48 Chapter 3 Complex Integration

Solutions to Exercises 3.1

1. Given z
1
= 1 + i and z
2
= 1 2i, apply (2), Sec. 3.1, to obtain the parametrization
of the line segment [z
1
, z
2
]:
(t) = (1 t)z
1
+ tz
2
= (1 t)(1 + i) + t(1 2i), 0 t 1,
or
(t) = t(2 3i) + 1 + i, 0 t 1.
5. Use Example 1(a) with =

4
and =

4
:
(t) = e
it
,

4
t

4
.
9. Use Example 1(a) and (c):
(t) = z
0
+Re
it
= 3 + 2i + 5e
it
,

2
t 0.
13. Write = (
1
,
2
), where
1
is the circular arc and
2
the line segment shown in Fig.
14, but in reverse direction. To parametrize
1
, use Example 1(a):

1
(t) = 2e
it
, 0 t
3
2
.
Note the negative sign in the exponent, whose eect is to trace the ar in the negative
direction. If we want to parametrize
1
using the interval [0, 1], we can change t to
3
2
t and
get

1
(t) = 2e
i
3
2
t
, 0 t 1.
To parametrize
2
, use (2):

2
(t) = (1 t)2i +t(5i) = 3it + 2i, 0 t 1.
To parametrize
2
by the interval [1, 2], we can simply change t to t 1 and get

2
(t) = 3i(t 1) + 2i, 1 t 2.
So
(t) =
_
2e
i
3
2
t
if 0 t 1
3i(t 1) + 2i if 1 t 2.
17. We have x(t) = t and y(t) = sint, where 0 t 1. Thus y = sin x, where
0 x 1, and so the graph is the arch of sin x for 0 x 1.
21. We dierentiate using the rules of calculus and treating complex constants as if they
were real. We get
d
dt
(2 + i) cos(3it) = (2 +i)
d
dt
cos(3it) = 3i(2 + i) sin(3it) = (3 6i) sin(3it).
25. To nd a particular solution y
p
of y

+y

+ y = cos t, we proceed as follows

Section 3.1 Complex Integration 49
1. Think of cos t as being the real pat of e
it
.
2. Find a particular solution of y

+y

+y = e
it
and let Y denote this particular solution.
3. Compute y
p
= Re (Y ).
To nd Y , try Y = Ae
it
, Y

= Aie
it
, Y

= Ae
it
. Plug into the equation and get
Ae
it
+ iAe
it
+Ae
it
= e
it
A +iA+ A = 1 (Divide by e
it
.)
iA = 1 A = i.
Hence Y = ie
it
and so y
p
= Re (ie
it
) = sint.
29. Proceed as in Exercise 21: Let Y denote a particular solution of y

2y

3y = e
4it
.
Then Re (Y ) is a particular solution of y

2y

3y = cos 4t, and Im(Y ) is a particular

solution of y

2y

3y = sin 4t. So solving the equation with a complex exponential on the

right side yields the solutions of two dierential equations. Let us now solve y

2y

3y =
e
4it
. For this purpose, we let Y = Ae
4it
, Y

= 4iAe
4it
, and Y

= 16Ae
4it
. Plugging into
the equation and solving, we nd
16Ae
4it
8iAe
4it
3Ae
4it
= e
4it
16A8iA 3A = 1 (Divide by e
4it
.)
A(19 8i) = 1 A =
1
198i
=
19
425
+
8
425
i.
Hence Y = (
19
425
+
8
425
i)e
4it
and so a particular solution of y

2y

3y = cos 4t is
y
p
= Re ((
19
425
+
8
425
i)e
4it
)) =
19
425
cos 4t
8
425
sin4t.
Also, a particular solution of y

2y

3y = sin 4t is
y
p
= Im((
19
425
+
8
425
i)e
4it
)) =
8
425
cos 4t
19
425
sin4t.
33. We have x(t) = a cos t b cos
at
2
and y(t) = a sint b sin
at
2
. So
(t) = x(t) +y(t)
= a cos t b cos
at
2
+ai sint ib sin
at
2
= a(cos t + i sint) b(cos
at
2
+ i sin
at
2
)
= ae
it
be
i
at
2
50 Chapter 3 Complex Integration
Solutions to Exercises 3.2
1. Using (10),
_
2
0
e
3ix
dx =
1
3i
e
3ix

2
0
=
1
3i
_
=1
..
e
6i
1
_
= 0.
5. Write
x + i
x i
=
x +i
x i

x +i
x +i
=
x
2
+ 2ix 1
x
2
+ 1
=
(x
2
+ 1) + 2ix 2
x
2
+ 1
= 1
2
x
2
+ 1
+
2ix
x
2
+ 1
.
So
_
1
1
x +i
x i
dx =
_
1
1
1 dx
_
1
1
2
x
2
+ 1
dx +
=0, odd integrand
..
2i
_
1
1
x
x
2
+ 1
dx
= x 2 tan
1
x

1
1
= 2 .
9. Proceed as in Example 2:
f(x) =
_
(3 + 2i)x if 1 x 0,
ix
2
if 0 x 1;
hence an antiderivative
F(x) =
_
3+2i
2
x
2
+ C if 1 x 0,
i
3
x
3
if 0 x 1.
Setting F(0+) = F(0), we obtain 0 =
3+2i
2
0 + C or C = 0. Hence a continuous antider-
vative of f is
F(x) =
_
3+2i
2
x
2
if 1 x 0,
i
3
x
3
if 0 x 1.
13. (a) Let p > 0 be an arbitrary real number, and m and n be arbitrary integers. Write
f(x) = e
i
m
p
x
. Then
f(x + 2p) = e
i
m
p
(x+2p)
= e
i
m
p
x
=1
..
e
i2m
= e
i
m
p
x
= f(x).
Section 3.2 Complex Integration 51
Hence f is 2p-periodic.
(b) If m = n, then
_
p
p
e
i
m
p
x
e
i
n
p
x
dx =
_
p
p
e
i
(mn)
p
x
dx
=
i
p(m n)
e
i
(mn)
p
x

p
p
=
i
p(mn)
_
e
i(mn)
e
i(mn)
_
=
i
p(m n)
e
i(mn)
_
=1
..
e
i2(mn)
1
_
= 0
If m = n, then
_
p
p
e
i
m
p
x
e
i
n
p
x
dx =
_
p
p
e
i
m
p
x
e
i
m
p
x
dx =
_
p
p
dx = 2p.
We have thus established the orthogonlaity relations
_
p
p
e
i
m
p
x
e
i
n
p
x
dx =
_
0 if m= n,
2p if m = n.
(c) Now suppose m and n are nonnegative integers. If m = n, then the equality
_
p
p
e
i
m
p
x
e
i
n
p
x
dx = 0
implies that
_
p
p
_
cos
m
p
x +i sin
m
p
x
__
cos
n
p
x i sin
n
p
x
_
dx = 0.
Expanding and then taking real and imaginary parts, we get
(1)
_
p
p
_
cos
m
p
x cos
n
p
x + sin
m
p
x sin
n
p
x
_
dx = 0
and
(2)
_
p
p
_
cos
m
p
x sin
n
p
x + sin
m
p
x cos
n
p
x
_
dx = 0.
Replacing n by n; that is, starting with the identity
_
p
p
e
i
m
p
x
e
i
n
p
x
dx = 0,
we get
(3)
_
p
p
_
cos
m
p
x cos
n
p
x sin
m
p
x sin
n
p
x
_
dx = 0
52 Chapter 3 Complex Integration
and
(4)
_
p
p
_
cos
m
p
x sin
n
p
x + sin
m
p
x cos
n
p
x
_
dx = 0.
Yu can now obtain some of the desired integral identities by using linear combinations of
(1)(4). For example, adding (1) and (3) implies that
_
p
p
cos
m
p
x cos
n
p
x dx = 0.
Adding (2) and (4) implies that
_
p
p
cos
m
p
x sin
n
p
x dx = 0.
All other integral identities with m = n follow similarly. Consider the case m = n = 0,
_
p
p
e
i
m
p
x
e
i
m
p
x
dx = 0.
Writing the integrand in terms of cosine and sine and then taking real and imaginary parts,
we get
(5)
_
p
p
_
cos
2
m
p
x sin
2
m
p
x
_
dx = 0
Similarly, from the identity
_
p
p
e
i
m
p
x
e
i
m
p
x
dx = 2p,
we obtain
(6)
_
p
p
_
cos
2
m
p
x + sin
2
m
p
x
_
dx = 2p.
Adding (5) and (6) shows that
_
p
p
cos
2
_
m
p
x
_
dx = p.
The remaining identities follow similarly.
17. Write
I =
_
[z
1
, z
2
, z
3
]
2z dz =
_
[z
1
, z
2
]
2z dz +
_
[z
2
, z
3
]
2z dz = I
1
+I
2
,
where z
1
= 1, z
2
= i, z
3
= 1+i. To evaluate I
1
, parametrize [z
1
, z
2
] by z =
1
(t) = (1t)+it,
0 t 1, dz = (1 + i) dt. So
_
[z
1
, z
2
]
2z dz = 2
_
1
0
_
(1 t) it
_
(1 + i) dt = 2(1 +i)
_
1
0
_
1 ((1 + i)t
_
dt
= 2(1 +i)
_
t (
1 +i
2
t
2
_

1
0
= 2i.
Section 3.2 Complex Integration 53
To evaluate I
2
, parametrize [z
2
, z
3
] by z =
2
(t) = (1 t)i + t(1 + i) = i + t, 0 t 1,
dz = dt. So
_
[z
2
, z
3
]
2z dz = 2
_
1
0
(t i) dt = 2(
t
2
it)

1
0
= 1 2i.
Thus I = 1.
21. Write
I =
_
[z
1
, z
2
, z
3
, z
4
, z
1
]
z dz
=
_
[z
1
, z
2
]
z dz +
_
[z
2
, z
3
]
z dz +
_
[z
3
, z
4
]
z dz +
_
[z
4
, z
1
]
z dz
= I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
+I
4
,
where z
1
= 0, z
2
= 1, z
3
= 1 + i, and z
4
= i. To evaluate I
1
, parametrize [z
1
, z
2
] by
z =
1
(t) = t, 0 t 1, dz = dt. So
I
1
=
_
[z
1
, z
2
]
z dz =
_
1
0
t dt =
1
2
.
To evaluate I
2
, parametrize [z
2
, z
3
] by z =
2
(t) = 1 + it, 0 t 1, dz = i dt. So
I
2
=
_
[z
2
, z
3
]
z dz =
_
1
0
(1 + it)i dt = i(t +
i
2
t
2
)

1
0
= i(1 +
i
2
) =
1
2
+i.
To evaluate I
3
, parametrize [z
3
, z
4
] by z =
3
(t) = (1 t) +i, 0 t 1, dz = dt. So
I
3
=
_
[z
3
, z
4
]
z dz =
_
1
0
((1 t) +i) dt = (1 +i) +
1
2
=
1
2
i.
To evaluate I
4
, parametrize [z
4
, z
1
] by z =
4
(t) = (1 t)i, 0 t 1, dz = idt. So
I
4
=
_
[z
4
, z
1
]
z dz = i
_
1
0
i(1 t) dt = 1
1
2
=
1
2
.
Finally, adding the four integrals, we obtain I = 0.
Note: When you will learn about Cauchys Theorem in Section 3.4, or the main result of
the next section, you will realize that all our work in this solution is unnecessary to conclude
that the answer is 0.
25. In our computation, we will suppose that a is an integer = 0. Then the curve is traced
in its entirety if we take 0 t 4. We apply the denition of the path integral, with
(t) = ae
it
+be
i
a
2
t
, 0 t 4, dz = (aie
it
i
ab
2
e
i
a
2
t
)dt:
_

z dz =
_
4
0
(ae
it
+ be
i
a
2
t
)(aie
it
i
ab
2
e
i
a
2
t
) dt
=
_
4
0
(ia
2
e
2it
i
ab
2
2
e
iat
+iabe
i(1
a
2
)t
i
a
2
b
2
e
i(1
a
2
)t
) dt = 0,
54 Chapter 3 Complex Integration
because the integrand is a linear combination of exponential functions with period 4 each.
Thus the integal of each exponential fnction is 0.
29. We have f(z) = zz, (t) = (1 t)(2 + i) + t(1 i) = (3 2i)t + 2 + i, 0 t 1,
dz = (3 2i)dt. So
_
[z
1
, z
2
]
(x
2
+y
2
) dz =
_
1
0
((3 2i)t + 2 +i)((3 + 2i)t + 2 i)(3 2i)dt
= (3 2i)
_
1
0
(13t
2
+ (3 2i)(2 i)t + (2 + i)(3 + 2i)t + 5)dt
= (3 2i)(
13
3
+
(3 2i)(2 i)
2
+
(2 +i)(3 + 2i)
2
+ 5) = 4
8
3
i.
33. We have (t) = (e
t
t) + 4ie
t
2
,

(t) = (e
t
1) + 2ie
t
2
,
|

(t)| =

(e
t
1) + 2ie
t
2

=
_
(e
t
1)
2
+ (2e
t
2
)
2
=
_
e
2t
+ 1 + 2e
t
=
_
(e
t
+ 1)
2
= e
t
+ 1.
So
L =
_
1
0
|

(t)| dt =
_
1
0
(e
t
+ 1) dt = (e
t
+t)

1
0
= e.
37. We apply the ML-inequality (29). We have L = l([z
1
, z
2
, z
3
, z
1
]) = 2 + 2

5, as can
be easily veried by plotting the points z
1
, z
2
, and z
3
. Now |z
5
| = |z|
5
, and for z on the
path [z
1
, z
2
, z
3
, z
1
], we have |z| 2
1
2
. So |z|
5
2
5
for z on the path [z
1
, z
2
, z
3
, z
1
]. Thus,
by the ML-inequality,

_
[z
1
, z
2
, z
3
, z
1
]
z
5
dz

5
2
(2 + 2

5).
41. We have
_

f(z) dz =
_
(, )
f(z) dz
=
_

f(z) dz +
_

f(z) dz
=
_

f(z) dz
_

f(z) dz = 0.
Section 3.3 Independence of Path 55
Solutions to Exercises 3.3
1. An antiderivative of f(z) = z
2
+z 1 is simply F(z) =
1
3
z
3
+
1
2
z
2
z +C where C is an arbitrary
complex constant. The function F is entire and so we can take = C.
5. To nd an antiderivative of
1
(z1)(z+1)
, we proceed as we would have done in calculus. Using
partial fractions, write
1
(z 1)(z + 1)
=
A
z 1
+
B
z + 1
1
(z 1)(z + 1)
=
A(z + 1) + B(z 1)
(z 1)(z + 1)
1 = A(z + 1) + B(z 1).
Taking z = 1, it follows that B =
1
2
. Taking z = 1, it follows that A =
1
2
. Hence
1
(z 1)(z + 1)
=
1
2(z 1)

1
2(z + 1)
.
An antiderivative of this function is
F(z) =
1
2
_
Log (z 1) Log (z + 1)
_
+ C,
where C is an arbitrary complex constant. (You could also use a dierent branch of the logarithm.)
The function Log (z 1) is analytic in C \ (, 1], while the function Log (z + 1) is analytic in
C\(, 1]. So the function F(z) =
1
2
_
Log (z 1) Log(z +1)
_
+C, is analytic in C\(, 1] and
we may take = C\(, 1]. In fact, the function Log (z 1) Log (z +1) = Log
z1
z+1
is analytic in
a larger region C\ [1, 1]. There are at least two possible ways to see this. One way is to note that
the linear fractional transformation w =
z1
z+1
takes the interval [1, 1] onto the half-line (, 0].
All other values of z outside the interval [1, 1] are mapped into C\(, 0] and so the composition
Log
z1
z+1
is analytic everywhere on C\ [1, 1]. Another way to show that Log (z 1) Log (z +1)
is analytic in C \ [1, 1] is to use Theorem 4, Sec. 2.3. Let g(z) = Log (z 1) Log (z + 1) and
f(z) = e
z
. The function g(z) is continuous on C\ [1, 1], because the discontinuities of Log (z 1)
and Log (z + 1) cancel on (, 1). The function f(z) = e
z
is obviously entire. The composition
f(g(z)) is equal to the function
z1
z+1
, which is analytic except at the points z = 1. According to
Theorem 4, Sec. 2.3, the function g(z) is analytic in C\ [1, 1].
9. An antiderivative of z sinh z
2
is
1
2
cosh z
2
+ C, as you can verify by dierentiation. The an-
tiderivative is valid for all z.
13. All branches of the logarithm, log

z, have the same derivative

1
z
. The only dierence is that
the domain of analyticity diers in each case, since the branch cut is dierent. Again, taking a hint
from calculus and the fact that an antiderivative of ln x is x+xlnx+C (as you can verify directly or
integrate lnx by parts), we nd that an antiderivative of f
1
(z) = log
0
z is F
1
(z) = z +z log
0
z +C.
The functions f
1
and F
1
are analytic in the region
1
= C \ [0, ). Similarly, an antiderivative of
f
2
(z) = log
2
z is F
2
(z) = z + z log
2
z + C. The functions f
2
and F
2
are analytic in the region

2
= C minus the ray at angle

2
. So, an antiderivative of the function log
0
z + log
2
z +
1
z
is
2z +z log
0
z +z log
2
z + Log z +C, and the antiderivative is good in the region C minus the rays
at angle 0,

2
, and , or, simply, C minus the real line and the ray at angle

2
.
17. The integrand is entire and has an antiderivative in a region containing the path. So, by
56 Chapter 3 Complex Integration
Theorem 1,
_

z
2
dz =
1
3
z
3

4
)
(0)
=
1
3
_
(e
i

4
+ 3e
2i

4
)
3
(e
i0
+ 3e
2i0
)
3
_
=
1
3
_
e
i
3
4
+ 9e
i
2
4
e
i

2
+ 27e
i

4
e
2i

2
+ 27e
i
3
2
(4)
3
_
=
1
3
_

2
2
+ i

2
2
9 27(

2
2
+ i

2
2
) 27i (4)
3
_
=
1
3
_
(14

2 73 + i(13

2 27)
_
21. Evaluate using Theorem 1:
_

sinz dz = cos z

2
)
(0)
= cos(2e
i0
) cos(2e
i

2
= cos 2 cos(2i) = cos 2 cosh 2.
(Use (25), Sec. 1.6.)
25. The function Log z has an analytic antiderivative in a region that contains the path [z
1
, z
2
, z
3
, z
1
];
for example, the function F(z) = z Log z z. So by Theorem 1,
_
[z1, z2, z3, z1]
z Log z dz = 0.
29. Part (a) is clear. For (b), the path
1
lies completely in a region on which the function Log z
is analytic. Since Log z is an antiderivative of
1
z
, it follows from Theorem 1 that
_
1
1
z
dz = Log (z
1
) Log (z
2
).
Similarly, the path
2
lies completely in a region on which the function log
0
z is analytic. Since
log
0
z is an antiderivative of
1
z
, it follows from Theorem 1 that and
_
2
1
z
dz = log
0
(z
2
) log
0
(z
1
).
Now _
CR(z0)
1
z
dz =
_
1
1
z
dz +
_
2
1
z
dz = Log z
1
Log z
2
+ log
0
z
2
log
0
z
1
.
Recall that z
1
is on the positive y-axis, so Log z
1
= log
0
z
1
. Also z
2
is on the negative y-axis, so
arg
0
z
2
= 3

2
and Arg z
2
=

2
. Hence log
0
z
2
Log z
2
= 2i. Putting this information together,
we get
_
CR(z0)
1
z
dz = 2i.
33. If f is analytic in a region , then obviously f is an antiderivative of f

in . Let z
0
and z
1
be
any two points in . Since is connected, we can join z
0
to z
1
by a polygonal path , with initial
point z
0
and terminal point z
1
. By Theorem 1,
_

(z) dz = f(z
1
) f(z
0
).
But f

(z) = 0, so f(z
1
) f(z
0
) = 0 implying that f(z
0
) = f(z
1
). Since z
1
is arbitrary, it follows
that f is constant equal to f(z
0
).
Section 3.4 Cauchys Integral Theorem 57
Solutions to Exercises 3.4
1. Each path is continuously deformable to a point in and is connected. So the two paths are
mutually continuously deformable.
5. Same reasoning as in Exercise 1.
9. The path in Figure 35 is an ellipse centered at 3i with length of major axis 6 and length of
minor axis 3. The ellipse can be parametrized by

0
(t) = 3i + 3 cos t + i sin t, 0 t 2.
To parametrize
0
by the interval [0, 1], we can use

0
(t) = 3i + 3 cos(2t) + i sin(2t) = 3 cos(2t) + i
_
3 + sin(2t)
_
, 0 t 1.
It is clear from the gure that we can deform
0
continuously to 3i, its center (there are, of course,
many other possible points). Since the interior of the ellipse is convex, we can use (8) to construct
the desired mapping of the unit square. We take
0
as described above and
1
(t) = 3i. Then, for
0 t 1 and 0 s 1:
H(t, s) = (1 s)
0
(t) + s
1
(t)
= 3(1 s) cos(2t) + i(1 s)
_
3 + sin(2t)
_
+ 3is
= 3(1 s) cos(2t) + i
_
3 + (1 s) sin(2t)
_
.
13. The function f(z) =
e
z
z+2
is analytic inside an on the simple path C
1
(0). By Theorem 5,
_
C1(0)
e
z
z + 2
dz = 0.
17. The function f(z) =
e
z
z+i
has a problem at z = i. Hence it is analytic inside an on the simple
path (t) = i + e
it
, 0 t 2 (circle, centered at i with radius 1). By Theorem 5,
_

e
z
z + i
dz = 0.
21. The path [z
1
, z
2
, z
3
, z
1
] is contained in a region that does not intersect the branch cut of Log z.
Hence the function f(z) = z
2
Log z is analytic inside an on the simple path [z
1
, z
2
, z
3
, z
1
], and so
by Theorem 5,
_
[z1, z2, z3, z1]
z
2
Log z dz = 0.
25. The path C
2
(0) contains both roots of the polynomial z
2
1. We will evaluate the integral by
using the method of Example 5. We have
z
z
2
1
=
A
z 1
+
B
z + 1
z = A(z + 1) + B(z 1).
Setting z = 1, we get 1 = 2A or A =
1
2
. Setting z = 1, we get 1 = 2B or B =
1
2
. Hence
z
z
2
1
=
1
2(z 1)
+
1
2(z + 1)
,
58 Chapter 3 Complex Integration
and so _
C2(0)
z
z
2
1
dz =
1
2
_
C2(0)
1
z 1
dz +
1
2
_
C2(0)
1
z + 1
dz =
1
2
2i +
1
2
2i = 2i,
where we have applied the result of Example 4 in evaluating the integrals.
29. Write = (
1
,
2
), where
1
is the circle centered at i and
2
is the circle centered at 1. Then
_

1
(z + 1)
2
(z
2
+ 1)
dz =
_
1
1
(z + 1)
2
(z
2
+ 1)
dz +
_
2
1
(z + 1)
2
(z
2
+ 1)
dz = I
1
+ I
2
.
The partial fraction decomposition of the integrand is
1
(z + 1)
2
(z
2
+ 1)
=
1
2(z + 1)
+
1
2(z + 1)
2

1
4(z + i)

1
4(z i)
.
We have
I
1
=
1
2
_
1
dz
z + 1
+
1
2
_
1
dz
(z + 1)
2

1
4
_
1
dz
z + i

1
4
_
1
dz
z i
=
1
2
0 +
1
2
0
1
4
0
1
4
2i =

2
i,
where the rst 3 integrals are 0 because the integrands are analytic inside an on
1
, and the fourth
integral follows from Example 4. Similarly,
I
2
=
1
2
_
2
dz
z + 1
+
1
2
_
2
dz
(z + 1)
2

1
4
_
2
dz
z + i

1
4
_
2
dz
z i
=
1
2
2i +
1
2
0
1
4
0
1
4
0 = i,
where the rst, third, and fourth integrals follow from Example 4, and the second integral follows
from Example 4, Sec. 3.2. Thus, the desired integral is equal to
I
1
+ I
2
=

2
i.
33. (a) Let z
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
n
be distinct complex numbers (n 2). Reducing to the common denomi-
nator in the partial fraction decomposition
1
(z z
1
)(z z
2
) (z z
n
)
=
A
1
z z
1
+
A
2
z z
2
+ +
A
n
z z
n
,
we obtain
1
p(z)
=
A
1
(z z
2
) (z z
n
)
p(z)
+
A
2
(z z
1
)(z z
3
) (z z
n
)
p(z)
+
+
A
n
(z z
1
)(z z
2
) (z z
n1
)
p(z)
,
where p(z) = (z z
1
)(z z
2
) (z z
n
).. From this expression, we see clearly that the coecient
of z
n1
in the numerator on the right side is A
1
+ A
2
+ + A
n
. Comparing with the left side, we
see that A
1
+ A
2
+ + A
n
= 0.
(b) Suppose that C is a simple closed path that contains the points z
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
n
in its interior.
Using the partial fraction decomposition, we have
_
C
1
(z z
1
)(z z
2
) (z z
n
)
dz = A
1
_
C
dz
z z
1
+ A
2
_
C
dz
z z
2
+ + A
n
_
C
dz
z z
n
= 2i(A
1
+ A
2
+ + A
n
) = 0,
where we have used Example 4 to evaluate the integrals and part (a) to sum the A
j
s.
Section 3.5 Proof of Cauchys Theorem 59
Solutions to Exercises 3.5
1. An example of a closed and bounded subset K of the real line and a bounded subset
S of the real line such that K and S are disjoint but the distance from K to S is 0: Let
K = [0, 1] and S = (1, 2). Then K S = but the distance from K to S is 0.
5. The distance formula: for z
1
= a
1
+ib
1
, z
2
= a
2
+ib
2
, w
1
= c
1
+id
1
, and w
2
= c
2
+id
2
:

(z
1
, w
1
) (z
2
, w
2
)

=
_
(a
1
a
2
)
2
+ (b
1
b
2
)
2
+ (c
1
c
2
)
2
+ (d
1
d
2
)
2
.
(a) If z = a +ib and w = c +id, then by denition
|(z, w)| =

(z, w) (0, 0)

=
_
a
2
+b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
.
It is clear then that |(z, w)| 0 and
(z, w) = (0, 0) a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+d
2
= 0 a = b = c = d = 0.
(b) For any complex number , write = A+ iB, where A and B are real. Then
|(z, w)| = |(z, w)| =

_
Aa Bb +i(Ab +Ba), Ac Bd +i(Ad + Bc)
_

=
_
(Aa Bb)
2
+ (Ab +Ba)
2
+ (Ac Bd)
2
+ (Ad +Bc)
2
=
_
(A
2
+ B
2
)(a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+d
2
)
=
_
A
2
+B
2
_
a
2
+b
2
+c
2
+ d
2
= || |(z, w)|.
(c) We will prove the triangle inequality: |(z
1
, w
1
) + (z
2
, w
2
)| |(z
1
, w
1
)| + |(z
2
, w
2
)| by
following the proof of the triangle inequality for the usual absolute value (see Sec. 1.2).
First note that from the denition of the absolute value on C C, we have
|(z, w)|
2
= |z|
2
+|w|
2
,
where on the right side we are using the usual absolute value on C. Also note that for
complex numbers z
1
= a
1
+ib
1
, z
2
= a
2
+ ib
2
, w
1
= c
1
+id
1
, and w
2
= c
2
+id
2
, we have
|z
1
| |z
2
| + |w
1
| |w
2
|
_
(|z
1
|
2
+ |w
1
|
2
)
2
(|z
2
|
2
+|w
2
|
2
)
2
,
as can be veried by squaring both sides. We can now prove the desired identity:
|(z
1
, w
1
) + (z
2
, w
2
)|
2
= |(z
1
+z
2
, w
1
+ w
2
)|
2
= |z
1
+z
2
|
2
+|w
1
+ w
2
|
2
(|z
1
| + |z
2
|)
2
+ (|w
1
| + |w
2
|)
2
= |z
1
|
2
+ |z
2
|
2
+ 2|z
1
| |z
2
|
2
+|w
1
|
2
+ |w
2
|
2
+ 2|w
1
| |w
2
|
2
|z
1
|
2
+ |w
1
|
2
+ |z
2
|
2
+ |w
2
|
2
+ 2
_
(|z
1
|
2
+|w
1
|
2
)
2
(|z
2
|
2
+|w
2
|
2
)
2
=
_
_
|z
1
|
2
+|w
1
|
2
_1
2
+
_
|z
2
|
2
+ |w
2
|
2
_1
2
_
2
.
The desired inequality follows upon taking square roots on both sides.
60 Chapter 3 Complex Integration
9. Pick y
0
in the interval (c, d). We have to sow that
lim
h0
1
h
_
b
a
_
u(x, y
0
+ h) u(x, y
0
)
_
dx =
_
b
a

y
u(x, y
0
) dx.
Equivalently, we have to show that the dierence

1
h
_
b
a
_
u(x, y
0
+h) u(x, y
0
)
_
dx
_
b
a

y
u(x, y
0
) dx

can be made arbitrarily small for all small values of h. Since

y
u is continuous in R, it is
uniformly continuous. So, given > 0, we can nd a > 0 such that if 0 < h < , then

y
u(x, s)

y
u(x, y
0
)

< for all y

0
< s < y
0
+h.
Now using the fact that
u(x, y
0
+h) u(x, y
0
) =
_
y
0
+h
y
0

y
u(x, s) ds,
we nd that for 0 < h <

1
h
_
b
a
_
u(x, y
0
+h) u(x, y
0
)
_
dx
_
b
a

y
u(x, y
0
) dx

1
h
_
b
a
_
y
0
+h
y
0

y
u(x, s) ds dx
_
b
a

y
u(x, y
0
) dx

_
b
a
1
h
_
y
0
+h
y
0
<
..

y
u(x, s)

y
u(x, y
0
)

ds dx

1
h
_
b
a
_
y
0
+h
y
0
ds dx
= (b a).
Since is arbitrary, the proof is complee.
Section 3.6 Cauchys Integral Formula 61
Solutions to Exercises 3.6
1. Apply Cauchys formula with f(z) = cos z at z = 0. Then
_
C
1
(0)
cos z
z
dz =
_
C
1
(0)
cos z
z 0
dz = 2if(0) = 2i.
5. Apply Cauchys formula with f(z) = Log z at z = i. Then
_
C
1
2
(i)
Log z
z + i
dz =
_
C
1
2
(i)
Log z
z i
dz = 2i Log i = 2i(ln1 + i

2
) =
2
.
9. Apply the generalized Cauchy formula (6), with f(z) = sin z at z = , with n = 2.
Then _

sinz
(z )
3
dz =
2i
2!
f
(2)
() = i(sin) = 0.
13. Follow the solution in Example 2. Draw small nointersecting negatively oriented circles
inside ,
1
centered at 0 and
2
centered at i. Then
_

z + cos(z)
z(z
2
+ 1)
dz =
_

1
z + cos(z)
z(z
2
+ 1)
dz +
_

2
z + cos(z)
z(z
2
+ 1)
dz = I
1
+ I
2
.
Apply Cauchys formula with f(z) =
z+cos(z)
z
2
+1
at z = 0. Then (recall
1
is negatively
oriented)
I
1
=
_

1
z + cos(z)
z(z
2
+ 1)
dz = 2if(0) = 2i
0 + cos 0
0
2
+ 1
= 2i.
Apply Cauchys formula with f(z) =
z+cos(z)
z(z+i)
at z = i. Then
I
2
=
_

2
z + cos(z)
z(z
2
+ 1)
dz =
_

2
z + cos(z)
z(z + i)(z i)
dz
= 2if(i) = 2i
i + cos i
i(2i)
= +i(i + cosh ).
So I
1
+I
2
= i(2 cosh ).
17. Factor the denominator as z
3
3z +2 = (z +2)(z 1)
2
. Apply the generalized Cauchy
formula (6), with f(z) =
1
z+2
at z = 1, with n = 1. Then
_
C
3
2
(0)
dz
(z + 2)(z 1)
2
= 2if

(1) = 2i
1
3
2
=
2i
9
.
21. (a) For |z| < 1, let F(z) =
1
2
_
2
0
e
it
e
it
z
dt (we changed the notation of the exercise).
We will apply Theorem 4, Sec. 3.5, with f(z, t) =
e
it
e
it
z
, where t is on the path [0, 2] and
z in the region |z| < 1. Because |e
it
| = 1 and |z| < 1, it follows that the function
e
it
e
it
z
is
continuous for all z and t in their respective domains. Moreover, we have
d
dz
f(z, t) =
e
it
(e
it
z)
2
,
62 Chapter 3 Complex Integration
which is also continuous for all z and t, in their respective domains, for the same reason.
By Theorem 4, Sec. 3.5, the function F(z) is analytic for all |z| < 1.
(b) Let e
it
= , ie
it
dt = d or dt =
d
i
. As t runs through [0, 2], runs through the unit
circle in the positive direction. Hence
F(z) =
1
2
_
C
1
(0)

z
d
i
=
1
2i
_
C
1
(0)
d
z
= 1.
25. Dene F(z) =
_
1
0
cos(zt) dt. Let f(z, t) = cos(zt). Repeat the argument in Exercise
21(a) to see that F(z) is entire. If z = 0, F(z) =
_
1
0
dt = 1. For z = 0, we have
F(z) =
_
1
0
cos zt dt =
1
z
sin zt

1
t=0
=
sinz
z
.
Thus
F(z) =
_
1 if z = 0,
sin z
z
if z = 0,
is an entire function.
29. For z inside C, by Cauchys formula,
f(z) =
1
2i
_
C
f()
z
d.
But f() = g() for on C. So, for all z inside C,
f(z) =
1
2i
_
C
f()
z
d =
1
2i
_
C
g()
z
d = g(z),
by Cauchys formula applied to g.
33. (a) Since our proof depends heavily on Exercise 32, let us outline the proof of part
(a) of that exercise. To prove that
f(z) f(z
0
)
z z
0
f

(z
0
) =
1
2i
_
C
R
(z
0
)
(z z
0
)
( z)( z
0
)
2
f() d,
note that the integrand on the right side is equal to
f()
_
1
(z z
0
)( z)

1
( z
0
)
2

1
(z z
0
)( z
0
)
_
Integrating the partial fraction and using Cauchys formula, we obatin
(z z
0
)
( z)( z
0
)
2
f()
=
1
2i
_
C
R
(z
0
)
f()
1
(z z
0
)( z)
d +
1
2i
_
C
R
(z
0
)
f()
1
( z
0
)
2
d

1
2i
_
C
R
(z
0
)
f()
1
(z z
0
)( z
0
)
d
=
f(z)
z z
0
f

(z
0
)
f(z
0
)
z z
0
,
Section 3.6 Cauchys Integral Formula 63
which yields the desired identity.
In the preceding identity, replace f(z) by f(z, w), and get
f(z, w) f(z
0
, w)
z z
0

d
dz
(z
0
, w) =
1
2i
_
C
R
(z
0
)
(z z
0
)
( z)( z
0
)
2
f(, w) d.
Integrate the identity over and get
_

f(z, w) dw
_

f(z
0
, w) dw
z z
0

d
dz
(z
0
, w) dw
=
1
2i
_

_
C
R
(z
0
)
(z z
0
)
( z)( z
0
)
2
f(, w) ddw,
or
F(z) F(z
0
)
z z
0

d
dz
(z
0
, w) dw =
1
2i
_

_
C
R
(z
0
)
(z z
0
)
( z)( z
0
)
2
f(, w) ddw,
So

F(z) F(z
0
)
z z
0

d
dz
(z
0
, w) dw

1
2i
_

_
C
R
(z
0
)
(z z
0
)
( z)( z
0
)
2
f(, w) ddw

A l(),
where A is the maximum value of

1
2i
_
C
R
(z
0
)
(z z
0
)
( z)( z
0
)
2
f(, w) d

.
According to Exercise 32(c), A
2M
R
2
|z z
0
|, which implies

F(z) F(z
0
)
z z
0

d
dz
f(z
0
, ) d

2M
R
2
|z z
0
| l().
(b) Letting z z
0
in (a), the right side tends to 0, and the left side tends to F

(z
0
)
_

d
dz
f(z
0
, ) d. Hence
F

(z
0
) =
_

d
dz
f(z
0
, ) d.
37. We will show the following version of Moreras theorem. Suppose that f is continuous
and complex-valued in such that for every point z
0
in , there is a disk B
R
(z
0
) contained
in such that _

f(z) dz = 0
for every closed triangular path contained in B
R
(z
0
). This is a stronger version than the
one in the text, since we do assume that
_

f(z) dz = 0 for all closed paths in .

(a) It is enough to show that, given any point z
0
in , there is is a disk B
R
(z
0
) contained
in such that f has a analytic antiderivative F(z) in B
R
(z
0
). Indeed, if F is analytic and
64 Chapter 3 Complex Integration
F(z) = f(z) for all z in B
R
(z
0
), it follows from Corollary 1 that f is analytic in B
R
(z
0
),
and since this holds for all z
0
in , it follows that f is analytic in .
(b) Given z
0
, pick a disk B
R
(z
0
) such that integrals over triangular paths in B
R
(z
0
) are 0.
To show that f has an analytic antiderivative in B
R
(z
0
), for z in B
R
(z
0
), dene F(z) =
_
[z
0
, z]
f() d. Then F is analytc in B
R
(z
0
) by There 4, Sec. 3.5. We no show that
F

(z) = f(z). We have

F(z + z) F(z)
z
f(z) =
1
z
_
_
[z
0
, z+z]
f() d
_
[z
0
, z]
f() d
_
=
1
z
_
_
[z
0
, z+z]
f() d +
_
[z, z
0
]
f() d
_
=
1
z
_
[z, z+z]
f() d.
In the last equality, we used the fact that the integral over a triangular path in B
R
(z
0
) is 0.
(c) Using Lemma 1, Section 3.3, we nd that the limit in (b) as z 0 is f(z). Hence
F

(z) = f(z), as desired.

41. If f and g are analytic at z
0
, such that f(z
0
) = f

(z
0
) = = f
(m1)
(z
0
) = 0 and
g(z
0
) = g

(z
0
) = = g
(m1)
(z
0
) = 0, but g
(m)
(z
0
) = 0, then according to Exercise 40, we
can write f(z) = (z z
0
)
m
(z) and g(z) = (z z
0
)
m
(z) where and are analytic at z
0
,
(z
0
) =
f
(m)
(z
0
)
m!
, and (z
0
) =
g
(m)
(z
0
)
m!
. Then
lim
zz
0
f(z)
g(z)
= lim
zz
0
(z z
0
)
m
(z)
(z z
0
)
m
(z)
= lim
zz
0
(z)
(z)
=
f
(m)
(z
0
)
g
(m)
(z
0
)
.
Section 3.7 Bounds for Moduli of Analytic Functions 65
Solutions to Exercises 3.7
1. We have |f(z)| = |z|. Obviously, if z belongs to the unit disk, |z| 1, then the largest value
of |f(z)| is 1 and its smallest value is 0. Hence |f(z)| attains its maximum value at all points of
the boundary, and it attains its minimum value at the point z = 0, inside the region. The fact that
the minimum is attained inside the region does not contradict Corollary 3, because f(z) vanishes at
z = 0 inside of
5. The function f(z) =
z
z
2
+2
is continuous for all z such that 2 |z| 3 and does not vanish inside
this annular region. Thus according to Corollary 3, |f| attains its maximum and minimum at the
boundary; that it at points where |z| = 2 or |z| = 3. Using the triangle inequality, we have
|z
2
+ 2| |z|
2
+ 2
1
|z|
2
+ 2

1

z
2
+ 2

;
|z
2
+ 2|

|z|
2
2

z
2
+ 2

|z|
2
2

.
On the part of the boundary |z| = 2, we have
1
3
=
2
|2|
2
+ 2
|f(z)| =

z
z
2
+ 2

2
|2|
2
2|
= 1.
On the part of the boundary |z| = 3, we have
3
11
=
3
|3|
2
+ 2
|f(z)| =

z
z
2
+ 2

3
|3|
2
2|
=
3
7
.
Thus the smallest value of |f(z)| is
3
11
. It is attained at a point z with |z| = 3. For this value of z,
we must have |z
2
+ 2| = 11. The only possibilities are z = 3.
The largest value of |f(z)| is 1. It is attained at a point z with |z| = 2. For this value of z, we
must have |z
2
+ 2| = 2 or z
2
= 4. The only possibilities are z = 2i.
9. We have
|f(z)| = | ln|z| + i Arg z|;
|f(z)|
2
= (ln |z|)
2
+ ( Arg z)
2
.
The largest value (respectively, minimum value) of |f(z)| is attained when |f(z)|
2
attains its largest
value (respectively, minimum value). The largest value of |f(z)|
2
= (ln |z|)
2
+ ( Arg z)
2
is clearly
attained when |z| = 2 and Arg z =

4
. So |f(z)| attains its maximum value
_
(ln 2)
2
+ (

4
)
2
when
z = 2e
i

4
.
The smallest value of |f(z)|
2
= (ln |z|)
2
+( Arg z)
2
is clearly attained when |z| = 1 and Arg z = 0.
So |f(z)| attains its smallest value 0 when z = 1.
13. (a) To verify the identity
z
n
w
n
= (z w)(z
n1
+ z
n2
w + z
n3
w
2
+ + z w
n2
+ w
n1
),
expand the right side. All terms cance except for z
n
w
n
.
(b) If p(z) = p
n
z
n
+ p
n1
z
n1
+ + p
1
z + p
0
is a polynomial of degree n 2, and if p(z
0
) = 0,
then p
n
z
n
0
+ p
n1
z
n1
0
+ + p
1
z
0
+ p
0
= 0. From (a),
p(z) = p(z) p(z
0
) = p
n
(z
n
z
n
0
) + p
n1
(z
n1
z
n1
0
) + + p
1
(z z
0
)
= (z z
0
)q(z),
where q(z) = (z
n1
+ z
n2
z
0
+ z
n3
z
2
0
+ + z z
n2
0
+ z
n1
0
) is a polynomial of degree n 1 in z.
66 Chapter 3 Complex Integration
17. Suppose that f is entire and that it omits an open nonempty set, say, there is an open disk
B
R
(w
0
) with R > 0 in the w-plane such that f(z) is not in B
R
(w
0
) for all z. Let g(z) =
1
f(z)w0
.
Then g(z) is also entire, because f(z) = w
0
for all z. In fact, since f(z) is not in B
R
(w
0
), its distance
to w
0
is always greater than R. That is, |f(z) w
0
| R. But this implies that |g(z)|
1
R
, which
in turn implies that g is constant, by Liouvilles theorem. Since g(z) = 0, this constant is obviously
not 0. So C =
1
f(z)w0
, hence f(z) =
1
C
+ w
0
is constant.
21. Suppose that f(z) = f(x + i y) is periodic in x and y, and let T
1
> 0 and T
2
> 0 be such that
f((x+T
1
)+i (y+T
2
)) = f(x+i y) for all z = x+i y. Because f is periodic in both x and y, its values
repeat on every T
1
T
2
-rectangle. This means that, if we take the rectangle R = [0, T
1
] [0, T
2
]
and consider the values of f on this rectangle, then these are all the values taken by f(z), for z in
C. The reason is that the complex plane can be tiled by translates of R in the x and y direction,
where in the x drection we translate by T
1
units at a time, and in the y direction we translate by T
2
units at a time. Now sice f is continuous, it is bounded on R; that is |f(z)| M for some constant
M and all z in R. But since f takes on all its values in R, we concude that |f(z)| M for all z in
C, and thus f must be constant by Liouvilles theorem.
If f is constant in x or y alone, f need not be constant. As an example, take f(z) = sinz then f
is 2-periodic in the x variable. By considering f(iz) = sin(iz), we obtain a function that is constant
in y alone. Both functions are entire and clearly not constant.
25. Suppose that f is analytic on |z| < 1 and continuous on |z| 1. Suppose that f(z) is real-
valued for all |z| = 1. Consider g(z) = e
if(z)
. Then g is analytic and nonvanishing in |z| 1, because
the complex exponential function is never 0. Moreover g is continuous on |z| = 1. By Corollary 3, g
attains its maximum and minimum on the boundary |z| = 1. But since f(z) is real-valued if |z| = 1,
it follows that |g(z)| = |e
if(z)
| = 1 for all |z| = 1. Consequently, by Corrolary 3, g is constant inside
the unit disk. Hence, for all z inside the unit disk, f(z) = c + 2k, where c is a constant and k is
an integer. Now it is easy to see that since f is continuous, its values cannot hop around a discrete
set. (A proof of this fact may be constructed in a way similar to the proof of Lemma 2, Sec. 5.7.)
So f(z) = c + i2k
0
for all z, and so f is constant.
29. Suppose that f is analytic with |f(z)| 1 for all |z| 1. By the maximum principle, we have
that |f(z)| 1 for all |z| 1 Given z in the open unit disk, we can form a circle centerd at z with
radius 1 |z|. This circle is contained in the unit disk. Since f is analytic on C
1|z|
(z), we have by
Cauchys generalized formula,
f
(n)
(z) =
n!
2i
_
C
1|z|
(z)
f()
( z)
n+1
d.
For on C
1|z|
(z), we have | z| = 1 |z|. So, since |f(| 1, using the familiar inequality for
path integrals, we obtain
|f
(n)
(z)| =

n!
2i
_
C
1|z|
(z)
f()
( z)
n+1
d

n!
2
2(1 |z|)
(1 |z|)
n+1
=
n!
(1 |z|)
n
.
Section 3.8 Applications to Harmonic Functions 67
Solutions to Exercises 3.8
1. (a) The function u(x, y) = xy is harmonic on = C, because
u
xx
= 0, u
yy
= 0, and so u = 0.
(b) To nd the conjugate gradient of u, apply Lemma 1: for z = x + iy,
(z) = u
x
iu
y
= y ix = iz.
Clearly, is analytic in as asserted by Lemma 1.
5. In this problem we are told that u is the real part of an analytic function f; that is f = u + i v
on a region . To nd the conjugate gradient of u, we apply Lemma 1 and nd (z) = u
x
iu
y
.
But u
y
= v
x
, by the Cauchy-Riemann equations, so (z) = u
x
+ iu
y
= f

(z), by (8), Sec. 2.4.

9. Suppose that f is analytic on a region . We want to prove that |f| is harmonic on if and
only if f is constant. Note that one implication is immediate: If f is constant, then |f| is constant
and hence it is harmonic. It is the other implication that is more interesting. We will oer two
proofs! The following results are needed in the proofs.
Lemma 1 Suppose f is analytic in a region and |f| is harmonic in . If f(z
0
) = 0 for some z
0
in
and B
R
(z
0
) is any disk centered at z
0
and contained in , then f is identically 0 in B
R
(z
0
).
Proof Suppose that f(z
0
) = 0. Let B
R
(z
0
) be an open disk contained in . Since |f| is harmonic
on B
R
(z
0
), applying the mean value property, we nd that for any 0 < r < R,
0 = |f(z
0
)| =
1
2
_
2
0
|f(z
0
+ re
it
)| dt.
Since the integrand is continuous and nonnegative, the only way for the integral to equal zero is for
|f(z
0
+ re
it
)| to be identically zero for all t in [0, 2], which implies that |f| and hence f is zero on
the circle of radius r and center at z
0
. Since this is true for all 0 < r < R, it follows that f = 0 on
B
R
(z
0
).
Lemma 1 Suppose f is analytic in a region and |f| is harmonic in . Either |f| is identically
0 in or |f| does not vanish in .
Proof Let
1
= {z : z , |f(z)| = 0} and
2
= {z : z , |f(z)| = 0}. Then =
1

2
and

1

2
= . If we can show that both
1
and
2
are open, then by the connectedness of , either

1
= or
2
= . Since |f| is continuous, it follows that
2
is open, because
2
is the inverse
image of the open set (0, ). The fact that
1
is open follows from Lemma 1, because every z
0
in

1
is contained in a disk on which |f| vanishes, i.e., the disk is contained in
1
. This proves Lemma
2.
We now return to the proof of Exercise 9.
First Proof. This one is more direct, but requires more computations.
In view of Lemma 2, we can suppose that |f| = 0 in , otherwise |f| is identically 0 in .
Write f = u + iv, then = |f| = (u
2
+ v
2
)
1/2
. We are given that
xx
+
yy
= 0. Compute the
partial derivatives explicitely:

x
= (u
2
+ v
2
)
1/2
(uu
x
+ vv
x
);

xx
= (u
2
+ v
2
)
3/2
(uu
x
+ vv
x
)
2
+ (u
2
+ v
2
)
1/2
_
(u
x
)
2
+ uu
xx
+ (v
x
)
2
+ vv
xx
_
= (u
2
+ v
2
)
3/2
_
(uu
x
+ vv
x
)
2
+ (u
2
+ v
2
)
_
(u
x
)
2
+ uu
xx
+ (v
x
)
2
+ vv
xx
_
_
= (u
2
+ v
2
)
3/2
_
(uv
x
vu
x
)
2
+ (u
2
+ v
2
)
_
uu
xx
+ vv
xx
_
.
Changing x to y, we obtain

yy
= (u
2
+ v
2
)
3/2
_
(uv
y
vu
y
)
2
+ (u
2
+ v
2
)
_
uu
yy
+ vv
yy
_
.
68 Chapter 3 Complex Integration
Since is harmonic, we obtain
0 =
xx
+
yy
= (u
2
+ v
2
)
3/2
_
(uv
x
vu
x
)
2
+ (u
2
+ v
2
)
_
uu
xx
+ vv
xx
_
_
+(u
2
+ v
2
)
3/2
_
(uv
y
vu
y
)
2
+ (u
2
+ v
2
)
_
uu
yy
+ vv
yy
_
_
= (u
2
+ v
2
)
3/2
_
(uv
x
vu
x
)
2
+ (uv
y
vu
y
)
2
+ (u
2
+ v
2
)
_
uu
xx
+ vv
xx
+ uu
yy
+ vv
yy
_
= (u
2
+ v
2
)
3/2
_
(uv
x
vu
x
)
2
+ (uv
y
vu
y
)
2
+ (u
2
+ v
2
)
_
u
=0
..
(u
xx
+ u
yy
) +v
=0
..
(v
xx
+ v
yy
)
_
_
= (u
2
+ v
2
)
3/2
_
(uv
x
vu
x
)
2
+ (uv
y
vu
y
)
2
_
;
(uv
x
vu
x
)
2
= 0 and (uv
y
vu
y
)
2
= 0
u
2
(v
x
)
2
+ v
2
(u
x
)
2
2uvu
x
v
x
= 0 and u
2
(v
y
)
2
+ v
2
(u
y
)
2
2uvv
y
u
y
= 0.
Since f = u + iv is analytic, the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold: u
x
= v
y
and u
y
= v
x
and so
u
2
(u
y
)
2
+ v
2
(u
x
)
2
2uvu
x
v
x
= 0 and u
2
(u
x
)
2
+ v
2
(u
y
)
2
+ 2uvu
x
v
x
= 0.
Adding the two equations, we get
u
2
[(u
x
)
2
+ (u
y
)
2
] + v
2
[(u
x
)
2
+ (u
y
)
2
] = 0 (u
2
+ v
2
)[(u
x
)
2
+ (u
y
)
2
] = 0
By assumption, |f| = 0, hence u
2
+ v
2
= 0, and so (u
x
)
2
+ (u
y
)
2
= 0, implying that u
x
= 0 and
u
y
= 0, which in turn implies that u is identically constant in . Consequently, v is identically
constant in and so f is identically constant in .
For the second proof, we need two lemmas that are interesting in their own right.
Lemma 3 If u and e
u
are harmonic in then u is identically constant.
Proof Let = e
u
. Then
x
= e
u
u
x
and
xx
= e
u
(u
x
)
2
+ e
u
u
xx
. Similarly,
y
= e
u
u
y
and

yy
= e
u
(u
y
)
2
+ e
u
u
yy
. Using = 0 and u = 0, we get
e
u
[(u
x
)
2
+ (u
y
)
2
] = 0 (u
x
)
2
+ (u
y
)
2
= 0 u
x
= 0 and u
y
= 0.
Hence u is constant.
The following lemma is extremely useful.
Lemma 4 If f is analytic an nonvanishing on a region , then ln|f(z)| is harmonic on .
Proof One way to proceed is to realize that if f(z) is analytic and nonvanishing, then ln|f(z)| is
the real part of an analytic branch of the logarithm of f(z), and so it is harmonic (see Exercise 36,
Sec. 3.6). Another way is to simply verify Laplaces equation. Let = 2 ln|f(z)| = ln(u
2
+ v
2
) and
check that = 0. This will imply that is harmonic and hence that ln|f(z)| is harmonic. To
simplify notation, let (x, y) = u
2
+ v
2
so = ln. Lets compute:

x
=

x

xx
=

xx

2
x

2
;

yy
=

yy

2
y

2
;

xx
+
yy
=
(
xx
+
yy
) (
2
x
+
2
y
)

2
.
Section 3.8 Applications to Harmonic Functions 69
But
(
xx
+
yy
) =
_
2u
2
x
+ 2uu
xx
+ 2v
2
x
+ 2vv
xx
+ 2u
2
y
+ 2uu
yy
+ 2v
2
y
+ 2vv
yy
_

=
_
2u
2
x
+ 2u
2
y
+ 2u(
=0
..
u
xx
+ u
yy
) + 2v(
=0
..
v
xx
+ v
yy
)
_

= 2(u
2
x
+ u
2
y
+ v
2
x
+ v
2
y
)(u
2
+ v
2
)
= 4(u
2
x
+ u
2
y
)(u
2
+ v
2
),
because by the Cauchy-Riemann equation u
x
= v
y
and u
y
= v
x
. Also

2
x
+
2
y
= (2uu
x
+ 2vv
x
)
2
+ (2uu
y
+ 2vv
y
)
2
= 4
_
(uu
x
)
2
+ (vv
x
)
2
+ (uu
y
)
2
+ (vv
y
)
2
_
+
=0 by Cauchy-Riemann eq.
..
8uu
x
vv
x
+ 8uu
y
vv
y
= 4(u
2
x
+ u
2
y
)(u
2
+ v
2
).
Thus = 0, as desired.
Second Proof. In view of Lemma 2, we can suppose that f is nonvanishing on . By Lemma 3,
ln |f| is harmonic. Also, e
ln |f|
= |f| is harmonic, by assumption. By Lemma 3, ln |f| is constant,
but this implies that |f| is constant.
13. Apply (7) and you get the solution
u(r, ) = 1 r cos + r
2
sin 2 (0 r 1, all .
17. To nd the isotherms in Exercise 13, it is easier to use Cartesian coordinates. With x = r cos
and y = r sin , we have
u(r, ) = 1 r cos + r
2
sin 2
= 1 r cos + 2r sin r cos
= 1 x + 2xy.
If T is a real number, the isotherm corresponding to T is determined by the equation
1 x + 2xy = T y =
T 1 + x
2x
.
The isotherm is the portion of this hyperbola that lies in the unit disk. Note that the values of the
boundary temperature vary between 2 and 3. So if T < 2 or T > 3, the isotherm corresponding
to T is empty.
21. The solution of the Dirichlet problem on the unit disk with boundary data
f() =
_
100 if 0 ,
0 if < < 2
is given by the Poisson formula (12):
u(r, ) =
1 r
2
2
_
2
0
f()
1 2r cos( ) + r
2
d
=
1 r
2
2
_

0
100
1 2r cos( ) + r
2
d
= 100
1 r
2
2
_

dt
1 2r cos t + r
2
dt,
70 Chapter 3 Complex Integration
where in the last integral we have changed variables: t = , dt = d. By Exercise 20, we have
_
dt
1 2r cos t + r
2
dt =
2
1 r
2
tan
1
_
1 + r
1 r
tan(
t
2
)
_
+ C.
This formula gives an antiderivative up to a constant C. To evaluate a denite integral using it,
we need to choose C in such a way that the antiderivative becomes continuous. One way to get a
continuous antiderivative is to use the following formula:
F(t) =
_
2
1r
2
tan
1
_
1+r
1r
tan(
t
2
)
_
if < t < ,
F(t 2) + otherwise.
(A good way to see that this formula yields a continuous function, just plot it.) This formula says
that F(t 2) = F(t) + . So between two consecutive intervals of length 2, the values of F
increase by . Note that F is also odd: F() = F(). If 0 < < 2, then 0 < 2 < 2, and
< < . We have
u(r, ) =
100

F(t)

=
100

_
F( ) F()
_
=
100

_
F( ) + F()
_
.
To write down the formula explicitly, we distinguish two cases: If 0 < < , then 0 < < ,
and
u(r, ) =
100

_
tan
1
_
1 + r
1 r
tan(

2


2
)
_
+ tan
1
_
1 + r
1 r
tan(

2
)
_
_
=
100

_
tan
1
_
1 + r
1 r
cot(

2
)
_
+ tan
1
_
1 + r
1 r
tan(

2
)
_
_
,
where we have used the identities tan(

2
) = cot and tan
1
() = tan
1
. If < < 2,
then < < 0, and < 2 < 0, F() = F( 2) + . So
u(r, ) =
100

_
tan
1
_
1 + r
1 r
cot(

2
)
_
+ tan
1
_
1 + r
1 r
tan(

2
)
_
+
_
.
It is useful at this point to check that u veries the boundary conditions. If 0 < < , then
0 <

2
<

2
, hence tan

2
and cot

2
are both positive, and so
lim
r1
1 + r
1 r
tan(

2
) = + and lim
r1
1 + r
1 r
cot(

2
) = +.
Consequently, if 0 < < ,
lim
r1
u(r, ) =
100

_
tan
1
(+) + tan
1
(+)
_
=
100

2
+

2
_
= 100,
which is the correct boundary value for u. If < < 2, then by a similar reasoning, we nd that
lim
r1
u(r, ) = 0.
25. All the stated formulas are dierent ways to express a convolution of f with the Poisson kernel
(see Sec. 7.5 for details about convolutions). Let
P
r
() = P(r, ) =
R
2
r
2
R
2
2rRcos + r
2
.
Then according to (12), the Poisson integral formula is
1
2
_
2
0
f()P
r
( ) d.
Section 3.8 Applications to Harmonic Functions 71
This is precisely the denition of the convolution of the two 2-periodic functions f() and P
r
().
Other equivalent are derived by using properties of integrals of periodic functions. The stated
formulas are special cases of formulas given in Sec. 7.5. In particular, see (13) and Corollary 2 of
Sec. 7.5.
72 Chapter 3 Complex Integration
Solutions to Exercises 3.9
1. Consider calculus of a real variable and take the function f(x) = x
2
sin(1/x) if x = 0 and
f(0) = 0.
(a) For x = 0,
f

(x) = 2xsin
1
x
x
2
1
x
2
cos
1
x
= 2xsin
1
x
cos
1
x
.
(b) If x = 0, then
f

(0) = lim
h0
f(0 + h) f(0)
h
= lim
h0
hsin
1
h
= 0,
because h 0 and sin
1
h
is bounded between 1 and 1, so the limit is 0 by the squeeze theorem.
(c) Even though f

(x) exists for all x, it is not continuous at 0. First note that lim
x0
cos
1
x
does
not exist. To see this, take x = x
n
=
2
(2n+1)
, then
cos
1
x
n
= cos
(2n + 1)
2
= (1)
n
,
and clearly the limit as n does not exist. Now if lim
x0
f

(x) does exist, then because

f

(x) = 2xsin
1
x
cos
1
x
and lim
x0
2xsin
1
x
= 0 by the squeeze theorem, this would imply that
lim
x0
cos
1
x
exists, which is a contradiction. So lim
x0
f

(x) does not exist and hence f

is not
continuous at x = 0.