevalent in all plants to this date. 3. About 475 Million years ago ii. Structure: 1. Bryophytes are nonvascular plants. This means they lack the vascular system of xylem and phloem that gymnosperms and angiosperms share. 2. Present day bryophytes are divided into three categories: Mosses, hornworts, and liverworts. a. Liverworts are the most common and widespread b. Liverworts have flattened, lobed, leaf like bodies called thalli c. Most liverworts do not exhibit thalli but closely resemble mosses. 3. Bryophytes grow in small closely packed mats or cushions. 4. They generally grow on rocks, soil, trunks of trees, or leaves 5. Bryophytes evolved several tissue layers in order to retain water. EX: Cuticles 6. Bryophytes also have stomata, vital for regulating water loss 7. Bryophytes grow close to the ground because their lack of a vascular system restricts them from growing up. iii. Reproduction: 1. Alternation of Generations 2. Mature gametophytes release spores from a capsule called the sporangium 3. These spores are spread via various methods of locomotion until they are able to germinate 4. The spores then develop threadlike protonemata 5. The haploid protonemata produce buds that grow into gametophytes 6. A male gametophyte with antheridia (holding place for sperm) will fertilize a female gametophyte in the archegonia (holding place for egg)

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7. The diploid zygote develops into a sporophyte embryo within the archegonium 8. The fertilized sporophyte grows a long stalk (seta) that emerges from the arcegonium 9. The sporophyte remains nutritionally dependent on the gametophyte via a root or foot 10. The mature sporophyte emerges from the top of the gametophyte in order to propagate its gametes. b. Mode of Nutrition of Embryo: The embryo is given nutrition by a foot that is attached to a gametophyte host plant. The embryo is given nutrients and is entirely dependent on the gametophyte for these nutrients c. Structure and Mode of Transport of the Sperm: i. Due to the moisture that inherently gathers over bryophyte patches, the sperm are able to swim to the egg ii. The sperm are equipped with one to three flagella with which they are able to propel themselves to the egg. This is greatly assisted by cilia that push the sperm downward in the archegonium. d. Relative Size and Longevity Compared to the Sporophyte Generation: i. Bryophyte gametophytes dominate the life cycle. ii. The sporophyte is entirely dependent upon the gametophyte for nutrition iii. The Gametophyte is much larger than the sporophyte. Seedless Vascular Plants: a. Origin and Structure of Reproduction i. Origin: 1. These vascular plants evolved from bryophytes 2. The vascular plants have xylem and phloem, enabling them to grow taller than bryophytes 3. The vascular plants still share the same spore method of reproduction 4. These vascular plants were large enough so that they formed forests 5. As an entirety, the seedless vascular plants may be called ferns. In addition, they all reproduce in a similar manner. 6. About 420 million years ago ii. Structure: 1. Vascular plants have xylem and phloem a. Xylem conducts most of the water and minerals b. Phloem includes living sugar-conducting cells arranged in tubes that distribute sugars, amino acids, ant other organic products 2. Vascular plants grew larger and taller due to these tissues, they could withstand drooping and transport water and minerals effectively 3. Generally divided into lycophytes and pterophytes a. Some members of the lycophyte family existed as large trees during the Carboniferous period. These giant lycophytes

survived due to the favorable climate of the period but died off in a climate change b. Pterophytes include ferns and horsetails while lycophytes include mosses and quillworts iii. Reproduction 1. Sporangia release spores. Most fern species produce a single type of spore that gives rise to a bisexual gametophyte 2. The fern spore develops into a small photosynthetic gametophyte 3. The sperm then fertilizes the egg, this takes place in a variety of methods that is entirely dependent on the species of plant 4. Fern sperm use flagella to swim from the antheridia to eggs in the archegonia 5. A zygote develops into a new sporophyte, and the young plant grow out from an archegonium of its parent gametophyte 6. The mature sporophyte begins creating gametes on the underside of its reproductive leaves. 7. The gametes are contained in a sporangium in clusters on spots called sori (singular: sorus) b. Mode of Nutrition of Embryo: The new sporophyte embryo is initially supplied nutrition by the gametophyte, however, once it begins to sprout and develop, it starts undergoing photosynthesis to become self-sustaining c. Structure and Mode of Transport of the Sperm: The sperm is transported in a variety of ways. It is generally moved from antheridium to archegonium via its flagella through a liquid medium d. Relative Size and Longevity Compared to the Sporophyte Generation: The sporophyte generation is much larger than the gametophyte. The sporophyte portion the life cycle also dominates over the gametophyte. Gymnosperms: a. Origin and Structure of Reproduction i. Origin: 1. Seed plants originated some 360 million years ago. 2. Domesticated plants greatly impacted human society 3. Seeds allowed for plants to be easily moved from place to place ii. Structure 1. Gymnosperms vary greatly in structure but almost all have a large independent sporophyte and microscopic gametophytes in tough seeds 2. Gymnosperm seeds were the first seed bearing plants to appear 3. Gymnosperms have naked seeds not encompassed by a fruit coat or flower unlike angiosperms iii. Reproduction 1. Each mature sporophyte creates male and female gametes

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a. The female gamete has two ovules b. The male gametes occur in large amounts generally held together by a large cone or other container 2. Pollen enters and germinates with the female gamete 3. The female gamete megasporocyte undergoes meiosis, one of these four survives to become the megaspore that is fertilized by the male gamete 4. After fertilization, the ovule becomes a seed consisting of an embryo, food supply, and seed coat 5. The seed may then ingrain itself in the ground and germinate as a seedling b. Mode of Nutrition of Embryo i. The embryo is given nutrition by food reserves in the gametophyte tissue. It survives on its own until it germinates and begins photosynthesis c. Structure and Mode of Transportation of the Sperm: i. The sperm may be transferred by wind or by induced pollination in the same plant d. Relative Size and Longevity of the Sporophyte Generation i. The sporophyte generationis significantly longer and more dominant than the gametophyte generation Angiosperms: a. Origin and Structure of Reproduction i. Origin 1. Evolved from the gymnosperm in around the same evolutionary era 2. Shares the same basic origin as any plant does 3. About 360 Million years ago ii. Structure 1. Has a flower in which fertilization takes place 2. Sepals: Green leaflike structures that enclose the flower before it opens 3. Petals: Brightly colored and aid in the attraction of pollinators, not directly involved in reproduction 4. Stamens: Produce microspores that give rise to pollen grains containing male gametes 5. Filament: stalk of a stamen 6. Anther: terminal sac of stamen, where pollen is produced 7. Carpels: Produce female gametophytes, many flowers have multiple carpels 8. Stigma: Sticky tip of carpel with which pollen is received 9. Style: Leads to the ovary 10. Ovary: At the base of carpal and contains one or more ovules, if fertilized, the ovule develops into a seed. 11. Receptacle: Part of stem on which the flower is attached

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12. Pistil: Single carpel or group of carpels iii. Reproduction 1. Anthers containing microsporangia divide by meiosis producing microspores 2. Microspores from pollen grains (containing male gametophytes) divide to form two sperms 3. Meanwhile, in the megasporangium of each ovule, the megasporocyte divides by meiosis producing four megaspores. The surviving megaspore in each ovule forms a female gametophyte 4. After pollination, two sperm are discharged into each embryo 5. Double fertilization occurs. One sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote. The other sperm combines with the two polar bodies to form the nucleus of the endosperm, which is triploid in this example 6. The zygote develops into an embryo that is packaged along with food into a seed. 7. When a seed germinates, it develops into a mature sporophyte b. Mode of Nutrition of Embryo: Like the gymnosperm, the angiosperm is self nutritive. In this case, it is not the fruit but a portion of the female gamete that forms the food source c. Structure and Mode of Transport of Sperm: The sperm may be transported in a variety of ways, via wind, water, or animal. The sperm is a simple grain of pollen that is designed to be extremely durable to preserve the cells in the interior d. Relative Size and Longevity Compared to Sporophyte Generation: i. The sporophyte is larger than the gametophyte in this case. In addition, the sporophyte has a much longer lifespan than the gametophyte. Charophycean a. Origin and Structure of Reproduction i. Origin 1. The first plant species to exist 2. May have very close relations with the protest kingdom 3. Defined as green algae.(Note that this excludes Embryophyta, the land plands) 4. It is predicted that these algae originated several million years ago 5. From endosymbiosis of cyanobacteria 6. Most probably share a common origin with red algae ii. Structure 1. Relatively simple 2. All have chloroplasts with chlorophylls a and b 3. All have mitochondria with flat cristae and may have flagella 4. Live in colonies of varying size iii. Reproduction

1. Follow the alternation of generations reproductive system. However, this may vary from species to species (see above for alternation of generations) 2. Reproduction may take place with the fusion of identical cells to form a new organism or may have a large immobile cell be fertilized by a small mobile one. 3. Haploid algae may fuse with another haploid to create a diploid zygote 4. Many different reproductive possibilities exist for these organisms b. Mode of Nutrition of Embryo i. Because the embryo formed is almost always a larger and self subsisting cell, the embryo is immediately able to provide itself with nutrition. In the case of algae that practice alternation of generations, the embryo may be given nutrition by the gametophyte. c. Structure and Mode of Transport of the Sperm: i. The sperm use flagella, one or more, to travel and fuse to create new cells d. Relative Size and Longevity Compared to Sporophyte Generation i. Due to the relative simplicity of these algae, the sporophyte and gametophyte are generally the same size. The gametophyte may exist longer than the sporophyte on some occasions and on some occasions the roles are reversed. The relative versatility of these gametophytes is what aids in the confusion around their classification.

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