Genset

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Generator Fundamentals
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services. Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Electrical File Reference: EEX10504
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Electrical Generator Fundamentals
Content
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INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1 ELEMENTS OF A POWER GENERATOR......................................................................... 2 Basic Generator Principles......................................................................................... 2 Mechanical to Electrical Conversion .............................................................. 2 Sinusoidal Voltage Output ............................................................................. 2 Motor Versus Generator Comparison ............................................................ 7 Single-Phase Generators...........................................................................................10 Components..................................................................................................10 Operation......................................................................................................11 Three-Phase Generators ...........................................................................................12 Components..................................................................................................12 Operation......................................................................................................13 ELEMENTS OF A POWER GENERATION SYSTEM......................................................14 Purpose and Types of Prime Movers ........................................................................14 Purpose ........................................................................................................14 Types of Prime Movers.................................................................................14 Prime Mover Governors/Speed Control....................................................................21 Purpose of Governors/Speed Control............................................................21 Methods of Speed Control ............................................................................23 Purpose and Types of Generators/Alternators...........................................................26 Purpose ........................................................................................................26 Types of Generators/Alternators ...................................................................27 Purpose and Types of Voltage Regulators ................................................................30 Purpose ........................................................................................................30 Types of Voltage Regulators.........................................................................30 MAJOR AC GENERATOR COMPONENTS......................................................................33 Stator .......................................................................................................................33 Mechanical Components ...............................................................................33
Wye Configuration........................................................................................39 Delta Configuration ......................................................................................39 Types of Rotors........................................................................................................40 Salient Pole...................................................................................................41 Cylindrical Pole.............................................................................................42 Types of Cooling Systems ........................................................................................44 Air-Cooled....................................................................................................44 Air-To-Water Heat Exchanger ......................................................................45 Gas-To-Water Heat Exchanger .....................................................................45 Types of Bearings and Lubrication Systems ..............................................................45 Types of Bearings .........................................................................................45 Types of Lubrication Systems .......................................................................48 GENERATOR EXCITATION ............................................................................................49 Purposes of Generator Excitation .............................................................................49 Power to the Rotating Electromagnetic Field ................................................49 Locking Rotor To Stator ..............................................................................49 Means of Regulating Voltage........................................................................49 Types of Generator Excitation..................................................................................49 DC Exciters ..................................................................................................50 Static Excitation ...........................................................................................53 Brushless Excitation......................................................................................55 Concept of Response Time Versus Voltage Levels ...................................................56 GENERATOR GROUNDING ............................................................................................58 Purposes of Generator Grounding ............................................................................58 Personnel Safety ...........................................................................................58 Equipment Protection ...................................................................................59 Methods of Generator Grounding.............................................................................59 Solidly-Grounded..........................................................................................61 Resistance Grounded ....................................................................................63 Reactance-Grounded ....................................................................................67
Source System Ground Versus Plant Generator Ground................................68 SAES-P-114 Grounding Requirements .........................................................69 ELEMENTS OF GENERATOR PROTECTION.................................................................75 Temperature Protection............................................................................................75 Rotor............................................................................................................75 Stator ...........................................................................................................76 Bearing.........................................................................................................77 Lubrication ...................................................................................................77 Electrical Protection .................................................................................................78 Overcurrent ..................................................................................................81 Differential Current (Fault) ...........................................................................81 Ground Fault ................................................................................................82 Loss of Field.................................................................................................83 Phase Unbalance ...........................................................................................84 Frequency/Overspeed....................................................................................85 Voltage.........................................................................................................85 Sync Verification ..........................................................................................86 Reverse Power (Motoring)............................................................................86 Zone Protection Concepts ........................................................................................87 Overlap.........................................................................................................87 Backup .........................................................................................................87 AC GENERATOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS .............................................89 Nameplate Ratings ...................................................................................................89 kVA .............................................................................................................89 kW ...............................................................................................................90 Power Factor ................................................................................................90 Terminal Voltage ..........................................................................................92 Field Current.................................................................................................92 Speed ...........................................................................................................92 Temperature Rise..........................................................................................92
Insulation Class.............................................................................................93 Ratings Interrelationships .........................................................................................93 kVA, kW, Power Factor ...............................................................................93 kVA, kW, Voltage........................................................................................94 Saturation Curve Parameters ....................................................................................95 Excitation Current (IE) .................................................................................98 Terminal Voltage (Vt)...................................................................................99 Load ...........................................................................................................100 Power Factor ..............................................................................................100 Generator Performance vs. Saturation ....................................................................100 Load vs. Voltage Relationship.....................................................................100 Effects of Load and Excitation Current Changes .........................................101 Reactance Values ...................................................................................................108 Synchronous Reactance (Xd) ......................................................................110 Transient Reactance (Xd) ..........................................................................111 Subtransient Reactance (Xd) ....................................................................114 Decrement Curve Model ........................................................................................114 Synchronous Reactance (Xd) ......................................................................116 Transient Reactance (Xd) ..........................................................................117 Subtransient Reactance (Xd) .....................................................................118 Capability Curve Parameters...................................................................................119 Prime Mover...............................................................................................120 Load kW ....................................................................................................121 Load kVAR ................................................................................................121 Load kVA...................................................................................................121 Underexcitation-Leading Power Factor.......................................................121 Overexcitation-Lagging Power Factor.........................................................122 Generator Performance vs. Capability.....................................................................122 Power Factor Versus VAR Capability .........................................................123 Synchronous Reactance X(d) ......................................................................124 Generator Components ...............................................................................125
VAR Flow / Unbalanced Voltages ..............................................................126 VAR Compensation....................................................................................126 GLOSSARY......................................................................................................................127
Table of Figures
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Figure 1. Sinusoidal Voltage Output......................................................................... 3 Figure 2. Rotating Flux Fields................................................................................... 4 Figure 3. Single-Phase Generator.............................................................................. 5 Figure 4. Elementary Three-Phase Generator............................................................ 6 Figure 5. One Cycle of Three-Phase Sinusoidal Waveshape ...................................... 7 Figure 6. Torque Angle at No-Load ......................................................................... 9 Figure 7. Torque Angle at Rated Load.....................................................................10 Figure 8. Equivalent Circuit.....................................................................................11 Figure 9. Vector Diagram........................................................................................11 Figure 10. Cross-Section View of Stator Windings for Two-Pole and FourPole Generators ......................................................................................12 Figure 11. Three-Phase Generator and Sine Wave Relationship ...............................13 Figure 12. Generation and Delivery of Mechanical Energy vs. Generation and Delivery of Kinetic Energy ......................................................................16 Figure 13. Generation and Delivery of Mechanical Energy.......................................17 Figure 14. Simple (Open) Cycle Gas Turbine Engine ...............................................19 Figure 15. Energy Flow Simple (Open) Cycle ..........................................................20 Figure 16. Electric Controls for Single Unit Generators ...........................................24 Figure 17. Basic Electric Paralleling System.............................................................24 Figure 18. Electric Load Sharing System .................................................................25 Figure 19. Fully Automated Electric Load Sharing System.......................................26 Figure 20. Generator Winding .................................................................................27 Figure 21. Torque - Slip Curves of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor..........................28 Figure 22. Rotating Armature..................................................................................29 Figure 23. Stationary Armature ...............................................................................30 Figure 24. Electro-Mechanical Voltage Regulator....................................................31 Figure 25. Electronic Regulator...............................................................................32 Figure 26. Generator Mechanical Components.........................................................34 Figure 27. Stator Core Laminations - Large Generator ............................................35 Figure 28. Typical Generator Stator Coil .................................................................36
Figure 29. Stator Winding End-Turn Support ..........................................................37 Figure 30. Temperature Detector Locations.............................................................38 Figure 31. Wye Configuration .................................................................................39 Figure 32. Salient Pole Rotor...................................................................................40 Figure 33. Cylindrical Pole Rotor ............................................................................41 Figure 34. Cylindrical Pole Rotor ............................................................................42 Figure 35. Rotor End-Turn Conductors ...................................................................43 Figure 36. Cross-Section Views of a Typical Sleeve Bearing Assembly....................47 Figure 37. Induced EMF In A Rotating Coil ............................................................50 Figure 38. Rectification By Two Segment Commutator ...........................................51 Figure 39. Current Flow Through Commutator .......................................................52 Figure 40. Current Flow Through Commutator (Contd) .........................................52 Figure 41. Static Excitation .....................................................................................54 Figure 42. Brushless Excitation System ...................................................................55 Figure 43. Brushless Exciter With Permanent Magnet Pilot Exciter..........................56 Figure 44. Typical Response Time Versus Voltage for Sudden Application of Load .......................................................................................................57 Figure 45. Characteristics of Different Methods of Grounding .................................60 Figure 46. Recommendations for Applying Different Methods of Grounding ...........61 Figure 47. Solidly-Grounded Generator...................................................................62 Figure 48. Low Resistance Grounded Generator......................................................64 Figure 49. High Resistance Grounded Generator .....................................................66 Figure 50. Reactance-Grounded Generator..............................................................68 Figure 51. System Ground Versus Generator Ground ..............................................69 Figure 52. Grounding of Large Direct-Connected Synchronous Generators .............70 Figure 53. Grounding of Large Unit-Transformer Connected Generators.................71 Figure 54. Grounding of Medium Direct-Connected Generators ..............................72 Figure 55. Grounding of Low Voltage Generators- Separately Derived System .......73 Figure 56. Grounding of Low Voltage Generators-Not Separately Derived System ....................................................................................................74 Figure 57. Field Ground Detection Relay.................................................................76
Figure 58. Stator RTD Protection............................................................................77 Figure 59. Large Direct-Connected Generator Protection Scheme ...........................79 Figure 60. Protection Device Legend.......................................................................80 Figure 61. Voltage Restraint Relay ..........................................................................81 Figure 62. CA Generator Differential Relay .............................................................82 Figure 63. CWC Ground Fault Relay.......................................................................83 Figure 64. Generator Current Locus ........................................................................84 Figure 65. Generator k-Values.................................................................................85 Figure 66. Zones of Protection ................................................................................88 Figure 67. Typical Generator Nameplate Data .........................................................89 Figure 68. Generator kVA Formulas........................................................................90 Figure 69. Examples of Generator Power Factor .....................................................91 Figure 70. Generator Speed and Frequency Relationship..........................................92 Figure 71. Typical Generator Saturation Curve........................................................96 Figure 72. Example of Manufacturer Saturation Curves for a Specific Generator................................................................................................98 Figure 73. Generator Field Circuit ...........................................................................99 Figure 74. Formulas Showing Relationship between Generator Voltage and Load .....................................................................................................101 Figure 75. Equivalent Circuit for 60 kVA, 480 V Generator ..................................102 Figure 76. Saturation Curve for 60 kVA, 480 V Generator....................................103 Figure 77. Vector Diagram of Generator Voltage with 0.8 Lagging Power Factor ...................................................................................................104 Figure 78. Vector Diagram of Generator Voltage with 0.8 Leading Power Factor ...................................................................................................106 Figure 79. Vector Diagram of Generator Voltage with 1.0 Power Factor...............107 Figure 80. Magnetic Axis in a Single Phase Generator ..........................................109 Figure 81. Vector Diagram Illustrating Affect of Synchronous Reactance on Generator Voltage ................................................................................110 Figure 82. Fault Current Waveform .......................................................................111 Figure 83. Transient Time-Current Relationship.....................................................113 Figure 85. Decrement Curve...................................................................................115
Figure 86. Typical Oscillogram of a Sudden Three-Phase Short Circuit..................116 Figure 87. Envelope of a Synchronous Generators Short-Circuit Current..............117 Figure 88. Subtransient and Transient Currents Plotted to Semi-logarithmic Coordinates...........................................................................................118 Figure 89. Generator Capability Curve...................................................................120 Figure 90. Generator Capability Curves with Identified Cooling Limit Sources ......123
INTRODUCTION The generation of electric power requires several transformations of energy that involves many components and procedures. The process of generating electric power begins with the conversion of fuel energy into a form of heat or combustion energy. The heat energy is then converted into mechanical energy with the use of a prime mover. The mechanical energy is used to turn the shaft of a generator, which, in turn, converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy. This Module describes the fundamental components and procedures that are used for the generation of electric power. Included in this Module are descriptions of: the elements of a power generator, the elements of a power generation system, the major components of an AC generator, generator excitation, generator grounding methods, generator protection methods, and performance characteristics of an AC generator.
ELEMENTS OF A POWER GENERATOR Basic Generator Principles Mechanical to Electrical Conversion The conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy occurs in the generator via the rotation of a magnetic field that intersects windings, inducing a voltage. The transformation is similar to the transformation that occurs in a transformer, except that the growth and collapse of the magnetic field in a transformer is accomplished through the application of an alternating current to the primary winding, which induces a voltage in the secondary winding. In a generator, the growth and collapse of the magnetic field is accomplished by the physical movement (revolution) of the fixed field (the primary) past the conductors (secondary winding). A stronger field results in a higher voltage; however, the energy transformed is limited to the input mechanical energy minus the losses that occur in the transformation process. Sinusoidal Voltage Output The sinusoidal field voltage shown in Figure 1 is induced in the conductors of a stationary armature by the flux of the two poles of the rotating field structure. The voltage induced in the coil loop will have a sine-wave pattern if the field poles move (turn) at a constant speed. The reason that the voltage is sinusoid is illustrated in Figure 2 by the vectors that represent the field flux that intersects the windings and that grows and collapses with rotation. The frequency of the generated power is directly related to the speed of the generator, which, in turn, is directly related to the prime mover. The formula to calculate frequency is: f = (n x p)/120 where: f n p 120 = = = = frequency in cycles-per-second (expressed in hertz) the speed of the generator in revolutions-per-minute number of poles in the generator a constant
For example, in order to obtain a sinusoidal voltage output with a frequency of 60 hertz from a two pole machine, the machine must run at 3600 rpm, and, in order to obtain a frequency of 50 hertz, the machine must run at 3000 rpm.
Figure 1. Sinusoidal Voltage Output
Figure 2. Rotating Flux Fields
Single-Phase Output is obtained by having one set of armature windings in the stator as illustrated in
Figure 3. This figure shows a two pole, single-phase generator. Note that the two poles consist of one North pole and one South pole. Also, note that the (a) and (-a) conductors are part of a continuous armature winding conductor that fills the slots in the stator. The stator slots for this example are separated both mechanically and electrically by 180. When the flux from the North pole intersects the (a) side of the conductor, the flux returning to the South pole intersects the (-a) side of the conductor, resulting, then, in the generation of a peak voltage between (a) and (-a). When the North and South poles are perpendicular to the plane of the (a) and (-a) conductors, no lines of force are intersecting the conductors, and the voltage difference between (a) and (-a) is zero. One complete cycle is one complete revolution (360o) of the rotor.
Figure 3. Single-Phase Generator
Three-Phase Output - Although the single-phase machine shown in Figure 3 will work quite well,
the efficiency of the mechanical to electrical energy transformation is improved by use of polyphases and, most commonly, by three phases, shown in Figure 4 as a, b, and c. Figure 4-A shows a two-pole, three-phase generator. The rotating field in this figure has only one North and one South pole; however, there are three sets of conductors, a and -a, b and -b, and c and -c. Each set of conductors is located 120 mechanical degrees apart. Arranged in this order, each group of conductors generates a single-phase voltage. Because the groups are spaced 120 apart, the single-phase voltage of each group is electrically spaced 120 from the other two. The combined output of the three single-phase voltages results in a three-phase output. Figure 4-B illustrates the conductor arrangement for a four-pole, three-phase generator. The construction of this generator requires two North poles and two South poles on the rotor and another complete three-group set of conductors added to the stator. Figure 4-C shows the electrical connection for the three-phase, four-pole generator shown in Figure 4-B.
Figure 4. Elementary Three-Phase Generator
Figure 5 shows the voltage output waveshapes for the three-phase generator shown in Figure 4.
Figure 5. One Cycle of Three-Phase Sinusoidal Waveshape Motor Versus Generator Comparison In comparing a generator to a motor, several differences and similarities can be identified. To begin with, a generator is a machine that converts the mechanical power of a prime mover, in the form of horsepower, into electrical energy, in the form of kilowatts (kW). In comparison, a motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and that delivers this energy in the form of horsepower to the shaft of a mechanical load. A typical synchronous generator consists of a rotating magnet, called the field, that is mounted and turns inside of a stationary winding, called the armature. The generator shaft is turned by a mechanical prime mover. As the generator shaft turns, the magnetic field is rotated, causing its flux to intersect the armature winding thereby inducing an electromotive force (emf). The rotation of the field causes the induced emf to increase and decrease at a sinusoidal rate that produces a sine wave voltage at the terminals of the armature winding. Connecting the terminals of the armature winding to an electrical load causes an alternating current to flow.
In comparison, a typical synchronous motor consists of the same components as the generator; that is a rotating magnetic field mounted inside of a stationary armature winding. However, the motor additionally has an induction winding mounted on the surface of the rotor that is used for starting. During motor start-up, no current is applied to the field winding, instead, an alternating current is supplied to the terminals of the armature winding, which, in turn, causes a magnetic field to be established in the winding. Because this field is supplied by an alternating current, it travels around the armature winding at the same frequency as the supply current. The rotating armature field induces a current in the winding on the surface of the rotor developing a torque that causes the rotor to turn and the motor to start as an induction motor. When the speed of the motor is close to synchronous speed, current is applied to the rotating field and the motor is brought up to synchronous speed. The rotating field windings used for the generator and motor are similar in that both are low voltage windings; however, a major difference between the two types is the size of conductors required for their windings. The level of current used in the generator field is relatively high compared to the level of current used in the motor field. For this reason, the conductors in the field winding of the generator are much larger than those conductors that are used for the motor field winding. Another difference between a generator and a motor is the voltage rating of the armature winding. Typically, generators are rated at higher voltages than are motors. For this reason, the armature winding of a generator, in accordance with its voltage rating, uses insulation with a higher dielectric strength than the insulation used for the typically lower rated voltage motor armature winding. For many applications, synchronous machines are preferred in place of induction machines. When generator applicationsare considered, the reason why synchronous generators are normally applied in preference to induction generators is because induction generators operate only at a fixed power factor value. As a result of this characteristic, the induction generator must always be operated in parallel with either synchronous machines or capacitors so that together they act as power factor correction devices. A synchronous generator, on the other hand, is able to correct the power factor and, with an adjustment of the field current, to deliver a constant frequency power.
For the case of motors, the synchronous motor is preferred over the induction motor for applications where constant speed is important. The reason for this preference is because an induction motor will decrease in speed as mechanical load is applied. The decrease of speed results in a decrease of counter electromotive force, which, in turn, causes more current to be supplied by the source. However, a synchronous motor always runs at synchronous speed, even when the load is increased. The reason the synchronous motor is able to operate at a constant synchronous speed is because it operates differently from other types of motors. Figures 6 and 7 illustrates how a synchronous motor responds to a change in load with a change in the position of the stator poles in relation to the position of the rotor poles. Figure 6 shows a synchronous motor operating at no-load. For this case, there is little torque on the motor, and the torque angle between the stator and rotor poles is almost zero. As the load is increased to full-rated load (refer to Figure 7), the torque angle increases, and the phase angle between the impressed voltage and the counter emf also increases. This action causes more current to flow into the stator winding to meet the demands of the load.
Figure 6. Torque Angle at No-Load
Figure 7. Torque Angle at Rated Load Single-Phase Generators Components A single-phase generator consists of a rotating magnet, called the field, inside a stationary winding, called an armature, that is wound in a laminated iron core. The laminated iron core has a number of functions. It firmly supports the armature winding to prevent it from shifting or vibrating in the magnetic field. It directs the lines of flux from the field, so that they will cross the armature at a perpendicular angle for maximum efficiency, and it serves to dissipate the heat generated as a byproduct of the alternating current flow. The armature winding and the iron core are called the stator. The rotating magnet is generally an electro-magnet that is wound on a cylindrically shaped shaft, called the rotor. The rotor rests in the bearings and is elongated on one end, to which a coupling is attached to connect the generator to a prime mover. The stator core is contained in a steel enclosure called the generator frame, and the bearings are mounted on heavy steel end plates, called bearing brackets. The armature winding exits the generator frame through insulated terminals, called bushings. These terminals are located in a compartment attached to the generator frame, called the lead box.
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Operation As the magnetic field rotates across the armature winding, an electromotive force (emf) is induced in the armature winding. The rotation of the field causes this induced emf to increase and decrease at a sinusoidal rate, thereby, producing a waveform, called a sine wave, at the terminals of the armature winding. If the terminals of the armature winding are connected to form a complete circuit through a load, like a light bulb or the primary winding of a transformer, alternating current will flow between these terminals. Figure 8 is an equivalent circuit of a singlephase generator. The combination of the inductive reactance (XL) and resistance (R) is called the synchronous impedance.
Figure 8. Equivalent Circuit Figure 9 is a vector diagram showing the relationship between voltage and current for a singlephase generator that is delivering current to a load with a unity power factor. With reference to this figure, it is seen that a generator can operate at a different power factor from its load.
Figure 9. Vector Diagram
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Three-Phase Generators Components The components of a three-phase generator are basically the same as the components of a singlephase generator; however, a three-phase generator has three sets of armature windings in its stator winding. Figure 10, by showing a cross-sectional view of two three-phase stators with windings, one for a two-pole generator and the other for a four-pole generator, illustrate how the three sets of windings are arranged in generator stators. Each set of armature windings, referred to as a phase, is located 120 electrical degrees from each of the other two sets. Each phase has its own set of leads connected to terminals in the lead box. The windings of all commercial generators are connected in a "wye" configuration, meaning that one end of each phase is connected directly to the other two. This type of connection is called the neutral connection (T4, T5 and T6 as shown in Figure 11). The other three ends of each phase are called the line leads (T1, T2 and T3 as shown if Figure 11). In an actual stator core, the windings of each phase are distributed evenly around the core. In a two-pole machine, each phase winding is separated into two parallel groups, and, in a four-pole machine, each phase is separated into four parallel phase groups. These phase groups are connected to the main and neutral leads by parallel rings, located around the circumference of the stator winding, at the collector end of the generator.
Figure 10. Cross-Section View of Stator Windings for Two-Pole and Four-Pole Generators
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Operation Three-phase generators, such as the one illustrated in Figure 11, are much more efficient than comparably sized single-phase generators. As the magnetic field rotates across the armature winding, an electromotive force (emf) is induced in the armature winding. The rotation of the field causes this induced emf to increase and to decrease at a sinusoidal rate and thereby produce a waveform, called a sine wave, at the terminals of the armature windings. As the rotor spins in a three-phase generator, three sets of AC voltages are generated in the stator windings as illustrated by the sine waves shown in Figure 11. These voltages are equal in amplitude, but they are shifted in phase from each other by 120 electrical degrees. When the terminals of the armature winding are connected to form a complete circuit through a load, such as the primary winding of a threephase transformer, an alternating current will flow.
Figure 11. Three-Phase Generator and Sine Wave Relationship
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ELEMENTS OF A POWER GENERATION SYSTEM This section will describe the following four elements of a power generation system: _ _ _ _ Prime Mover Prime Mover Governors (Speed Control) Generator/Alternator Voltage Regulator
Purpose and Types of Prime Movers Purpose As mentioned above, conversion of fuels to usable work via electrical power requires multiple transformations. Power generation requires a prime mover that converts fuel energy into heat or combustion, which, in turn, is transformed into mechanical energy (torque). The prime mover is coupled to a generator, and the generator converts the mechanical energy into magnetic energy, and then, the magnetic energy into electrical power. The prime mover is the energy source for power generation. Speed/torque curves are used to communicate information when an engine or prime mover is operated over a broad speed range. Prime movers for power generation operate within a narrow speed range. If the generator is not to be paralleled, the speed is regulated to a single speed and is called isochronous operation. The operating speed of a prime mover is selected for optimization in the application. Steam turbines can be operated between 1800 to over 10,000 rpm, and diesels and spark-fired gas engines are usually operated below 4000 rpm. Most diesel engines are directly coupled to their generators, and these diesel engines operate at 1800 rpm. Because the maximum speed for a generator that will produce 60 hertz (a two-pole machine) is 3600 rpm, a prime mover that is operated above 3600 rpm must have reduction gearing between it and the power generator. Types of Prime Movers The following three types of prime movers and their advantages are described below: _ _ _ Steam Turbines Gas Turbines Diesel Engines
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Steam Turbines - A steam turbine is essentially a series of calibrated nozzles in which the stored
thermal energy (or heat energy) of steam is converted into mechanical energy (or work). Because steam is the energy source used to produce mechanical energy, a steam turbine is flexible with regard to the types of fuels used. Steam turbines also offer the advantages of low initial cost per kilowatt capacity, low maintenance cost, economy of foundation and building cubical content, high efficiency when operated far into the low-pressure range, and uniform angular velocity with freedom from vibration. In addition, steam turbine units can be built in sizes from fractional horsepower to over 1000 MW and for speeds to over 20,000 rpm. Designs can be tailored to fit the cycle and economics of each installation. The conversion of the stored thermal (or heat) energy of steam into mechanical energy (or work) of a rotating shaft is accomplished by expansion of the steam through alternating rows of both stationary nozzle vanes and rotating blades. The geometry of the nozzle vanes and of the blades determines the pressure distribution throughout the turbine, and it also directs and turns the steam jets so that the forces on the blades develop a torque on the shaft. The principle parts of a steam turbine are: _ _ _ _ _ Stationary nozzle vanes to change the thermal energy to kinetic energy and direct the course of steam onto rotating blades. Rotating blades, which change the kinetic energy of the steam into shaft horsepower. Rotating shaft, to which the blades are affixed. A casing, which encloses the steam path and supports the fixed parts. Governor, bearings, lubrication, and other auxiliary devices and systems.
To better understand how nozzle vanes change thermal energy into kinetic energy, first consider the operation of the simple reciprocating engine shown in Figure 12a, wherein the incoming steam applies pressure equally on stationary cylinder walls as well as on the movable piston. As the piston moves due to the pressure of the steam on its surface, the steam does work, and it uses some of its internal energy in the process. However, note that in the case of the nozzle chambers, shown in Figures 12b and 12c, although the steam enters the nozzle chamber, applying pressure equally on all walls, it escapes through the nozzle opening to form a high-speed jet that has considerable kinetic energy.
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Figure 12.
Generation and Delivery of Mechanical Energy vs. Generation and Delivery of Kinetic Energy
Also, note that, in Figures 12b and 12c, the reaction pressure, Pr , on the wall area opposite the nozzle is not balanced by the escaping steam. If the nozzle chamber is fixed in place (Figure 12b), steam exits through the nozzle at its highest possible absolute velocity and exerts pressure P1 on anything in its path. However, if the chamber is free to move (Figure 12c), Pr does work on it by speeding it in a direction opposite to the jet's motion. In this case, P2 is lower than P1. Turbine nozzles direct the steam so that it flows in uniform high-speed jets that impinge upon the surfaces of the moving blades (see Figure 13). The moving blades absorb the kinetic energy of the jet, converting it to mechanical energy in a rotating shaft. If the blade is fixed in place (Figure 13a), the steam jet enters and leaves the boundaries of the blade surface with equal speed and develops maximum force F, but no mechanical work is done. As the blade is allowed to speed up (Figure 13b) and move with 1/4 the speed of the steam jet, the force on the blade diminishes, but work is being done. When the blade speed equals 1/2 that of the steam jet (Figure 13c), the force drops to half that of the locked condition. Steam now leaves the blade with zero speed and does maximum work. Figure 13d shows how both force and work vary with blade speed.
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Figure 13. Generation and Delivery of Mechanical Energy
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Gas Turbines - The gas turbine engine, like the steam turbine engine, is a rotating engine that
produces mechanical work from heat energy and uses gas as the working medium. However, the gas turbine engine is distinguished from the steam turbine by three major differences: _ The gas turbine is an internal combustion engine, unlike the steam turbine in which fuel is burned in an external boiler. The gas turbine engine manufactures its own working medium (a supply of pressured, high temperature gas) by compressing air and by burning fuel in it. The gas turbine uses a different working fluid. Like the steam turbine, the gas turbine title refers to its working fluid, which is some type of gaseous substance, usually atmospheric air and products of combustion. (A common misconception with gas turbines is that its name refers to the fuel that the engine uses, [for example, natural gas]. Because of this misconception, the name "combustion turbine" is sometimes preferred.) The gas turbine operates at high temperatures and low pressures, while the steam turbine generally operates at high pressures and moderate temperatures.
The gas turbine engine consists of an air compressor, a combustion chamber, and a gas turbine (generally referred to simply as the turbine). The air compressor is driven by the turbine, and its high pressure discharge flows into the combustion chamber. Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber and is burned at a pressure equivalent to that of the compressor discharge. The resulting products of combustion (high temperature gases) form the working medium of the turbine. The expansion of these gases through the turbine enable it to produce more work than the total of both what is required to drive the compressor, and what is spent as a result of the overall inefficiencies of the engine. This surplus work then becomes available as a net plant output. Although there exists a number of gas turbine cycle variations, the most common of these is the "simple" (or "open") cycle. Figure 14 is a general schematic drawing of the simple (open) cycle gas turbine engine, and it shows the relative positions of the major components, along with direction of flow for (1) atmospheric air into and through the compressor, (2) high pressure air and fuel into the combustion chamber , (3) high pressure-high temperature gas from the combustion chamber into and through the turbine, and (4) turbine exhaust gas returning to the atmosphere.
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Figure 14. Simple (Open) Cycle Gas Turbine Engine The energy flow in a simple cycle gas turbine engine is shown in Figure 15. It starts at the compressor inlet, where incoming air is arbitrarily assigned an internal energy level of zero. During compression, the work expended in turning the compressor is transferred to the air, raising its energy level. In the combustor, the thermal energy of the burning fuel is released, increasing the internal energy of the air to the maximum of the cycle. This highly energized air is introduced to the turbine, where a portion of its energy is converted into mechanical work for turning the compressor and the output shaft. The rest of the energy, approximately half, is dissipated to the atmosphere through the exhaust. Of the useful work done by the expanding air, about two-thirds is recirculated to drive the compressor to sustain the cycle, with the remainder available to do external work.
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Figure 15. Energy Flow Simple (Open) Cycle The advantages of gas turbine engines lie in their versatility of application, a variety of fuel sources (including natural gas and distillate oils), and the wide range of power outputs from under 50 horsepower, in smaller industrial applications, to over 150 MW, in larger industrial applications.
Diesel Engines have been the work horse of portable and emergency power supplies for years, and in the past decade, the generating power of the diesel generator set has been extended to 7.5 MW. Because the diesel is a reciprocating engine, it is standard practice for diesel power generator sets to have a heavy flywheel attached to the shaft to dampen pulsation.
Like its reciprocating counterpart, the spark ignition gas engine, the diesel engine, in its larger power generating applications, is a four-cycle, internal combustion engine with a downward intake stroke, an upward compression stroke, a downward power stroke and an upward exhaust stroke. However, the diesel engine differs from its gasoline counterpart in several areas, one of which is the type of fuel used. The diesel fuel ordinarily employed is a low cost product from a good-grade crude petroleum. The fuel oil is the residue that is left when distillation has removed the more expensive and highly refined gasoline, kerosene, and other light distillates from the crude.
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The principal and important difference between the diesel and the spark ignition gas engine is in the method of ignition. Compression of the air trapped in the cylinder of a diesel engine is employed as its means of ignition. (There are no spark plugs in a diesel.) The compression is carried to much higher pressures in the diesel engine than in the spark ignition gas engine; diesel's have compression ratios of more than 20:1, while a typical gasoline engine has a compression ration of 9:1. As a result of this difference, the temperature at the end of compression is higher in the diesel cycle. In fact, compression is high enough so that the temperature of the compressed gas exceeds the ignition temperature of the fuel. This is compression ignition. The advantages of the diesel engine are: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Low fuel cost. No long warming up period. No standby losses. Reliability and durability. Uniformly high efficiency of all sizes. Simple plant layout. No large water supply needed.
Because of its operating advantage of not requiring a long warming up period, the diesel engine is an excellent prime mover choice for emergency, or back-up power generation. The need for emergency power is very important for generating stations that are a sole source of power with no available incoming power. In the event that a complete plant shutdown occurs for this type of station, the diesel type standby generation unit can provide the subsequent required "black start". Prime Mover Governors/Speed Control Purpose of Governors/Speed Control The purpose of a power generating system is to provide, as a product, usable quality power. The quality of power is measured by its consistency in voltage, in electrical frequency, and in wave form. The purpose of governors and speed control equipment is to maintain consistent voltage, frequency, and waveform of generated electric power.
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The voltage of an electric power generator is basically determined by the field strength of its rotating magnetic field, whereas the electrical frequency (hereafter referred to, simply, as frequency) of the generated power is determined by the rotational speed (hereafter referred to, simply, as speed) of the generator rotor, which in turn is determined by the speed of the prime mover. The speed at which a prime mover is designed to operate is based on the type of prime mover selected and the frequency of the electrical power to be generated. Because power is usually generated at a specified frequency (e.g., 50Hz or 60 Hz), the speed of the prime mover is regulated to the speed required for the specified frequency, this speed is called synchronous speed. Turbine type prime movers can be operated above 10,000 rpm, while diesel or gas engines usually operate below 4000 rpm. The speed of a prime mover is therefore determined by the optimum fuel-to-torque characteristic of the selected prime mover. A reduction gear is required for speeds above 3000 rpm for 50 Hz electrical power generation and for speeds above 3600 rpm for 60 Hz electrical power generation. The relationship between speed and frequency is expressed by: f = (n x p) / 120 or where: f = frequency (Hz) 120 = constant n = (f x 120) / p n = speed (rpm) p = number of generator poles
For example, to obtain 60 cycles from a two-pole generator, the generator rotor must operate at 3600 rpm (i.e., n = 3600 = (60 x 120) / 2). The means by which regulation of a prime mover's speed is achieved is a governor. Basically, the governor functions by sensing a change in the prime mover's speed from some equilibrium speed, and causing, in turn, a change in the quantity of fuel being delivered to the prime mover. Thus, the resulting differential in fuel supply restores the prime mover speed to its equilibrium point. In effect, the governor is a feedback control system in which the difference between a reference input (e.g., the equilibrium speed) and some function of the controlled variable (e.g., the prime mover's speed) is used to supply an actuating signal to the control elements (e.g., a command to a fuel valve to alter the fuel flow to the prime mover). The actuating signal endeavors to reduce to zero the difference between the reference input and the controlled variable. A key aspect to the feedback phase of a governor's performance is an accurate measurement of the prime mover's speed. On prime movers with mechanical type or mechanical-hydraulic type governors, the governor system senses speed changes by sensing changes in the position of a spring-loaded centrifugal device within the governor assembly. In electric governing systems, a common speed measuring device is a magnetic speed pickup whose tip is placed in close proximity to that section of the prime mover's rotor surface on which evenly spaced gear-type teeth have been machined around the periphery of the surface. As the teeth rotate past the pickup, a periodic disturbance is imposed on the magnetic field that surrounds the tip of the pickup. The pickup is wired to a measuring circuit, which counts the number of perturbations to the magnetic field in a given unit of time.
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Methods of Speed Control The method (and the degree of sophistication) of speed control used on a power generation unit is determined by the application of the power produced. The method of speed regulation used on a unit that is paralleled with other power generation units is different from the method of speed regulation used on a unit that acts as a single power source and that is not to be paralleled with other units. Listed below are four applications of produced power, each requiring speed control. While all four applications involve control of the amount of fuel that is delivered to the prime mover, the first three are semiautomatic in that some operator actions are required in establishing the unit's reference, while the fourth is fully automatic control. The power generating unit is a sole load source. The power generating unit is to be paralleled with another source. The power generating unit is to be paralleled with another source, and load sharing is to be regulated. The power generating unit is to be paralleled with another source with fully automated regulation of load sharing .
On power generating units operating as a sole load source, speed controllers referred to as isochronous governors are used. While, on generating units that are paralleled with other units, speed controllers referred to as droop governors are used. An isochronous governor is one that keeps the speed of the prime mover constant at all loads. A droop governor is one whose equilibrium speed decreases as the load on the prime mover controlled by the governor increases. Conversely, with the droop governor, the equilibrium speed increases as the load on the prime mover controlled by the governor decreases. As mentioned, when the power generating unit is the sole source for a load, an isochronous governor is used to obtain speed regulation. Figure 16 shows the control components of a Woodward Electric Speed Control System as applied to a diesel driven power generating unit. This arrangement of components provides for control of a single unit generator. Note that in this case a simple speed feedback system is used that employs the type of magnetic speed pickup that was described earlier.
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Figure 16. Electric Controls for Single Unit Generators When the power generating unit being controlled is to be paralleled with other generators, the electrical frequency and voltage of the unit's generator and that of the source to be paralleled must be reasonably matched. In this case, feedbacks consist of the rotational speed of the prime mover and the voltage of the generator. As stated previously, the control term used to describe the action required (i.e., variation in speed and voltage) on the unit to be paralleled to effect the required match is "droop." As mentioned, this parallel application requires a semiautomatic form of droop governor. Figure 17 illustrates the control components required for a Woodward Control System to perform a simple paralleling operation.
Figure 17. Basic Electric Paralleling System

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 24
When the generator being controlled is to be paralleled and the portion of the load it supplies is to be regulated (load sharing), current feedback must be applied in addition to the rotational speed feedback from the prime mover and the generator voltage feedback. Figure 18 illustrates the control components of a Woodward Control System for this load sharing application. As in the previous application (refer to Figure 17), the application illustrated by Figure 18 employs a semiautomatic form of droop governor.
Figure 18. Electric Load Sharing System As mentioned, the two parallel application systems previously described (Figures 17 and 18) employ droop-type governors, and they are semiautomatic in that some operator actions are required in establishing the unit's reference. The Woodward control system illustrated in Figure 19 is like the two previous units described in that it employs a droop-type governor. However, this system differs from the previous two examples in that it provides the power generating unit with the capability for fully automatic paralleling and load sharing operation.
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Figure 19. Fully Automated Electric Load Sharing System Purpose and Types of Generators/Alternators Purpose The general purpose of a generator is to transform mechanical energy into electrical energy by rotating a magnetic field inside of the generator armature winding. As shown in Figure 20, the magnetic flux of the rotating field passes from the North pole of the rotor, through the air gap and laminated steel shell of the stator, and back into the rotors South pole. As this flux intersects the armature conductors (a and -a), voltage is generated in the armature winding, thus completing the transformation of mechanical energy to electrical energy. For the two-pole generator shown in Figure 20, one cycle of voltage is generated for each 360 mechanical revolution of the rotor.
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Figure 20. Generator Winding The amount of energy that is transformed is determined by the load requirement up to the point of the limitations of the generating system. The voltage is determined by the strength of the magnetic field, and the frequency is determined by the number of times that the armature windings are intersected during rotation by the magnetic field from the rotor in any one second of time. Types of Generators/Alternators Induction Generators are induction motors that are operated (run) by means of mechanical power being applied to the shaft. An induction motor works by applying a rotating magnetic field to a stator winding that is magnetically coupled via an air gap to windings on the rotor. The windings on the rotor are closed (short circuited), and current flows in the rotor windings, creating a magnetic field in the rotor that tries to align with the stator field. Because the stator field is revolving, the rotor revolves. For induction motors to provide torque, the rotor must revolve slower than the synchronous speed of the machine, which is, by definition, the speed of the revolving field on the stator. The difference between the synchronous speed and the actual rotor speed is called slip. As Figure 21 illustrates, rotor torque increases with slip.
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Figure 21. Torque - Slip Curves of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor When an induction motor is operated as a motor, it is run at full-load speed (minimum slip); however, when an induction motor operates as a generator, it runs at synchronous speed (zero slip). Overspeeding of an induction motor (via mechanical input to the shaft) in which the stator is excited through application of a fixed frequency rotating field will cause the motor to have zero slip. Such slip causes the machine to become a generator. However, this type of generation, because regulation of it is extremely poor, is seldom used except in special applications such as dynamic braking (for example, elevator systems).
Synchronous Generators are the standard type of generators used to produce electric power. This type of generator is made to be driven at a definite, constant speed, normally referred to as the synchronous speed of the generator. The frequency of the generated voltage is determined by this speed. Varying the excitation voltage of a synchronous generator will raise or lower the system voltage if the machine is operated as the only voltage source on a power system, or it will vary the reactive power (VARs), either leading or lagging, on a power system where the generator is operating in parallel with other synchronous generators.
In a synchronous generator, the generation of alternating current occurs as a result of a magnetic field intersecting a winding. The winding that produces the alternating current is called the armature winding. In theory, this winding may be placed on either the rotor or the stator. When the armature winding is placed on the rotor, as illustrated in the simplified circuit of Figure 22, collector rings and carbon brushes are required to conduct the generator power to the load. The need for rings and brushes introduces practical limits to the amount of power that can be conducted using this method. Because of these limitations, most synchronous generators are built with stationary armature windings as illustrated in the simplified circuit of Figure 23.
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When comparing the differences between a synchronous generator and an induction generator, it is seen that the major difference between the two types is that the induction generator cannot be used alone to supply a power system. The induction generator must always be operated in parallel with synchronous machines or with capacitors to provide a means of correcting power factor. The output power factor of an induction generator is a fixed value determined by the generator characteristics, and it is always a leading value that is independent of the external circuit. The reason for this characteristic is because an induction generator draws all of its excitation from the power system, and, therefore, it must receive a definite amount of lagging VARs for a given voltage and a given load current. With regard to the application of a generator as a standby power system, the inability of an induction generator to be self-excited, to supply voltage at a constant frequency, or to supply power at unity power factor makes the synchronous generator the preferred machine.
Figure 22. Rotating Armature
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Figure 23. Stationary Armature Purpose and Types of Voltage Regulators Purpose An alternator will experience large changes in its terminal voltage. Also, changes in load current and in the load power factor will occur because of the combined effects of the armature reactance and the armature reaction. However, a relatively constant terminal voltage can be maintained under changing load conditions by the use of an automatic voltage regulator. Types of Voltage Regulators The following types of voltage regulators are described below: Electro-mechanical regulator Electronic regulator
Electro-Mechanical Regulators provide a DC supply for the generator field that comes from outside
of the generator. Figure 24 shows an example of a DC supply provided by a common bus. In this example, three separate DC exciters supply voltage to the common bus, and four AC generators use the bus to supply DC voltage to their field windings. The amount of current that flows to each of the field windings is regulated by individual field rheostats Adjusting the rheostats to increase current flow will strengthen the individual fields and increase their generator voltages, but it will not necessarily increase power output from the generators.
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Figure 24. Electro-Mechanical Voltage Regulator

Electronic Regulators provide a variable DC supply to the generator field from an AC source. The
AC source is converted to variable DC by use of ignitron tubes in older equipment, and by use of SCRs in newer versions (Figure 25).
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Figure 25. Electronic Regulator
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MAJOR AC GENERATOR COMPONENTS An AC generator has the following major components: Stator Stator This section will discuss the following pertinent to the stator component of an AC generator: Mechanical components Wye configuration Delta configuration Rotor Cooling System Bearings and Lubrication System
Mechanical Components An AC generator has the following major mechanical components: The frame The core The winding (coils) The lead box (terminal box)
Figure 26 shows a cross-sectional view of a typical generator that illustrates the location of these components. The sections that follow discuss each of the components.
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Figure 26. Generator Mechanical Components

Frame (Housing) - The stator frame for a generator of medium size is typically fabricated from steel
plates and bars electrically welded into a rigid box section. A short length of duct work is normally provided on the bottom of the frame through which ventilating air is discharged. Holes drilled and tapped around the edges of the duct provide means for attaching customers duct work. Port holes with removable glass serve both as lifting holes for handling during erection and windows for the inspection of the end windings during operation. The generator feet rest directly on the sole plate. Larger size generators are fabricated with a rolled steel shell supported by frame feet and reinforcing webs along its length. The frame is aligned using shims under the feet and then secured to the foundation with tie-down bolts.
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Core - The stator core for a generator is built with low-loss segmental silicon steel laminations that
are assembled on bars (or building bolts) that span the length of the core. Figure 27 illustrates the assembly of the laminated segments on their building bolts and insulated through bolts for a large generator. Both sides of the laminations are treated with an insulating material to prevent short-circuiting the laminations. Vent spacers are built in with the laminations at intervals of approximately two inches to provide radial passages through the core for the ventilating air. Adequate pressure is applied at intervals during the stacking operation to produce a tight core. Heavy end plates and non-magnetic finger plates are used at the ends of the core to maintain adequate pressure at all times. The larger generators (4000 kW and above) have insulated through-bolts, which extend axially through the punchings in back of the slots. These provide additional clamping force on the end plates. On small generators, after being assembled, the entire core is coated with varnish and baked to protect it from rust and to further insulate between punchings.
Figure 27. Stator Core Laminations - Large Generator
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Winding (Coils) - Interchangeable closed-type coils are used on AC generators. When electrical
conditions require it, groups of strands of the coils are transposed at the ends to equalize the induced voltage and heating. Figure 28 shows a typical form wound coil, which is the type most often used for stator windings. This type of coil is insulated and oven cured prior to its placement in the stator core. The stator windings of generators that have ratings of 5000 kVA or less and 6900 volts or less are typically provided with Class B insulation. Generators with ratings over 5000 kVA or voltages above 6900 volts normally have Class F insulation on their stator windings. When the generator voltage is 6600 volts or more, the slot sections of the coil are treated with semi-conducting compounds to eliminate corona and its harmful affects in that portion of the coil. Note: Saudi Aramco 17-SAMSS-510 requires all generators rated 125 kVA through 1250 kVA to be provided with Class F insulation.
Figure 28. Typical Generator Stator Coil The end turns of stator windings are normally braced against movement by placing spacer-strain blocks between the coil ends and fastened the coil-block assembly to an insulated frame brace with glass cord. For generators with higher ratings, the coil ends are further supported by insulated steel support rings fixed on steel frame brackets. Figure 29 shows a side-elevation view of a typical stator winding end-turn support assembly.
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Figure 29. Stator Winding End-Turn Support
Temperature detectors, calibrated for 10 ohms resistance at 25oC, are typically embedded between coils in various slots in the stator winding of the machine to measure the operating winding temperature. The temperature detector leads are connected to a terminal board bolted to the frame of the generator as illustrated in Figure 30. Customer detector leads may then be connected to the external points on the terminal board. With reference to Figure 30, temperature detectors are positioned axially in the stator winding at the following locations: Coil 1, 4, and 7 at the collector end of the stator core. Coil 2, 5, and 8 at the center of the stator core. Coil 3, 6, and 9 at the turbine end of the stator core.
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Figure 30. Temperature Detector Locations
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Lead Box (Terminal Box) - This component of the generator frame is found either on the bottom or
the top of the collector end of the frame. Figure 26 shows a cross-section view of a generator with the lead box mounted to the bottom of the frame. Contained in the lead box are the six main lead bushings. The bushings mounted in the lead box serve two purposes. The first purpose that the bushings serve is to provide a gas tight penetration in the generator frame for the three line leads and the three neutral leads that make up both ends of the three phases of the stator winding. The second purpose of the bushings is to insulate the high voltage leads from the generator frame, which is at ground potential. Most lead boxes contain a manway cover to provide access to the lead box for purposes of inspection and clean out. Wye Configuration Generator stator windings are typically connected in a wye configuration as illustrated in Figure 31. T1, T2 and T3 are the line leads and T4, T5 and T6 are the neutral leads, which are tied together. This is the only configuration allowed by Saudi Aramco standards.
Figure 31. Wye Configuration Delta Configuration Although not allowed by Saudi Aramco, there are some applications where a delta-connected stator winding is appropriate. With reference to Figure 31, the delta connection is made by connecting terminals 1 to 6, 2 to 4, and 3 to 5. Line leads are then connected to terminal 1, 2 and 3 accordingly. Reconnecting the generator windings in a delta connection reduces the line-to-line voltage, but increases the available line current.
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Types of Rotors To place the magnetic field on the rotor, poles are used that consist of stacked magnetic iron laminations (to reduce eddy currents) with copper conductors wrapped around the iron and excited by a DC current. The rotor poles must be arranged in pairs with a minimum arrangement of one pair of poles. The pairs are located 180 electrical degrees apart. As the North pole of the magnetic field of the rotor intersects one phase group of the stator winding, the South pole of the rotor is intersecting the diametrically opposite portion of the same phase winding. There are two common rotor constructions for generators: salient pole (projecting poles) with concentrated windings, and cylindrical pole with distributed windings. Figures 32 and 33 show schematic illustrations of these two types of rotor construction. The choice of construction of the rotor is primarily determined by the speed of operation. The two different types of construction have different magnetic coupling characteristics. The salientpole rotor is used for very large low-speed machines, and the cylindrical rotor is used for highspeed machines that operate at 1800 or 3600 RPM.
Figure 32. Salient Pole Rotor
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Figure 33. Cylindrical Pole Rotor Salient Pole Salient pole rotors can be constructed with either laminated poles or solid poles.
Laminated Pole construction is more efficient since the magnetic lines of flux will travel through the
laminated core in a perpendicular direction to the field winding. Causing the flux to travel in this manner reduces iron losses and provides more efficient magnetic coupling to the laminated core of the stator winding.
Solid Pole construction is utilized where the rating of the generator requires less concentrated flux
density.
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Cylindrical Pole Cylindrical pole rotors are utilized in high speed steam turbine generators where frictional losses from windage make the salient or projecting pole design unfeasible. Figure 34 illustrates a typical cylindrical pole rotor with end-turn retaining rings and collector rings shown in place. These rotors generally carry higher field current ratings and are more rigid, allowing for the longer core lengths common in horizontal turbine-generators. The surface of these rotor bodies is grooved to reduce surface currents and to increase heat transfer to the cooling medium, air or hydrogen. Radial slots for the field windings are machined in the rotor body.
Figure 34. Cylindrical Pole Rotor The field coils of a cylindrical pole rotor are imbedded in the machined slots of the rotor. The DC supply that feeds the field coils to produce the desired magnetic field strength can be brought into the rotor through collector rings from an outside supply, or can be supplied by a DC generator that is attached directly to the field winding leads on the rotor shaft. The latter is more desirable because it eliminates the collector rings and the carbon brushes required to interface with the slip rings, thus eliminating a maintenance requirement. The insulation used in a cylindrical pole rotor is normally Class B with molded glass insulation placed between the winding and ground, and flat mica insulation placed between turns. The top turns are mica taped for extra insulation. The rotor coils are baked while under high radial pressure until the winding becomes a solid mass. Finally, the coils are held in their slots by sturdy non-magnetic wedges. The rotor end turns are supported radially by forged steel retaining rings that are lined with Micarta. The retaining rings are shrunk onto the ends of the rotor body as shown in the cut away view of rotor end turns in Figure 35. Cooling air, or hydrogen, passes under the ends of the retaining rings, over the rotor winding end turns, and discharges through the radial holes located in the peripheral surfaces of the retaining rings. Axial support is provided to the coil end turns by means of fitted Micarta or glass epoxy blocks that also serve to direct and control the flow of ventilating air over the end turns.
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Figure 35. Rotor End-Turn Conductors When collector rings are included on a cylindrical pole rotor, as shown in Figure 34, the rings are made of tool steel. These rings are then placed on a steel bushing, insulated with mica, and mounted outside of the collector-end bearing. By mounting the collector on the outboard side of the bearing, easy accessibility is maintained to the brush rigging. The leads from the collector rings to the field winding are made of semi-circular copper bars separated by Micarta plates and are located in a hole in the center of the shaft. The collector rings are ventilated by a stream of cool air, which is bled from the exciter air supply. Holes drilled in the collector ring flanges circulate air and provide additional cooling of the ring surfaces. Spiral grooves on the surface of the rings prevent hot spots from occurring and thus insure reliable current collection. The brushholders are fitted with adjustable coil springs to maintain desired brush pressure on the collector rings. Graduations on the brushholders indicate the force in pounds exerted on the back of each brush. The brushes are provided with pigtail connections to prevent corrosion of the holder. Corrosion can occur in the brushholder as a result of arcing between the holder and the brush. If allowed to occur, this corrosion will impede the motion of the brush in the holder and thus reduce the pressure of the brush against the ring surface.
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Types of Cooling Systems The following types of cooling systems are used for AC generators: Air-Cooled Air-cooled cooling systems include the following configurations: Natural cooling Air-to-air heat exchanger Air-cooled Air-to-water heat exchanger Gas-to-water heat exchanger
Natural Cooling - A natural cooled generator, commonly referred to as an open cooling system,
uses outside air at ambient temperature as a cooling medium. The air is circulated through the stator and rotor by propeller-type blowers mounted on both ends of the rotor. The cooling air that is taken into the generator is allowed to make only one pass through the rotor and stator and is then exhausted from the generator. This system is economical because it requires no other cooling system components. However, this type of system often requires air filters at the intake ports to minimize the contaminants passing into the machine. When filters are used, they can become dirty, and if not changed frequently enough, will restrict air flow, which can lead to overheating.
Air-To-Air Heat Exchanger - A generator with an air-to-air heat exchanger differs from the natural
cooled configuration in that the machine with the heat exchanger is constantly recirculating the same air through the stator and rotor. This type of circulation keeps the generator windings cleaner than a system that does not recirculate the same air. The warm air exiting the stator is circulated through a plenum type heat exchanger that removes the heat from the generator cooling air by passing it over fins, or chevron-type baffles, that transfer the heat to outside air. This circulation eliminates the need for a filter system, but requires the need for added secondary air cooling equipment.
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Air-To-Water Heat Exchanger This type of system uses a contained reservoir of air to cool the generator in the same manner as described above for the air-to-air heat exchanger. However, the difference with this system is the method of heat exchange used. With the air-to-water heat exchanger, the warm air coming out of the stator and rotor is circulated across a cooler that consists of a number of copper tubes with circular fins soldered around the outside diameter of the tubes. Water is circulated through the tubes and removes the heat from the air being passed over the outside of the tubes. This type of system helps to prevent contaminants from getting into the generator by constantly recirculating the same air through the machine. However, this method of cooling requires that a source of cooling water to be pumped through the coolers. Gas-To-Water Heat Exchanger The gas-to-water type of heat exchanger is utilized in most of the large (>200 MVA) turbine generators in service today. The type of gas used for the cooling is normally hydrogen. Hydrogen has the following distinct advantages over air: Hydrogen has a lower density than air (14 times lighter) and thus reduces windage and ventilation losses. Hydrogen has a better thermal conductivity than air (seven times greater) and a better heat transfer coefficient than air (40% higher) and thus increases output per unit volume. Insulation life is increased when hydrogen is used because oxidation ceases to be a problem. The closed gas system used by hydrogen systems reduces dirt and moisture contamination in the machine and achieves quieter operation.
When hydrogen systems were first used to cool generators, the pressure of the hydrogen inside of the machine was maintained to a pressure only slightly greater than atmospheric pressure (approximately 0.5 psig). Using only 0.5 psig of hydrogen pressure, the output of hydrogen cooled generators were increased by as much as 20% over similar air cooled units. Gradually, the hydrogen pressure used inside of generators was increased to achieve more effective heat transfer. By 1948, hydrogen pressure had been increased to as much as 30 psig for conventionally cooled machines, achieving operating capabilities 25% greater than the earlier 0.5 psig units. Types of Bearings and Lubrication Systems Types of Bearings Two general types of bearings are used for AC generators:
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Anti-friction Sleeve
Anti-Friction bearings come in two styles: ball bearing and roller bearing. Anti-friction bearings, used mainly for small generators, consist of a number of steel balls or roller shaped cylinders tightly sandwiched between an inner race and an outer race. The race on the inside diameter of the bearing is pressed onto the rotor shaft, and the race on the outside diameter of the bearing is pressed into the stator end plate or bearing bracket. This type of bearing, when properly lubricated with oil for high speed operation, or lubricated with grease for low speed operation, provides an extremely low resistance to the rotation of the rotor.
A Sleeve bearing consist of a soft porous metal lining, called babbitt, fabricated to the inside diameter of a steel housing or shell. Figure 36 shows two cross-sectional views of a typical style of sleeve bearing used on medium and large size generators. The bearing is lubricated by oil rings that rotate with the shaft. The oil rings dip into a bath of oil in the bottom of the housing as they rotate, and, thus, carry oil up and over the journal. Seals at both ends of the bearing help to prevent oil from escaping and keep contaminates from entering. Openings in the top of the housing provide for inspection of the oil rings. Normally a sight glass is provided on the reservoir to determine the oil level. For some generators, the oil is circulated into and out of the bearing pedestal to provide for cooling and filtering of the oil.
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Figure 36. Cross-Section Views of a Typical Sleeve Bearing Assembly
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Types of Lubrication Systems Two types of lubrication systems are commonly used for AC generators: Natural lubrication (ring or disc oil lubrication) Forced lubrication (ring or disc oil lubrication with circulated feed oil)
Natural Lubrication (Ring or Disc Oil Lubrication) are self-lubricated bearings having oil rings that fit
loosely around the shaft journals. The rotation of the shaft causes the oil rings to rotate with the shaft. In the process they pick up oil from the bearing housing and lubricate the entire journal portion of the shaft. Each bearing housing has an oil gauge so the oil level can be checked in the bearing housing. An oil ring inspection hole is used to add oil, check the rotation of the oil rings, or insert a thermometer to measure bearing temperature. Lubricant should never be added to a generator while it is operating. In addition, the bearing must never be under- or over-lubricated. When lubricants are added to self-lubricated bearings, reference should always be made to the manufacturers instruction manual or information to determine the correct lubricant. Oil should be added until the oil reaches the appropriate operating level marked on the oil gauge. When necessary or required, oil can be drained from a naturally lubricated bearing by removing the oil drain plug located at the bottom of the bearing housing.
Forced Lubrication (Ring or Disc Oil Lubrication with Circulated Feed Oil) - Forced-flood lubrication
systems are those that have their lubricant supplied under pressure to the bearing surfaces. Only machines equipped with forced-flood lubrication systems have pressurized oil seals. A self-contained lubrication system (also a type of forced-flood lubrication system) consists of an oil pump that is driven directly from the motor shaft or from a separate electric motor, along with an oil tank, oil strainer, and orifice plug for adjusting the rate of oil flow to the bearings. When necessary, an oil cooler is provided in the system and is connected to a cold-water line and a drain.
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GENERATOR EXCITATION This section will discuss the purposes and types of generator excitation and response time versus voltage time. Purposes of Generator Excitation Power to the Rotating Electromagnetic Field The main purpose of a generator excitation system is to provide power to the rotating field winding. Provision of power causes a rotating electromagnetic field to be developed. As the flux of the rotating electromagnetic field intersects the stationary armature windings, the main output voltage for the generator is produced. Locking Rotor To Stator Another purpose of generator excitation is to provide the conditions that lock the rotation of the rotors electromagnetic field to the rotation of the stators magnetic field. As current flows through the stators armature winding, the armature current creates a component flux wave that rotates at synchronous speed. This rotating flux reacts with the rotating field flux and an electromagnetic torque results from the tendency of the two magnetic fields to align, thus locking the rotor to the stator for synchronous operation. Because this developed torque opposes rotation, mechanical torque must be supplied from the prime mover in order to sustain rotation. Means of Regulating Voltage Because excitation voltage is variable, another purpose that excitation is used for is to regulate the output voltage of the main generator. The voltage produced at the terminals of the main generator is directly proportional to the amount of current flowing in the rotating field windings. Whenever the main generator terminal voltage requires adjustment or change, this voltage can be regulated up or down by increasing or decreasing the excitation level. Types of Generator Excitation There are three basic types of excitation systems: DC exciters Static excitation Brushless excitation
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DC Exciters DC exciters operate on the principle of an AC voltage being induced in a coil rotating in a magnetic field. Figure 37 shows a simple illustration of an AC voltage being induced in a coil placed in a DC magnetic field.
Figure 37. Induced EMF In A Rotating Coil Figure 38 shows the addition of a simple commutator on the output connections to make this device a DC generator. The process by which AC voltage is induced, and, by which, the AC voltage is then converted to DC voltage, is called rectification.
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Figure 38. Rectification By Two Segment Commutator A commutator is a mechanical rectifier. It is actually a slip ring split into segments. The ends of the rotating armature coil are each attached to one segment of the commutator. To understand how the commutator works, consider the shaded side of the armature in Figure 39. As the armature coil cuts through the magnetic field, current flows in one direction toward the commutator. Notice that current is at this time flowing from the unshaded side of the armature to the shaded side. Also notice that the cross-hatched brush is touching the shaded section of the commutator while the other brush is touching the unshaded section of the commutator. Current flows out of the exciter armature through the cross-hatched brush to the main generator field winding, and returns through the other brush to complete the circuit. Now, as the armature turns through 180o, current will be induced to flow in the opposite direction in the armature coil. Figure 40 shows that the current is now flowing from the shaded section of the armature to the unshaded side. Notice, however, that at this time it is the unshaded section of the commutator that is touching the cross-hatched brush. Current is still flowing out of the exciter through the cross-hatched brush and returning through the other brush. Thus it is direct current (DC): i.e., current that is always flowing in the same direction.
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Figure 39. Current Flow Through Commutator
Figure 40. Current Flow Through Commutator (Contd) The commutator is a high maintenance device that limits the capacity of generators. Two systems developed to eliminate the commutator and thus provide for larger capacity generators are the static excitation system and the brushless excitation system. These two systems are discussed in the following sections.
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Static Excitation Static excitation uses power from the main generator output, supplied to the voltage regulator through an excitation transformer, to produce the DC field current for the field windings on the generator rotor. The direct current is then put on the field windings of the generator rotor through collector rings. A current transformer (CT) and potential transformers (PTs), located on the main leads of the generator, provide a closed loop feedback circuit, called the intelligence input, that enables the voltage regulator to monitor and regulate the generators output. Figure 41 shows a simplified circuit diagram of a static excitation system. Because a static excitation system has no source of pilot excitation, like the permanent magnet generator on a brushless excitation system, a field flashing circuit is required to initiate the DC voltage build up on the generator rotor every time the generator is started. The field flashing voltage can be obtained from the station batteries or from a full wave bridge. Static excitation has the following advantages over a rotating DC excitation system: A static excitation system has no commutator. A commutator is a mechanical rectifier that is a high maintenance component and limits the power capability of the excitation system. Elimination of the commutator reduces the risk of problems related to carbon dust in the exciter. A static excitation system has no rotating exciter, thus eliminating losses due to windage and bearing friction. A field flashing circuit is used on a static excitation system to initiate voltage build up on the generator stator.
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Figure 41. Static Excitation
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Brushless Excitation The brushless excitation system is another method of excitation that avoids the inherent inefficiencies of slip rings and brushes. Figure 42 shows a simplified circuit for a brushless excitation system. For this system, the exciter consists of an alternating current generator with a rotating armature and a stationary magnetic field. The alternating current generated in the rotating armature is converted to direct current by a rectifier, which is mounted on the same shaft as the armature. The DC current developed in the rotating rectifier is then conducted directly to the field winding on the rotor of the main generator.
Figure 42. Brushless Excitation System A brushless excitation system uses a permanent magnet generator as a pilot exciter to supply power to the voltage regulator. Figure 43 shows the interconnections between the permanent magnetic generator, the brushless exciter, the voltage regulator, the generator and the control room. The pilot exciter has field poles that are constructed from permanent magnets. Using this source of field excitation, the permanent magnet pilot exciter generates a 120 vac, 420 Hz, threephase voltage output from terminals T10, T20 and T30. The pilot generator is referred to as the voltage regulator power supply. In the regulator, the voltage is rectified to DC and fed back up to the brushless exciter stationary field pole winding (F1 and F2). The magnitude of the DC voltage is adjusted to meet the voltage requirements by the control room, and the regulator uses feedback signals from the voltage (potential) transformers (VT) and current transformers (CT) to keep the generator voltage at the desired value and to protect it from sudden load swings or voltage spikes by tripping the generator if necessary.
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Figure 43. Brushless Exciter With Permanent Magnet Pilot Exciter Concept of Response Time Versus Voltage Levels As described above, an important function of generator excitation is to provide for regulation of the generator voltage level. Generator voltage level is changed or regulated by changing the level of field excitation. Automatic feedback control circuits monitor generator voltage levels and, where required, operate to raise or lower the level of excitation. Although the response time of the monitoring circuits are typically very fast, the time required for the actual voltage level of the generator to adjust will depend on several other factors. These factors include the response time of the excitation system, the reactance of the main generator, the open-circuit time constant of the main generator and the magnitude of voltage change required. Figure 44 illustrates typical response time versus voltage level for a sudden application of load. With reference to this figure, the initial drop of voltage, in most cases, is taken to be the product of the applied load current and the generator transient reactance. The initial voltage drop is followed by a further decrease in voltage before the excitation system begins to restore the voltage to normal. The ultimate time required to restore the generator voltage to the desired level will of course depend on the quantitative values of the controlling factors described above. Typically, response times are fractions of a second.
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Figure 44. Typical Response Time Versus Voltage for Sudden Application of Load
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GENERATOR GROUNDING Purposes of Generator Grounding One of the most important, but probably the most misunderstood and controversial element of an industrial power system design is the subject of grounding. The term grounding of a power system is often used to describe both system and equipment grounding, although each have somewhat different objectives. Electrical systems and circuit conductors are grounded to limit voltages due to lightning, line surges or unintentional contact with other higher voltage lines. System grounding ensures longer insulation life for electrical equipment such as motors, generators and transformers by suppressing overvoltages associated with different types of faults. System grounding also stabilizes the voltage-to-ground under normal operation and improves protection of the electrical system by providing fast and selective operation of protective devices in the event of ground faults. Equipment grounding, on the other hand, relates to the grounding of non-electrical conductive material that encloses or is adjacent to energized conductors. Similar to system grounding, equipment grounding also limits the voltage-to-ground and provides fast and selective operation of protective devices in the event of ground faults. The major objectives of generator grounding are: to improve personnel safety. to improve equipment protection.
Personnel Safety An equipment grounding system improves personnel safety by: reducing electric shock hazard. providing adequate current carrying capability, both in magnitude and duration, to accept the high ground fault currents permitted by the protection system without creating a fire or explosive hazard to the building or its contents. providing a low impedance return path for ground fault current necessary for the timely operation of the overcurrent protection system. limiting voltage on the system all the time to line-to-ground magnitudes.
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Equipment Protection System grounding improves equipment protection by: improving differential relay protection of motors, generators and transformers. allowing use of grounded neutral type arrestors. minimizing transient overvoltages (within 250% of normal) on the system. reducing arc blast or flash hazards. limiting voltage on the system at all times to line-to-ground magnitudes. providing a low impedance return path for ground fault current necessary for the timely operation of the overcurrent protection system
Methods of Generator Grounding Figures 45 and 46 show charts that summarize the different grounding methods and explain when they are to be used. Figure 45 shows the characteristics for the various grounding methods, and Figure 46 shows the recommendations for using the various grounding methods. These figures, together with the sections that follow them explain the following methods for grounding generators: Solidly grounded generators Low resistance grounded generators Reactance grounded generators The relationship between the source system ground versus the plant generator ground. Saudi Aramco grounding requirements as specified in SAES-P-114.
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Type of Grounding
Solid
Reactance
Low Resistance
High Resistance
Current for phaseto-ground fault in percent of threephase fault current
Varies, may be 100% or greater.
5 to 25%
5 to 20%
Less than 1%.
Transient overvoltage
Not excessive.
Very high.
Not excessive.
Not excessive.
Automatic segregation of faulted zone
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Lightning arresters Grounded neutral type.
Ungrounded neutral type.
Remarks
Generally used on Not used due to systems(1) 600 excessive volts and below overvoltages. and (2) over 15kV.
Generally used on industrial systems of 2.4 to 15 kV.
Generally used on systems 5 kV and below.
Figure 45. Characteristics of Different Methods of Grounding
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Type of Grounding
System Voltage
Solid
Low Resistance 1. 2.
High Resistance Use for maximum service continuity. Mining system.
Low Voltage (1000 volts and below)
Preferred method required by NEC for certain cases.
Not used.
Medium Voltage (1001 - 15,000 volts)
1. Not recommended for systems with rotating machines. 2. Can be used for systems having only overhead distribution.
Preferred method.
Can be applied: 1. To prevent unplanned shutdowns. With single rotating machine/captive transformer. Where previously ungrounded system is grounded. Where ground relay selectivity not required. Not recommended.
2.
3.
4.
High Voltage (Over 15,000 volts)
Required
Not recommended.
Figure 46. Recommendations for Applying Different Methods of Grounding Solidly-Grounded A solidly-grounded system has an intentional and direct connection to ground usually through the middle wire or neutral point of a generators windings. No intentional impedance is added in the path from the neutral to ground. An example of a solidly-grounded system is shown in Figure 47. In a solidly-grounded system, line-to-ground fault current magnitudes are very high (thousands of amperes). They approach and may exceed three-phase fault current magnitudes. Although solidly grounding generators are sometimes used in industry, it is not the preferred scheme for grounding generators. For Saudi Aramco applications, SAES-P-114 does not permit solid grounding of generators except in the cases of very small, low voltage emergency generators.
Figure 47. Solidly-Grounded Generator The primary advantages of solid grounding are the following: To improve differential relay protection of motors, generators and transformers. To reduce electrical shock hazards to personnel caused by stray ground fault currents in the return path. To reduce initial first cost versus resistance-grounded systems. To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who happen to be in close proximity to the ground fault. To allow use of grounded neutral type arrestors. To improve safety (i.e., single line-to-ground faults are immediately cleared). To improve reliability (i.e., ground faults are readily located and repaired).
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To limit voltage on the system all the time to line-to-ground magnitudes. To minimize transient overvoltages (within 250% of normal) on the system.
The primary disadvantages of solid grounding are: Detection of ground faults lead to an immediate trip of the protective device. Note: This disadvantage of solid grounding is also seen as an advantage as per previous discussion. High ground fault current magnitudes sometimes exceed three-phase fault values.
Resistance Grounded In resistance grounded systems the neutral is connected to ground through a resistor. There are two types of resistance grounded systems: low resistance and high resistance.
Low Resistance Grounding is achieved by the intentional insertion of resistance between a generator
neutral and ground. When a line-to-ground fault occurs, the voltage across the resistor equals the normal line-to-neutral voltage of the system (EL-N), and the ground fault current (IF) equals ELN divided by the value of the grounding resistor. Generally, the line-to-ground fault currents are limited to between 100 and 1200 amperes. Figure 48 is an example of a low resistance grounded system.
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Figure 48. Low Resistance Grounded Generator The primary advantages of limiting ground fault current by low resistance grounding are the following: To reduce melting and burning (thermal stress) of faulted electrical equipment. To limit fault current magnitude to 100 to 1200 amperes. To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and equipment carrying fault currents. To reduce electrical shock hazards to personnel caused by stray ground fault currents in the ground return path. To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who happen to be in proximity to the ground fault. To reduce momentary line voltage dip caused by the occurrence and clearing of a ground fault. To improve safety (i.e., single line-to-ground faults are immediately cleared).
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To improve reliability (i.e., ground faults are readily located and repaired). To minimize transient overvoltages (within 250% of normal) on the system.
The primary disadvantages of low resistance grounding are: Initial first cost of resistor and relays are more expensive than the low cost of a solidly-grounded system. Detection of ground faults lead to an immediate trip of the protective device. Note: This disadvantage of low resistance grounding is also seen as an advantage as per previous discussion. Cannot be used if the transformer primary protective devices are fuses because the magnitude of fault current (primary side) is too low to clear the fuse.
High Resistance Grounding is achieved by selecting a resistor to provide a resistive fault current
slightly greater than or equal to three times the normal current flowing in the stray line-to-ground capacitance per phase. Generally line-to-ground currents are limited to between 1 and 10 amperes. Figure 49 is an example of a high resistance grounded system.
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Figure 49. High Resistance Grounded Generator The primary advantages of limiting ground fault current by high resistance grounding are the following: To reduce melting and burning (thermal stress) of faulted electrical equipment. To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and equipment carrying fault currents. To limit fault current magnitudes to 1 to 10 amperes. To reduce electrical shock hazards to personnel caused by stray ground fault currents in the ground return path. To reduce the blast or flash hazard to personnel who happen to be in proximity of the ground fault.
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To reduce momentary line voltage dip caused by the occurrence and clearing of a ground fault. To avoid shutdown of a faulted circuit on the occurrence of the first ground fault (system continuity). To minimize transient overvoltages (within 250% of normal) on the system.
The primary disadvantages of high resistance grounding are: Initial first cost of resistor, relay, and transformers are more expensive than the low cost of a solidly-grounded system. Fault remains on the system until located and removed. Requires a dedicated alarm system and standard operating procedures (SOPs) to locate and clear faults.
Reactance-Grounded A reactance-grounded system is one in which a reactor is connected between the system neutral and ground. Reactance grounding of generators is only used to limit ground fault current to a value no greater than the generator three-phase fault current and, therefore, has very limited application. Figure 50 is an example of a reactance-grounded generator. As was the case of solidly grounded generators, Saudi Aramco does not use reactance-grounding.
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Figure 50. Reactance-Grounded Generator Source System Ground Versus Plant Generator Ground Because of transformer connections (Figure 51), coordination is usually limited to one voltage level. It becomes necessary to ground a number of these points simultaneously to ensure that the system remains grounded when one or more of the sources are out of service.
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Figure 51. System Ground Versus Generator Ground SAES-P-114 Grounding Requirements SAES-P-114 requires generators to be grounded depending on which of the following five categories they fit: Large direct-connected synchronous generators (13.8 kV, greater than 12.5 MVA) are low resistance grounded as per Figure 52.
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Figure 52. Grounding of Large Direct-Connected Synchronous Generators Large unit-transformer connected synchronous generators (13.8 kV, greater than 12.5 MVA) are high resistance grounded as per Figure 53.
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Figure 53. Grounding of Large Unit-Transformer Connected Generators
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Medium direct-connected generators are low resistance grounded as per Figure 54.
Figure 54. Grounding of Medium Direct-Connected Generators
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Small standby/emergency generators are solidly grounded as per Figure 55 if they are part of a separately derived system. Because the system shown in Figure 55 is a separately derived system, no direct connection, including the neutral conductor, is permitted to the other system. Therefore, the automated transfer switch (ATS) shown in Figure 55 must be a 4-pole ATS.
Figure 55. Grounding of Low Voltage GeneratorsSeparately Derived System
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Small standby/emergency generators are solidly grounded as per Figure 56 if they are not part of a separately derived system. Because the system shown in Figure 56 is not part of a separately derived system, the neutral conductor is permitted to be direct (solidly) connected as illustrated. Note: Figure 56 is shown for comparison purposes only, because most, if not all of Saudi Aramco emergency generators are part of a separately derived system.
Figure 56. Grounding of Low Voltage Generators-Not Separately Derived System
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ELEMENTS OF GENERATOR PROTECTION This section will describe the following essential elements of generator protection: Temperature protection Electrical protection Zone protection
Temperature Protection Temperature protection of the generator is as important as both the electrical and mechanical protection. Four types of temperature protection usually applied to large generators are: Rotor There are no simple methods for direct thermal protection of the rotor. Various indirect methods are used either to approximate rotor temperatures or to act directly on the quantities that would lead to excessive rotor temperatures. Protection schemes for the rotor are, therefore, directed at the potential causes of thermal distress. For example, negative-sequence currents in the stator, loss of excitation or loss of synchronism can cause excessive rotor temperatures due to circulating currents in various paths of the rotor body. The field circuit of a generator is an ungrounded system. As such, a single ground fault will not generally affect generator operation. However, a second ground fault results in a portion of the field winding short circuiting, producing unbalanced air gap fluxes in the machine. These unbalanced fluxes may cause rotor vibration that can very quickly damage the generator. Also unbalanced temperatures caused by unbalanced currents can cause similar damaging vibrations. A DGF relay (ANSI Device 64) detects grounds in the generator field circuit (Figure 57). This relay uses a very sensitive dArsonval movement to measure DC ground currents. The relay is used as an alarm on the occurrence of a first ground to permit an orderly shutdown of the generator. If a second ground occurs before the first is cleared, the field winding is short circuited resulting in unbalance and vibrations that may severely damage the generator. Rotor Stator Bearing Lubrication
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Figure 57. Field Ground Detection Relay Vibration monitors (ANSI Device 39) of the displacement, velocity, acceleration or proximity type are an optional protection for alarming or shutting down a prime mover. Vibration protection is a supplement to field ground protection. It is also specified if problems with criticalspeed (resonant) vibration modes are anticipated or have been determined by operational experience. Stator Large generators are protected from overheating in the armature windings or stator iron by a temperature-responding relay (ANSI Device 49). The relay uses resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) as sensing elements. RTDs are imbedded symmetrically in the generator windings. There are typically 6, 12 or 24 RTDs, some of which might be designated as spares to be used only in the case of a failure of another RTD. This form of relay protects the generator not only from overheating due to overload current, but also from the overheating that can be caused by blockage of ventilation ducts or other failures of the cooling system.
Most large generators are equipped with RTDs (Figure 58) that may be used in a bridge circuit to provide sensing intelligence to an indicator or a relay (e.g., DT-3 relay). The relay has contact-opening torque when the resistance is low, indicating low machine temperature. When the temperature of the machine exceeds 120oC for class B insulated machines, the bridge becomes unbalanced and the contact closes triggering an alarm, which allows an operator to initiate remedial action such as load shedding or shutdown.
Figure 58. Stator RTD Protection Bearing An overtemperature relay that uses a thermocouple detector embedded in the bearing metal is typically specified for both prime mover and generator bearings. This device usually has one temperature setpoint for alarm and a higher setpoint for initiating a shutdown of the prime mover. For example, bearing metal temperatures range from 150 - 170oF with 160oF being the expected value. A typical alarm setpoint is 210oF and the trip setpoint is typically 225oF. Lubrication Lubrication oil system temperatures are typically measured using thermocouples on large systems or simply thermometers on smaller lubrication systems.
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For example, oil inlet temperatures range from 80-120oF with expected values of 100oF. Oil drain temperatures range from 140-160oF with an expected temperature of 160oF. An alarm is triggered for operator intervention when oil drain temperatures reach 170oF. Electrical Protection Figure 59 is a reproduction of SAES-P-114, Figure 5.1, page 092 of 132; Figure 60 is the accompanying legend identifying the device functions. The paragraphs that follow will provide short descriptions of the relays that protect a typical Saudi Aramco large direct-connected and/or unit-transformer connected generator.
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Figure 59. Large Direct-Connected Generator Protection Scheme
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Figure 60. Protection Device Legend
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Overcurrent The function of overcurrent phase fault backup protection is to disconnect the generator if the fault has not been cleared by other downstream protective devices (i.e., feeder overcurrent relays, ANSI Devices 51/50). Phase fault backup protection prevents the generator and other auxiliary components from exceeding their thermal limits as well as protects distribution components against excessive damage. Two types of relays are used to provide this protection. Impedance relays (ANSI Device 21) are used to protect unit generators (generator/transformer combinations), and time overcurrent relays (ANSI Device 51) are used for non-unit installations typically found in industrial/commercial applications. This Module will restrict discussion to use of time overcurrent relays for backup phase fault protection. Overcurrent relays (51V) used for backup protection are specifically constructed to make the operating characteristics a function of voltage as well as current. Ordinary relays cannot be used because, if they are set low to protect the generator for sustained fault currents (possibly less than FLA), the generator would trip on normal loads or small overloads. If set high, the relay would not respond at all for sustained fault currents under stuck regulator conditions. A voltage restraint relay (GE IJCV) consists of a conventional induction disc overcurrent unit with a voltage element so constructed that it applies a torque that opposes the operating torque produced by the current coil. This restraining torque is proportional to voltage and effectively controls the pickup current of the relay over a 4:1 range (Figure 61). The relay is calibrated and rated for a range of tap settings with 100 percent voltage applied to the restraint coil. As the voltage is reduced the current required to operate the relay at a given tap setting drops.
Figure 61. Voltage Restraint Relay Differential Current (Fault) Differential protection is suggested protection for instantaneous and sensitive protection for generator internal faults and is very similar to motor differential protection. A constant percentage, high sensitivity (10%) type CA (ANSI Device 87) differential relay (Figure 62) is recommended. If CT saturation error exceeds 1%, the low sensitivity (25%) type CA relay should be used.
Generator differential relays are usually arranged to trip the generator, field circuit, and neutral breakers (if used) simultaneously using a manually reset lockout auxiliary relay. In some applications the differential relay also trips the throttle and admits CO2 to the generator for fire protection.
Figure 62. CA Generator Differential Relay Ground Fault For large generators, a separate device (87G) is considered essential for generator protection to internal ground faults. Device 87G is a supplement or backup to the CA differential relay (87) discussed previously. Because this relay (CWC) is not affected by external faults or transients, it can be set for minimum time to clear internal faults faster. The CWC relay (Figure 63) operates the lockout relay (Device 86) to trip and lockout the line and field breakers and the prime mover.
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Figure 63. CWC Ground Fault Relay Loss of Field Loss of field protection (ANSI Device 40) is applied to synchronous machines to avoid unstable operation and potential loss of synchronism. This device senses when a generators excitation system has been lost. This protection is important when generators are operating in parallel or in parallel with the utility. When a synchronous generator loses its field excitation, it will operate as an induction generator (Figure 64), obtaining its excitation from the other machines on the system. When a synchronous generator operates in this manner, the generator rotor quickly overheats due to the slip frequency currents induced in it. Moreover, the rest of the system has to supply the VARs to the loads and to the induction generator. The loss of field relay (i.e., KLF) trips a 94G1 relay to open the breaker.
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Figure 64. Generator Current Locus Phase Unbalance Unbalanced loads, unbalanced system faults, open conductors, or other unsymmetrical operating conditions result in an unbalance of the generator phase voltages. The resulting unbalanced (negative sequence) currents induce double system frequency currents in the rotor that quickly cause rotor overheating. Serious damage to the generator will occur if the unbalanced condition is allowed to persist indefinitely. The ability of a generator to withstand these negative sequence currents is defined by ANSI C50.13-1977 as (I2)2t = k, where the negative sequence current is expressed in per unit of the full-load current and the time is given in seconds. Figure 65 lists the k-values of typical generators.
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Figure 65. Generator k-Values A COQ negative sequence overcurrent relay (ANSI Device 46) is recommended where protection from this unbalanced condition is desired. The relay consists of a time overcurrent unit with extremely inverse characteristics matching the generator (I2)2t curves. The input to the relay is connected through a filter that passes only negative phase sequence currents. The time dial setting determines the level of protection offered by the relay and should be set to match the (I2)2t limit of the generator being protected. Frequency/Overspeed To protect the rotating components of the generator and prime mover from being damaged by excessive centrifugal forces, an electrical or mechanical overspeed detector is used. The overspeed detector (ANSI Device 12) will initiate a governor action that interrupts the fuel or steam input to the prime mover. For generators that are the only source for a power system, the overspeed device is sometimes supplemented with an overfrequency relay (ANSI Device 81). SAES-P-114 does not require this type of protection. Voltage
Overvoltage - An overvoltage relay (ANSI Device 59) is specified to open the generator circuit
breaker to protect the generator from the excessive line-to-line voltages that can result from a failure of the voltage regulator. This relay has a time-overvoltage characteristic: i.e., the larger the overvoltage, the less the time interval to initiate a trip signal. This relay also trips the 94G1 lockout relay.
Voltage Balance - A voltage balance relay (ANSI Device 60) is used to continuously monitor the
availability of voltage transformer (VT) voltage, to block the operation of protective relays, and to control devices that will operate incorrectly when a voltage transformer fuse opens. This application requires two sets of VTs on the generator circuit. One set supplies voltage for the backup overcurrent, directional power, and loss of excitation relays; the other set supplies voltage for the voltage regulator, synchronizing relays and metering devices. In those cases where two sets of voltage transformers on the generator circuit cannot be justified, the bus voltage transformers may be used as the second set so long as dead bus startup of the generator is not necessary. When the two sets of VTs have the same output voltage, the relay is balanced and both the right and left contacts are open. When a fuse opens in any phase of one set of voltage transformers, the unbalance will cause the left contact to close, which may both alarm and block the tripping of protective devices 32, 40, and 51V. When a fuse opens in the second set of VTs, the right contacts close, which may operate an alarm and switch the voltage regulator to manual operation to prevent it from rising to ceiling voltage. This relay blocks the ANSI Device 51V and ANSI Device 40 from nuisance tripping. Sync Verification Generator instability may be caused by prolonged fault clearing times, low system voltage, low machine excitation, high impedance between the generator and the system or some line switching operations. When a generator loses synchronism, the resulting high peak currents and offfrequency operation cause winding stresses, pulsating torques, and mechanical resonances that are potentially damaging to the generator. To minimize the possibility of damage, the generator should be tripped without delay, preferably during the first half slip cycle of a loss-of-synchronism condition. ANSI Device 78 is used to detect loss of synchronism (sync verification). Reverse Power (Motoring) Generator anti-motoring protection is designed for the prime mover, or the system, rather than for the generator itself. Motoring results from low prime mover input to the generator, such as would occur if steam supply to the turbine or oil supply to the diesel were lost. When the prime mover input to the generator cannot meet all the losses, the deficiency is supplied by the system; the generator absorbs real power, and reactive power flow (not relevant at this point) may be in or out depending on the voltage (excitation). Under motoring conditions steam turbine blades can overheat, water wheel turbine blades can cavitate, and fire or possible explosion can result in a diesel unit. Although there are a number of non-electrical (mechanical) protection schemes for the generator prime mover, a reverse power relay (ANSI Device 32) is used to provide supplemental protection. The reverse power relay should have sufficient sensitivity such that motoring power provides 5-10 times the minimum pickup power of the relay. An induction disc directional power relay is frequently used to introduce sufficient time delay necessary to override momentary power surges that might occur during synchronization. A time delay of 10-15 seconds is typical.
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Type CRN-1 reverse power relays are extremely sensitive and are most often used on steam turbine and water wheel generators. No ampere tap settings are required and the time dial is set on 4, which provides a tripping time of approximately 20 seconds. Type CW reverse power relays (three-phase application) are less sensitive and are most often used on diesel generators. Zone Protection Concepts Overlap The general philosophy of relay application is to divide the power system into protective zones, which can be protected with minimum system interruption. There are five basic protection zone categories: Generator and unit type generator - transformer Transformers Buses Transmission, subtransmission and distribution circuits Motors
Figure 66 clearly shows the overlapping zones of protection. Backup Redundancy, or backup protection, is a key capability of any power system. Should the primary protective device system (relays, breaker, etc.) fail, various backup systems (i.e. the next upstream device) must be available to clear the problem. Referring to Figure 66-Zone F, if an ANSI Device 51 relay on a feeder breaker failed to operate, the 51V relay on the generator would operate. The application of the 51V relay is a classic example of a backup, or overlapping relay.
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Figure 66. Zones of Protection
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AC GENERATOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS Nameplate Ratings All generators have nameplates. The nameplate provides needed information about the ratings of the generator. This information allows for the proper application and operation of the generator. The nameplate also provides information that is used to identify the specific generator to the manufacturer whenever it becomes necessary to consult the manufacturer about the generator. Figure 67 illustrates the minimum amount of data that is required by NEMA MG-1 to be marked on the nameplate of a large synchronous generator. GENERATOR NAMEPLATE kVA Rating Output Frequency Output Voltage Field Current Manufacturer Frame Number/ Serial No. Number of Phases Operating Speed Current per Terminal Field Voltage Temperature Rise Power Factor
Figure 67. Typical Generator Nameplate Data Nameplate ratings describe the boundaries or limits within which the generator should be applied and operated. Nameplate ratings for a generator include ratings for kVA, kW, power factor, terminal voltage, field current, speed, temperature rise, and insulation class. The following sections describe each of these nameplate ratings. kVA The kVA rating stated on a generators nameplate is the full load continuous rating of the generator. The expression kVA is an abbreviation for kilovolt-amperes. Represented using a lower case k and a capital V and A, kVA is often referred to as the apparent power of the generator, as opposed to the actual or real power (kW). For single phase generators, the kVA rating is the product of the rated generator output voltage multiplied by the generator terminal current, divided by 1000. For three-phase generators, the kVA rating is the product of the rated generator output voltage and generator terminal current multiplied by the square root of three and then divided by 1000. For these kVA ratings, the generator output voltage is the nameplate rated terminal voltage and is represented by the symbol Vt, and the terminal current is the generator full-load current and is represented by the symbol It. Figure 68 shows the formulas used to calculate single phase and three-phase generator kVA ratings.
kVA1F = kVA3F = Where: Vt is in volts It is in amperes Figure 68. Generator kVA Formulas kW The kW rating given on the nameplate of a generator is the full load rating of the generator in kilowatts. This nameplate rating is the actual or real power in kilowatts that the generator can supply to a load on a continuous basis. The units of kilowatts are represented using the letters kW and is normally written with a lower case k and a capital W. Power Factor The value of the power factor given on a generator nameplate is the limit of power factor at which the generator is designed to be operated. The value of power factor given for the generator represents the ratio of generator kilowatt output to the generator kilovolt-amp output and is usually expressed as a percentage. The power factor can also be determined by calculating the cosine of the phase angle between the generator terminal voltage and the generator terminal current. In theory, the value of power factor for a generator operating under load can vary over a range from -1.0 to 1.0. However, in practice, a power factor approaching a positive 1.0 is desired. Power factor is normally represented by the letters PF, which is an abbreviation of the words power factor. Figure 69 shows examples of power factor for three generator operating conditions. In Figure 69, power factor is determined by the equation, PF = = Cos q Where q = angle between Vt and It
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Figure 69. Examples of Generator Power Factor
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Terminal Voltage The output voltage of the generator is called the terminal voltage. The terminal voltage rating given on the generator nameplate is the nominal level of voltage that the generator uses to supply current to the load. When a generator is not loaded, that is when it is not supplying any current, the terminal voltage is equal to the voltage induced by the generators rotating field into the stator windings, referred to as the internal induced voltage. When the generator is supplying current, the terminal voltage is no longer equal to the internal induced voltage, but is equal to a vector summation of the internal induced voltage less the voltage dropped across the generator internal impedance. Field Current The field current marked on the generator nameplate is the value of current that is supplied to the rotor field winding when the generator is operated at nameplate rated kVA and nameplate rated power factor. Speed The speed given on a generator nameplate is the speed that the generator must operate at in order to produce the nameplate rated frequency. If a generator has a dual speed rating on its nameplate, such as 3600/3000 rpm, it will have a dual frequency rating. For the example of 3600/3000 rpm, the dual frequency rating would be 60/50 hertz. The rated speed of a generator varies in direct proportion to its frequency and in inverse proportion to the number of generator poles. Figure 70 shows the formula used to calculate rated generator speed.
Speed = Frequency =
Figure 70. Generator Speed and Frequency Relationship Temperature Rise The temperature rise given on a generator nameplate is the limit of the expected rise in temperature, over ambient temperature, that will be experienced by the conductors within the armature windings under generator full-load conditions. The temperature rise is expressed in degrees centigrade (oC). Typical temperature rise ratings for generators are 55 oC and 65 oC.
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Insulation Class The insulation class given for a generator identifies the class of insulation system used for the generator windings and supporting structural parts. Insulation systems are divided into classes according to the thermal endurance of the system for temperature rating purposes. Four classes of insulation systems are used in generators, namely, Classes A, B, F, and H. These classes are established in accordance with IEEE Standard 1, General Principles for Temperature Limits in the Rating of Electrical Equipment. When considering the insulation classes for a generator insulation system based on thermal endurance, it is informative to note that insulation systems also have a separate class rating based on voltage. The voltage class rating, expressed in units of volts, is determined by the quantity and quality of the material under electrical voltage stress. Ratings Interrelationships kVA, kW, Power Factor The interrelationship of kVA, kW, and power factor can be described by first recalling the formula that relates these three parameters. As described earlier, the formula for power factor is, PF = kW/kVA = cos q. Examination of this formula shows that a change to anyone of the three parameters will affect one or both of the other two. As a result, if a change were made to an operating generator in an effort to change the value of one of the these nameplate parameters, the change would also affect one or both of the other parameters. As an example, assume that a generator is operating at a given kVA level and it is desired to increase that level. In theory, making a change that would increase the current, increase the voltage, or increase both would result in an increase to the generator kVA. However, several factors must be considered before such a change is made. First, it must be remembered that the kVA rating given on the nameplate is the maximum full-load kVA at which the generator may be safely operated. Therefore, any changes made to the kVA level should not exceed this rating. Next, it must be noted that the generator has a nameplate current rating that is determined by the size of conductors used in the winding and the amount of heat (I2R) loss allowed for the generator. Therefore, any adjustments made to the operation of the generator should not allow this current limit to be exceeded. With regard to changing the voltage, two items must be considered. One item is that the generator has a nameplate rated voltage that must not be exceeded. And the other item is that power systems supplied by generators must maintain a reasonably stable operating voltage in order to meet customer needs. Finally, after careful consideration of the above factors, It must be noted that changing the kVA will cause the kW and/or the PF to change because kW = (kVA)(PF) = (kVA)(cos q). Because the nameplate kW rating represents the upper limit of real power that can be supplied by the generator, and the nameplate PF rating represents the highest value of power factor that the generator can be operated at, care must be taken to assure that any change to the kVA does not cause the rating of kW or PF to be exceeded.
The following example problem illustrates the relationship between the nameplate kVA, kW, and power factor for a three-phase generator. Example A: Answer : A three-phase generator has a nameplate kVA rating of 20,000 kVA and a nameplate kW rating of 18,000 kW. Determine the nameplate PF rating. The power factor for a three-phase generator is defined by the equation, PF = kW / kVA substituting the given nameplate ratings for kW and kVA gives, PF = 18,000 kW / 20,000 kVA PF = 0.9 kVA, kW, Voltage To describe the interrelationship between kVA, kW and voltage, first recall that the relationship between power factor, kVA and kW can be expressed as, PF = kW/kVA = cos q Reviewing this equation, it can be seen that if power factor is held constant, any increase in kW will result in an increase of kVA, and any decrease in kW will result in a decrease of kVA. From this analysis it is seen that kW and kVA interrelate directly with one another and any change to one parameter can result in a change to the other. Next, consider that both kW and kVA are limited by the generator nameplate current rating. Therefore, dividing the generator nameplate kW or kVA rating by the generator nameplate current rating will yield the generator nameplate terminal voltage rating. This result can be seen by reviewing the equation for a generators three-phase kVA rating. kVA3F = where: Vt is nameplate rated volts It is nameplate rated amperes Reviewing this equation, it can be seen that dividing the kVA by the current (It) and the square root of three results in the nameplate rated terminal volts. The following example problem illustrates the relationship between the nameplate kVA, nameplate Vt and nameplate It for a three-phase generator.
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Example B: Answer :
A three-phase generator has a nameplate kVA rating of 12,000 kVA and a nameplate It of 502 amperes. Determine the nameplate Vt rating. The equation for three-phase kVA is, kVA3F = substituting the values for kVA and It, and solving for Vt gives, Vt = = = 13.8 kV
Saturation Curve Parameters Saturation curve parameters describe the relationship between the field excitation current and the voltage induced in the stationary armature windings. The field excitation current produces a revolving magnetic field that is used to generate the induced voltage. The parameter of induced voltage exhibits three unique characteristics in conjunction with the parameter of field current. These characteristics, which can be defined mathematically and shown graphically, are caused by the presence of magnetic iron in the field windings. The three characteristics are known as: Magnetic Friction Magnetic Saturation Magnetic Memory
Each of these three characteristics helps to determine the shape of a typical generator saturation curve, such as the one shown in Figure 71. The following paragraphs describe how the saturation curve shown in Figure 71 is generated as field current is applied to the field winding, and the role that each of the above three characteristics play in shaping the resultant saturation curve. The generation of the saturation curve shown in Figure 71 begins with the application of field current to the field windings. As the magnetic material in the rotor poles becomes encompassed by the magnetic field produced by the field current, the molecules of the magnetic material tend to align in the direction of the magnetic field. Under this condition energy is absorbed into the magnetic material. Of the total energy absorbed, some is stored by the molecular alignment, and some is used to overcome a magnetic friction that resists the alignment. As the field current is increased, the magnetic field is strengthened, and more molecules become aligned. As more molecules become aligned, more energy is absorbed, and the field density increases, with a resultant increase in the armature induced voltage. The combination of these actions shape the ascending portion of the saturation curve.
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Figure 71. Typical Generator Saturation Curve As additional current is provided to the field winding, the magnetic density increases linearly with increased field current until the magnetic material reaches its limit to absorb magnetic energy and align molecules. Continuing to increase the field current at this point, produces more field intensity, but the lines of flux travel outside the magnetic iron and the field density of the iron is not changed. This point is the upper peak of the saturation curve and is known as the magnetic saturation point. When this limit is reached, further increases of field current will not result in increased armature voltage.
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Having reached the saturation point of the curve shown in Figure 71, the descending portion of the curve is generated by reducing the amplitude of the field current. As current is reduced, the molecules in the iron tend to remain aligned and maintain the field density. This alignment of molecules causes the curve to travel or move to the left, showing a higher volts per field ampere ratio. As the field current is further reduced, eventually stored energy in the material is released, but the field density change will continue to lag the current change. This action causes the descending portion of the curve to be displaced to the left of the ascending portion. The area between the ascending and descending portions of the curve is referred to as hysteresis. When the field current is completely removed, stored energy remains and a small field intensity or memory exists. The effect is that an induced armature voltage can be obtained with a lower field current after first applying field current and reaching saturation, and then decreasing field current. The saturation curves provided by manufacturers for a specific generator normally exclude and do not show the effect of hysteresis. The curves provided are typically a family of curves that show induced voltage versus field current for different operating conditions. Figure 72 shows a typical family of saturation curves supplied by a manufacturer for a given generator.
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Figure 72. Example of Manufacturer Saturation Curves for a Specific Generator Excitation Current (IE) The field excitation current (IE) is supplied by a DC voltage source. Because the voltage is DC, the steady state current that flows in the field windings, to produce the magnetic field in the rotor poles, is determined by Ohms Law, I = E / R. The resistance R in the circuit is a combination of the winding conductor resistance and an external resistance. Figure 73 shows a generator field supplied by a DC source and controlled with a variable resistor
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Figure 73. Generator Field Circuit With reference to the saturation curve shown in Figure 71, several characteristics of the field excitation current can be noted. The first thing to note is that the field excitation current does not have a linear relationship with the induced voltage. Additionally it is noted that at zero current there is a residual induced voltage, and at high currents the curve flattens and no additional voltage is produced with increased current. Another characteristic of interest is that for excitation current values between zero and maximum, there are actually two curves. One curve provides induced voltage values for ascending values of excitation current, and the other curve provides voltage values for descending values of current. The area between the two curves, called hysteresis, is caused by the magnetic memory of the field poles, and the flatness at the top of the curve is caused by magnetic saturation. Generators are normally designed to use an excitation current that results in operation of the generator near the knee or top of the saturation curve. Terminal Voltage (Vt) The generator terminal voltage is derived from the induced voltage. It is equal to the induced voltage minus the generator internal voltage drop. The value of induced voltage is determined by the rotating field density, which in turn is determined by the field current. The generator internal voltage drop is equal to the load current multiplied by the generator internal impedance. For a generator without load, the terminal voltage can be determined from the generators saturation curve. This determination is possible because terminal voltage is equal to induced voltage when the generator has no load. To read the terminal voltage from the saturation curve, enter the curve on the horizontal axis at the value of excitation current being used. Using the excitation current value as the starting point, follow a vertical line from the excitation current value until it intersects the saturation curve. At the point of intersection, follow a horizontal line from the intersection point to the voltage axis and read the value of voltage. Be aware that when a saturation curve shows the hysteresis, one value of excitation current can intersect the saturation curve at two points giving two different values of voltage. For this case, it must be determined whether the value of field excitation current being used to read the curve was established on the ascending or descending portion of the curve.
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The voltage read from the saturation curve, as explained above, is the voltage induced in the armature windings of the generator. At no load, the induced voltage is equal to the terminal voltage, but as the generator is loaded there is a difference between their values. Generators are normally designed to be operated in a voltage range near the knee or top of the saturation curve. Operation at this point on the curve prevents the generator from producing voltages that would exceed insulation and application limits. Load When load is applied to a generator an IR voltage drop caused by generator internal resistance occurs. As a result the terminal voltage of a loaded generator is different from the terminal voltage of an unloaded generator. In addition to the IR voltage drop caused by internal resistance, generators have an internal inductive impedance that causes an inductive voltage drop. In conjunction with the generator internal resistance and inductance, the generator has external load impedance that is also made up of resistance and inductance. Both the internal and external impedances contribute to the determination of the generator load. Because the external load impedance varies, it is not practical to illustrate the net effect of all loads with a single saturation curve. However, illustration of any single load can be accomplished by developing a saturation curve for the generator at that load by using either test methods or vector mathematics. Power Factor The power factor, or cosine of the angle between the induced voltage in the generator and the terminal current from the generator, can be substantially different than the power factor between the generator terminal voltage and terminal current. The reason and cause for this difference is the interaction of the external load impedance with the generator internal impedance. As an example, consider a generator that has a pure resistive external load. For this case, the resistance of the external load will interact with the internal inductance of the generator to cause a lagging power factor between the generator induced voltage and terminal current. At the same time, the pure resistance external load will cause the terminal voltage to be in-phase with the terminal current, thus causing a unity power factor between the terminal voltage and terminal current. Generator Performance vs. Saturation Load vs. Voltage Relationship To describe the relationship between generator voltage and load, keep in mind that when a generator is running and field current is applied, a voltage is induced in the generator armature windings. For this condition, if the generator is not supplying load current, the terminal voltage is in effect applied across an open circuit. The result is that the terminal voltage and the induced voltage are the same. However, when a load is applied to the generator, current flows through the internal impedance of the generator causing a voltage drop across the impedance. As a result, the terminal voltage and induced voltage become different values.
The induced voltage of a generator can be calculated using Ohms Law provided certain generator parameters are known. The generator parameters required to be known for calculation of the induced voltage include: internal impedance, terminal voltage, load current, and power factor of the load with respect to the terminal voltage. When these parameters are known, the equations shown in Figure 74 can be used to describe the relationship between induced voltage, terminal voltage, and load current.
I (load) = Z (load) = V (induced) = V (terminal) + (I (load) x Z (gen)) I (load) =
Figure 74. Formulas Showing Relationship between Generator Voltage and Load With reference to the formulas shown in Figure 74, it can be seen that both the terminal voltage and induced voltage will vary with load. It can also be seen that the two voltages are different and that the difference is a vector relationship. Because the objective of a power generating system is to regulate and maintain the terminal voltage, when changes in load current cause the terminal voltage to change, adjustments must be made to correct the terminal voltage. However, the adjustment to correct the terminal voltage must be accomplished by making changes to the generator induced voltage. The changes to the generator induced voltage are made by changing the field excitation current. When the induced voltage is known and a saturation curve for the specific generator is on hand, the change of excitation current required to adjust the induced voltage can be determined. Effects of Load and Excitation Current Changes Figure 75 shows the equivalent circuit for a generator that is rated at 60 kVA and 480 volts. Figure 76 shows the manufacturer saturation curves for the same generator. In the following sections, the information for the generator described in these two figures will be used together with vector mathematics to show the effects of load and excitation current changes for several examples of different load conditions.
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Figure 75. Equivalent Circuit for 60 kVA, 480 V Generator
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Figure 76. Saturation Curve for 60 kVA, 480 V Generator

No Load - The first load condition considered for the generator described in Figures 75 and 76 is
the no load condition. As described earlier, when the generator is operating with no load, the terminal voltage is equal to the induced voltage. The relationship between load and excitation current for this example can be determined by consulting the saturation curve shown in Figure 76. Knowing that the induced voltage is equal to the no load voltage, which for this generator is 480 volts, the excitation current required to produce this voltage is determined from the curve to be 4.0 amperes.
Full Load-.8 PF Lag - The next load condition considered for the generator described in Figures 75
and 76 is with the generator operating at full-load, but with a 0.8 lagging power factor. At this operating condition the generator is supplying full-load, and the load current is lagging the terminal voltage with a 0.8 power factor. Figure 77 shows the vector diagram for this load condition. Following the figure is a description of the mathematical solution used to develop the vectors shown in Figure 77.
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Figure 77. Vector Diagram of Generator Voltage with 0.8 Lagging Power Factor The mathematical solution used to develop the vector diagram shown in Figure 77 includes the following steps: Since PF = 0.8, the cosine of the angle is equal to 0.8, and the arc-cosine 0.8 37o. Vt is 480 volts and leads the load current by 37o. Therefore Vt can be divided into two components, one component in line with the current vector and one perpendicular to the current vector. The two components are respectively, 480 volts x cos 37o and 480 volts x sin 37o. 480 volts x cos 37o= 480 volts x 0.8 = 384 volts. 480 volts x sin 37o= 480 volts x 0.6 = 288 volts. The generators resistive internal voltage drop is the full load current times the internal effective resistance. The full load current is equal to the rated full load in kVA divided by rated terminal voltage and is, 60,000 VA / 480 volts = 125 amps. The generator internal resistance given by Figure 75 is 0.04 ohm. Therefore the generator internal resistive voltage drop is, 125 amp x 0.04 ohm = 5 volts. This drop is a vector voltage in line with the current.
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The generator internal inductive voltage drop is equal to the full load current times the generator inductive reactance. From Figure 75, the generator internal inductive reactance is 0.2 ohm. Therefore the generator internal inductive voltage drop is equal to, 125 amps x 0.2 ohm = 25 volts. This voltage is perpendicular to the current vector.
Collecting vector voltages in the same direction yields the following: 384 volts + 5 volts = 389 volts in line with the current vector 288 volts + 25 volts = 313 volts perpendicular to the current vector. The voltage induced in the generator is the vector sum of the two and is equal to, [(389)2 + (313)2]1/2 = 499 volts. This voltage leads the current by the arc tangent of 313/389 = 39o.
From the saturation curve in Figure 76 it is seen that a field excitation of 4.4 amps is required to produce an induced voltage of 499 volts.
Full Load- .8 PF Lead - The next load condition considered for the generator described in Figures 75 and 76 is with the generator operating at full-load, but with a 0.8 leading power factor. This operating condition states that with the generator supplying full-load, the load current is leading the terminal voltage with a 0.8 power factor. Figure 78 shows the vector diagram for this load condition. Following the figure is a description of the mathematical solution used to develop the vectors shown in Figure 78.
When a generator is supplying a lagging load, the terminal and induced voltages are in the first quadrant, and the generator internal inductive voltage drop adds to the external load inductive voltage drop. When the generator is supplying a leading load, the terminal and induced voltages are in the fourth quadrant. The vector addition of the external load capacitive voltage drop to the inductive voltage drop of the generator becomes the difference. The result as seen in Figure 78 is that the induced voltage is lower than the terminal voltage.
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Figure 78. Vector Diagram of Generator Voltage with 0.8 Leading Power Factor The mathematical solution used to develop the vector diagram shown in Figure 78 includes the following steps: Vt =[(480 volts x cos 323o)2 + (480 volts x sin 323o)2]1/2 = 480 volts and lags the load current by 37o VInd = [(480 volts x cos 323o+ 125 amps x 0.04 ohms)2 + ... (480 volts x sin 323o+ 125 amps x 0.2 ohms)2] 1/2 = [(384 volts + 5 volts)2 + ( - 288 volts + 25 volts)2 ] 1/2 =[ (389 volts)2 + (263)2]1/2 = 470 volts The angle between the load current and the induced voltage is equal to the arctangent of 263/384, which is equal to 34o, and the induced voltage lags the current. From the saturation curve shown in Figure 76, a field excitation current of 3.8 amps would be required to produce the 470 volts.
Full load- 1.0 PF - The next load condition considered for the generator described in Figures 75 and
76 is with the generator operating at full-load and unity power factor. This operating condition states that the generator is delivering full load current with the current in phase with the terminal voltage. Figure 79 shows the vector diagram for this load condition. Following the figure is a description of the mathematical solution used to develop the vectors shown in Figure 79.
Figure 79. Vector Diagram of Generator Voltage with 1.0 Power Factor The mathematical solution used to develop the vector diagram shown in Figure 79 includes the following steps: With the generator terminal voltage and current in phase, the induced voltage is determined by: VInd = [( 480 volts + 5 volts)2 + ( 25 volts)2]1/2 = 486 volts. The voltage leads the current by the angle equal to the arc-tangent 25/485 = 3o. From the saturation curve in Figure 76, a field excitation current of 4.1 amps is required to produce the 486 volts.
Reduced Load will affect the generator internal voltage drop that is caused by load current flowing
through the generator internal impedance. The lower the current, the lower will be the internal voltage drop. As described previously, when load current is reduced, the terminal voltage approaches the value of the induced voltage, and the terminal voltage becomes equal to the induced voltage when load current is zero.
Self Excitation occurs when the impedance of a generator load is capacitive and equal to the impedance of the generator. In effect, this condition creates a tuned-circuit between the generator and load impedances. As shown in the previous example for leading power factor, the induced voltage required for a leading power factor load is lower that the terminal voltage. Thus, when self excitation occurs, the generator voltage will go as high as the generator will allow. For this reason, generators should be operated near the top of their saturation curves to prevent excessive voltages by limiting the upper voltage. For most applications, loads are inductive and therefore do not cause a self excitation problem. However, some of the newer low-loss power transformers, when unloaded, can be capacitive and therefore care should be taken to avoid a self excitation condition. Manufacturers of these transformers prevent self excitation during no load tests by operating the generator near saturation for full load voltage. In field operations, generators are normally matched to their applications and therefore do not cause self excitation problems.
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Reactance Values The term reactance as applied to the analysis and design of synchronous generators is virtually always inductive. Therefore, the use of the term reactance in this Information sheet will always mean inductive reactance. The reactance of a generator is important for two major reasons. The first is that the reactance limits and determines the current produced by the generator during fault conditions. The second reason is that the reactance affects the stability of generator operation during both transient and steady state conditions. Unfortunately, while a high reactance limits the short-circuit current, it reduces the ability of the generator to remain stable for system operations. The mathematical symbol for reactance is X. The mathematical equation for inductive reactance is X = 2 x p x f x L, where p = 3.414, f = frequency in hertz, and L = inductance of the circuit. It is useful to note that reactance is an AC quantity and will have a value of zero in DC circuits or when the value of frequency is zero. The value of inductance in a generator varies as the operating conditions for the generator vary. Basically, the fundamental equation for inductance is given by: L = l _ (I x 108) = N _ (I x 108) Where: N = the number of turns linked by the flux = the number of flux lines I = the current in the conductor With reference to these equations for inductance and reactance, it is seen that the effective value of reactance in a generator varies in accordance with the amount of current flowing and the amount of flux produced. In addition, the value of reactance is dependent on the permeance of the flux paths and the saturation limits for the flux density. Because there are multiple flux sources in a generator, the effective value of reactance for a generator is also dependent on the interaction of these flux sources. As described earlier, the multiple flux sources in a generator are identified as the direct axis of the rotor field, the quadrature axis of the rotor field, and the magnetic axis of the stator armature winding as shown in Figure 80.
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Figure 80. Magnetic Axis in a Single Phase Generator Because the determination of generator reactance values can be complex, the manufacturer performs a number of factory tests under controlled and defined conditions to measure and identify generator reactance values. Three effective reactance values that a manufacturer measures are the synchronous reactance (Xd), the transient reactance (Xd), and the subtransient reactance (Xd). These reactances are defined in the following sections
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Synchronous Reactance (Xd) Synchronous reactance is identified by the symbol Xd and is the armature reactance introduced by the direct axis of the rotor during the flow of armature current. Synchronous reactance is also defined as the reactance present during generator short-circuit conditions. The value of this reactance determines the amplitude of steady-state fault current. As previously described, when current flows through the generator, the voltage dropped across the generator impedance causes the induced voltage and terminal voltage to be different. The impedance across which this voltage drop occurs is called the generator synchronous impedance. A major reactive component of this impedance is the synchronous reactance (Xd). Other components of the synchronous impedance include the reactance created by the quadrature axis (Xq) of the rotor and the generators effective resistance. The value of synchronous reactance is used for two purposes. First, it is used to approximate the reactance that is present in the armature circuit. When used for this purpose, the value of synchronous reactance is combined with the generator resistance value and used to calculate generator induced voltage. The calculation for induced voltage requires that generator terminal voltage and current be known. The inverse is also true. That is, if the induced voltage and load impedance are known, the generator armature current and terminal voltage can be determined. Figure 81 shows a vector diagram that illustrates the relationship between induced voltage, terminal voltage, armature current, and synchronous impedance.
Figure 81. Vector Diagram Illustrating Affect of Synchronous Reactance on Generator Voltage
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The second use of synchronous reactance (Xd) is to determine the value of generator steady-state fault current. When a fault condition occurs on a generator, an instantaneous high value of fault current develops. The initial value of the fault current consists of a high value AC component and a high value DC component. Over a period of time, the DC component of the fault current decays to zero and the AC component diminishes to a steady-state value. The value of the steady-state fault current is determined by the value of the generator synchronous impedance, which includes the synchronous reactance (Xd), and the value of the generator induced voltage. Figure 82 shows the waveform of a fault current with the DC component, total component, and steady-state current identified. In practice, the actual value of synchronous reactance (Xd) for a given generator is determined by performing a short-circuit test on the generator.
Figure 82. Fault Current Waveform Transient Reactance (Xd) As described previously, when a fault or short circuit occurs, there is a period of time during which the generator supplies a current higher than the slightly later occurring steady-state fault value. The period of time from the initially higher fault current until the later occurring steadystate value is reached is called the transient time. In order for the fault current to be higher during the transient period than for the steady-state period, one of three conditions must exist during the transient period. These include that during this period the generator voltage be higher, the generator impedance be lower, or a combination of the two conditions exist. The source that causes the condition that allows higher current during the transient period is the energy stored in the various magnetic circuits in the generator. During short circuits, this energy is released and added to the energy creating the fault current. The higher currents during the transient period are explained by establishing that lower reactance exist during this period. This reactance is called the transient reactance (Xd). The current during the transient period is called the transient current (Id) and consists of a DC component added to an AC component. Both current components decay exponentially during the transient period. The rate of current decay is determined by the time constant of the circuit where the fault energy is being released. In turn, the time constant of the faulted circuit is determined by the ratio of the effective reactance to the effective resistance and can range from 2 to 6 seconds.
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Figure 83 illustrates the time-current relationship during the transient period of a short-circuit fault. In this figure the transient time (Td), and the rms values for transient current (Id) and steady-state (synchronous) current (Id) are marked for easy identification. The value of transient reactance (Xd) is determined by first making a short-circuit test on the generator and recording the value of fault current. From the recorded current, the maximum value for the transient current (Id) is measured and then divided by the value of induced voltage for the generator at the time of the fault to give the value of the transient reactance.
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Figure 83. Transient Time-Current Relationship
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Subtransient Reactance (Xd) The subtransient reactance (Xd) is similar to the transient reactance in that it is an effective reactance used to describe fault current. At the instant of a fault, the several magnetic fields within a generator release their stored energy to add to the energy of the fault. This release of stored energy causes the first instant of fault current to be higher than the combined transient and steady-state fault currents. The initial fault current is called the subtransient current (Id) and is attributed to the effective reactance called the subtransient reactance (Xd). The magnetic circuit that causes the subtransient current collapses quickly, usually in less than 0.05 seconds, thus the subtransient current is present for only a short period of time. Figure 84 illustrates the time-current relationship during the subtransient time period. In this figure the subtransient time (Td), and the rms values for subtransient current (Id) and transient current (Id) are marked for easy identification. The value of subtransient reactance (Xd) is determined by first making a short-circuit test on the generator and recording the value of fault current. From the recorded current, the maximum value for the subtransient current (Id) is measured and then divided by the value of induced voltage for the generator at the time of the fault to give the value of the subtransient reactance. From the relative values of subtransient, transient and synchronous currents, it can be noted that the value of subtransient reactance (Xd) is less than the value of transient reactance (Xd), and the value of transient reactance (Xd) is less than the value of synchronous reactance (Xd).
Figure 84. Subtransient Current and Time Decrement Curve Model Figure 85 shows the decrement curve model for three-phase armature short-circuit current. The model is a time versus rms current graph of the three components that make up the armature short-circuit current. These components include the steady-state, transient and subtransient components. Using this model, the direct axis synchronous, transient, and subtransient reactances (i.e. Xd, Xd, Xd) can be determined.
Figure 85. Decrement Curve With reference to Figure 85, the model illustrates the fault current produced by a generator during short-circuit conditions. For this model, the DC component has been removed and the three AC components that make up the curve are given in units of rms amperes. The rms values are determined by dividing peak current values by the square root of two (1.414). Reviewing this model shows that at the initiation of the fault, a high subtransient current (Id) is produced. This current is followed by a transient current (Id) and finally a steady-state current (Id). The magnitudes of these currents are determined by the voltage produced inside the generator and the impedance in the generator circuit. At the very instant that the fault is initiated, the voltage in the generator is equal to the voltage that was present immediately prior to the fault. When the fault occurs, the fault current produces a strong magnetic field in the armature, and the flux from this field passes through the rotor field. The result is an increase in the field current. An example of this result can be seen in the oscillogram shown in Figure 86. This oscillogram shows a typical oscillogram of a sudden three-phase short circuit.
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Figure 86. Typical Oscillogram of a Sudden Three-Phase Short Circuit Synchronous Reactance (Xd) The three reactance values for Xd, Xd, and Xd for a given generator can be determined by using the measured current values from a short-circuit oscillogram for the given generator, similar to the one shown in Figure 86 and the relationships given in the decrement model curve shown in Figure 85. The synchronous reactance can be determined using the following steps:
From the decrement model curve note the formula for Xd to be Xd = Erated _ Id, where Erated is a voltage obtained from the no-load air gap line in the generators family of saturation curves, and Id is the steady-state current after the transient has diminished. Determine Erated and Xd using the saturation curves provided by the manufacturer for the given generator. Determine the symmetrical current component Id by measuring the steady-state rms current from the short-circuit oscillogram.
Transient Reactance (Xd) The value of transient reactance for a given generator can be determined by using the measured current values from a short-circuit oscillogram for the given generator, similar to the one shown in Figure 86, the relationships given in the decrement model curve shown in Figure 85, and the following steps: From the decrement model curve note that the formula for Xd is Xd = Erated _ Id, where Erated is a voltage obtained from the no-load air gap line in the generators family of saturation curves, and Id is the transient current component at the beginning of the fault. Determine the transient current component Id by measuring the excess of the symmetrical component of armature current (except for the first few cycles) over the steady-state component and plotting the difference on semi-log graph paper. Because the transient component is an exponential function, plotting it on log paper will yield a straight line. Extend the straight line back to zero time and add the value of symmetrical current to obtain the value of transient current Id (refer to Figures 87 and 88). Calculate the value of transient reactance using the equation Xd = Erated _ Id.
Figure 87. Envelope of a Synchronous Generators Short-Circuit Current

Figure 88. Subtransient and Transient Currents Plotted to Semi-logarithmic Coordinates Subtransient Reactance (Xd) The value of subtransient reactance for a given generator can be determined by using the measured current values from a short-circuit oscillogram for the given generator, similar to the one shown in Figure 86, the relationships given in the decrement model curve shown in Figure 85, and the following steps: From the decrement model curve note the formula for Xd to be Xd = Erated _ Id, where Erated is a voltage obtained from the no-load air gap line in the generators family of saturation curves, and Id is the current at the instant of fault. Knowing the symmetrical and transient components (determined above), determine the subtransient current component Id by plotting the excess of the symmetrical component of armature current over the transient component on semi-log graph paper. Extend the straight line back to zero time and add the zero time value to the transient component to get the subtransient component Id (refer to Figures 87 and 88). Calculate the value of subtransient reactance using the equation Xd = Erated _ Id.
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Capability Curve Parameters The following sections describe the various parameters of a typical generator capability curve. A generator capability curve is a graph that identifies the guaranteed kW and kVA output for a generator for operating conditions that limit hot spot temperatures to practical operating values. Figure 89 shows an example of a generator capability curve. With reference to Figure 89, it is seen that the capability curve is divided into two sections (upper and lower). The upper section shows a plot of the generator output kW on the horizontal axis versus the generator lagging reactive power (kVARs) on the upper vertical axis. The lower section shows the generator output kW on the same horizontal axis versus the generator leading reactive power (kVARs) on the lower vertical axis. The plot of the curve is drawn in a manner that limits the hot spot temperatures in stator and rotor windings, and in the stator core, to practical operating values, and to limit the temperature differential across the insulation of the windings. These capabilities for the generator are determined by manufacturer calculations and testing and are not directly determinable from the usual temperatures observed during commercial operation.
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Figure 89. Generator Capability Curve Prime Mover Generator prime mover limitations are one of the parameters used to help define capability curves. Prime movers have limitations that are expressed in terms of the maximum torque that they can produce for use in converting mechanical to electrical power. When applicable, these limitations can be overlaid on the capability curve and made a part of the curve defining parameters. For large turbine generators where hydrogen cooling is employed, the cooling is a limitation for the capability of the generator. When hydrogen is used for generator cooling, multiple limitations may be introduced by the various pressures that can be used for the cooling hydrogen. The capability curve shown in Figure 89 illustrates a generator that is driven by a prime mover with adequate torque (no torque limitation overlay), but one that is limited by the hydrogen cooling pressure that is used. For the generator described by Figure 89, hydrogen at 60 psig is used to cool the generator.
Load kW Another parameter that is used to define a generator capability curve is the kW output of the generator. The value of kW output is plotted on the horizontal axis of the curve. The maximum kW output that a generator can produce is determined from the capability curve by reading the value of megawatts at the intersection of the curve with the center horizontal axis. This maximum kW value represents the generator nameplate rated kVA when the generator is operating at unity power factor. By design, the maximum kW output value cannot exceed the torque available from the prime mover or the cooling capability of the generator. Load kVAR Load kVAR is also a parameter that helps to define a generator capability curve. The value of load kVAR is plotted on the vertical axis of the curve. Because kVARs contain amperes, they produce heating in the generator due to I2R losses. In addition to heating from I2R effects, kVARs also introduce additional sources of heat that result from the magnetic effects and flux coupling between the rotor and stator fields. As a result, the amount of kVARs that may flow in a generator without causing excessive heating is limited by the cooling capability of the generator. In addition to the concern for overheating of generator components, it must also be considered that the more reactive power that is allowed to flow in a generator, the lower will be its kW power output. Load kVA Load kVA is a parameter that defines the capability curve as a result of kVAR and kW being defining parameters. The load kVA is the vector sum of the generator kVAR and kW output. The kVAR and kW for the generator can be determined from a kVA line drawn on the capability curve. Underexcitation-Leading Power Factor Leading power factor is another parameter that helps to define the capability curve. This parameter is shown on the lower portion of the curve where the maximum allowed flow of leading kVARs for the generator is plotted. The leading power factor parameter is identified by drawing a straight line from the origin (zero point) to the cooling limit curve. The set of points (loci) that make up the line define the kW and kVA output of the generator for operation at a given leading power factor. The curve illustrated in Figure 89 shows a line drawn to describe operation at the leading power factor value of 0.95.
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Overexcitation-Lagging Power Factor Lagging power factor is an important parameter used to help define a generator capability curve because the generator normally operates with a lagging power factor. The lagging power factor parameter is shown on the upper portion of the capability curve where lagging kVARs are plotted. The lagging power factor parameter is identified on the curve by drawing a straight line from the origin to the cooling limit in the upper portion of the curve. Figure 89 shows a line drawn to describe lagging power factor operation at the value of 0.90. Generator Performance vs. Capability In order to describe generator kVA performance, it is necessary to describe generator performance characteristics. A generator capability curve provides information that helps to describe performance characteristics. Figure 90 shows a generator capability curve with specific component information and cooling limits identified. This curve is used as a reference for the following sections that describe performance characteristics that include: power factor versus VAR capability, synchronous reactance, generator components, VAR flow and unbalanced voltages, and VAR compensation.
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Figure 90. Generator Capability Curves with Identified Cooling Limit Sources Power Factor Versus VAR Capability One of the performance characteristics that describes the operation of a generator is the interrelationship of load power factor and reactive power. The relationship between these parameters (power factor and MVARs) effects the amount of reactive power that will flow in the generator. Because reactive power is a measure of current flow, increased reactive power results in increased current flow for a constant kW output, which in turn causes increased I2R losses and increased heating of the generator components. To minimize the losses and heating, generator operations are performed in a manner to minimize reactive power. However, because generators are required to produce and circulate reactive power as a normal part of their operation, it is important to determine the maximum MVAR levels that can be maintained without overheating the generator components.
The maximum reactive power (MVARs) that a generator may produce when operating at a given kVA load and power factor, can be read directly from the generator capability curve. With reference to Figure 90, it is seen that the MVAR capability of the generator varies with power factor and that it increases with decreasing values of power factor. For the generator described by Figure 90, the maximum lagging MVAR capability when operating at a power factor of 0.935 lagging is read at the intersection of the 0.935 power factor line and the cooling limit curve for the operating cooling pressure. Thus, when this generator is operated at the reduced cooling pressure of 30 psig and 0.935 PF lagging, the maximum MVAR capability is approximately 160 MVAR. However, when the generator is operated at the rated cooling pressure of 60 psig and a power factor of 0.935 lagging, the maximum MVAR capability is increased to approximately 200 MVAR. The increased MVAR capacity for this example results from the increased cooling of the generator at its rated pressure. As seen in Figure 90, the absolute maximum MVAR capability for the generator (410 MVAR, overexcited) occurs at the value of zero power factor, however, it is also noted that the MVAR capability at this point is less than the maximum MW capability for the generator (600 MW) when operated at 1.0 power factor. With reference to component heating, the capability curve of Figure 90 shows that the maximum capability of the generator when operated in the power factor range between 0.95 leading and 0.90 lagging (nameplate rating) is limited by the temperature of the stator winding. This limit results because operation on this portion of the curve corresponds to operation at constant stator amperes with field current always less that the maximum allowed. When the generator is operated overexcited in the power factor range between zero and 0.90 lagging, heating of the rotor winding becomes the limiting factor to the generator capability. This limit occurs because operation on this portion of the capability curve requires increased field current that leads to increased heating of the rotor winding. The maximum capability of the generator when operated underexcited in the power factor range between zero and 0.95 leading is limited by the heating of the stator core iron. The temperature of the stator core becomes the limiting factor when operating on this portion of the curve because at this operating condition considerable leakage flux leaves the end of the stator core and passes through various end iron structures and into the retaining ring. This flux path results in high losses in the first few inches of stator core iron and thus heating of this area. Synchronous Reactance X(d) Synchronous reactance is identified by the symbol Xd and is the armature reactance introduced by the direct axis of the rotor during the flow of armature current. Because the rotor magnetic field is able to influence the armature reactance (synchronous reactance), and because the strength of the rotor field is a limit of the capability of the generator, it follows that an interrelationship exists between the synchronous reactance and the output capability of a generator.
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This relationship can be described by noting that the power angle (torque angle) between the stator and rotor fields varies as a function of the generator load and the rotor field strength. For a constant external generator kW load, lowering the field current reduces the torque angle and increases the generator kVA output required to maintain the external load. This results in higher stator current, a stronger stator magnetic field, and a closer alignment of the stator and rotor fields. In turn, these actions affect the saturation of the rotor and the synchronous reactance of the stator. The affect that these reactions have on the generator output capability is that the increased stator current causes increased heating in the stator. The increased stator heating becomes a limiting characteristic for the output of the generator. In a like manner, increased rotor field current causes increased heating of the rotor winding and is another limitation to the output capability of the generator. These limitations to the generator output capability are identified on the generator capability curve (Refer Figure 90). Generator Components Generator components affect the shape and limits of the capability curve. In particular, the thermal capacity of and ability to cool the generator components helps to determine the shape of the capability curve (Refer Figure 90). One of the affects of generator components on the capability curve can be explained by noting that when a generator is operated at a lagging power factor that is less than the nameplate rated power factor, overheating of the rotor field windings become the limiting factor. When the generator is operated in this area of the capability curve, the rotor windings are required to carry higher current than when the generator is operated between rated and unity power factor. As a result of carrying higher currents, the rotor windings are subject to additional heating. As long as the kVA level of operation remains within the cooling limits of the capability curve, overheating will not occur. However, when operated within this area of the capability curve (between rated lagging power factor and zero power factor) the thermal limit of the rotor and rotor winding determines the shape of the capability curve. Another component that affects the capability curve is the armature winding. When the generator is operated in the power factor range between rated lagging power factor and rated leading power factor, the current flowing through the armature windings is at a maximum. As a result, the temperature rise of the stator windings becomes a limiting factor. Thus the thermal limit of the armature windings and the ability of the generator to cool them determines the shape of the capability curve for operation in this range. When operating the generator under-excited at a leading power factor value that is less than the rated leading power factor, the flux distribution in the generator is such that high losses occur in the first few inches of the iron at the ends of the stator core. Under these circumstances, the temperature of the stator core becomes the limiting factor of operation and thus is responsible for the shape of the capability curve for operation in this region.
VAR Flow / Unbalanced Voltages Unbalanced (phase) generator voltages cause reactive power in the form of VARs to flow in the circuit. The greater the unbalance, the greater will be the flow of reactive power. The increased flow of reactive power affects the power factor and reduces the amount of real (useful) power that the generator can deliver. For this reason, it is desirable to keep phase voltages balanced as close as practical. Because a generator has one rotor and one set of field windings, all three phases of the stator winding are exposed to exactly the same magnetic field and thus generate balanced voltages. However, if there are substantially different phase currents due to different phase loads, an unbalance will exist for the terminal phase voltages. A condition that can result in unbalanced voltages is one where a generator is required to supply large blocks of single-phase loads. For this condition, even though care may be used to balance the generator phase loading by distribution selection, the demand of the users of the single phase loads can vary greatly and often, causing unbalance of phase currents and thus unbalance of phase voltages. When the phase voltages become unbalanced, all of the equipment connected to the system is exposed to the unbalanced voltages including three-phase equipment, and thus causing unwanted VARs to be generated. VAR Compensation When unwanted VARs exist in a generator circuit, compensation is accomplished by adjusting the generator field current. Reducing the field current reduces lagging VARs, and increasing field current reduces leading VARs. For a three-phase generator, unbalanced loads on the individual phases results in unwanted VAR flow through the generator. Under normal conditions, this unbalance cannot be completely corrected to eliminated the unwanted VAR flow, but can only be corrected to a practical balance that reduces the VAR flow. The method normally used to compensate for unwanted VAR flow is the method of cross-current compensation. This method uses control components to automatically adjust the field current of the generator to an optimum point for the given conditions and thereby reduce VAR flow. The cross-current compensation method accomplishes this adjustment by measuring the output voltage and current of the generator, comparing the phase relationship of the two signals, determining what type of adjustment is required to minimize the VAR flow, and then sending an appropriate control signal to the exciter field to make the adjustment.
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GLOSSARY armature The component of a generator in whose coils an alternating voltage is produced due to the relative motion of a magnetic flux field causing the lines of flux to cross the armature winding. A main field exciter consisting of a rotating armature within a stationary field. The AC voltage produced on the armature is rectified to a DC voltage by rotating rectification components assembled onto the shaft of the exciter, thus eliminating the need for collector rings and brushes. A set of metal rings, mounted on the rotor of a generator, and designed to conduct DC current via carbon brushes into and out of the rotor windings. A set of curves that is supplied by the manufacturer of a generator. The curves describe the specific operational characteristics that relate field current, armature current, and output power factor. A generator whose output terminals are connected to the power distribution system without the interposition of a power transformer. A measure of the time response of a rotor displacement angle and terminal voltage to a sudden change in load. The process of establishing and maintaining the magnetic field of a generator. The source of field current for a generator, including its means of control. The magnetic field of a generator; synonymous with rotor. The automatic control element of a prime mover that regulates it to a constant rotational speed. A curve that describes the relationship between field current and armature current for fixed values of load and power with constant terminal voltage.
brushless exciter
collector rings
compounding curves
directly-connected generator dynamic stability excitation excitation system field governor generator V-curve
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generator power angle curve inner-cooled machine
A curve that describes the relationship between the torque angle and the electrical power produced by a generator for a constant value of field current. A generator in which the stator coil coolant flows internally through the coils, the parallel rings, and the lead bushings, with heat transfer consequently occurring by means of direct contact between the conductors and the cooling medium. A rating given to the insulation system of a generator that identifies the maximum temperatures at which the insulation is designed to operate. The value obtained when the sum of the products of phase voltages and line current outputs of a generator are divided by one-million. The value obtained when the sum of the products of output phase voltages and the reactive components of output line currents of a generator are divided by onemillion. The value obtained when the sum of the product of output phase voltages and resistive components of output line currents of a generator are divided by one-million. The condition of a generator when it is driven by the power from other generation sources of the distribution system. In common usage, this term usually implies the special case of motoring when the fuel or steam supply of the prime mover has been interrupted and when the generator remains connected to the system. A generator whose stator voltage is higher than that of the distribution system and that is supplying reactive power (VARs) to the system. The real power to apparent power ratio; the decimal fraction by which volt-amperes must be multiplied to obtain watts. The maximum continuous MW output of a generator that can be delivered at rated power factor without exceeding the temperature limits of winding components.
insulation class
megavolt-ampere (MVA) megavolt-ampere reactive (MVAR)
megawatt (MW)
motoring
overexcited generator
power factor
rated MW
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rated power factor
The value of lagging power factor at which the statorwinding-limited capability curve meets the rotor-windinglimited capability curve. The excitation system controlling mechanism, which senses a change in the voltage or current at each phase of the generator terminals, and, which, corrects for the change by adjusting the field current or by tripping the generator offline. The angular difference between the rotor pole and the rotating magnetic field of the stator, also referred to as the torque angle. The ability of a generator to maintain a stable speed under steady conditions. The temperature rise rating given on a generator nameplate describes the limit of expected rise in temperature over ambient. The output voltage of a generator measured at the generator terminals. Its value is equal to the induced voltage minus the generator internal voltage drop. A generator whose stator voltage is lower than that of the distribution system and is taking reactive power (VARs) from the system. The automatic control component of the excitation system through which the output voltage of the generator is established and maintained.
regulator
rotor displacement (torque) angle steady-state stability temperature rise rating
terminal voltage
under-excited generator
voltage regulator
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Engineering Encyclopedia

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Chapter : Electrical File Reference: EEX10504

For additional information on this subject, contact W.A. Roussel on 874-6160

Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

Figure 1. Sinusoidal Voltage Output

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

Figure 2. Rotating Flux Fields

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

Figure 3. Single-Phase Generator

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

Figure 4. Elementary Three-Phase Generator

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

Figure 6. Torque Angle at No-Load

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

Figure 9. Vector Diagram

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

Figure 11. Three-Phase Generator and Sine Wave Relationship

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals

Figure 13. Generation and Delivery of Mechanical Energy

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Electrical Generator Fundamentals