THEORY Voltage variation along a uniformly loaded cable Consider a uniformly loaded cable as shown in figure 1

V1

V2

I1

I2

Figure 1

Let

i = load per unit length of the cable r = Resistance per unit length of cable l = Length of cable

( )
( )

( ) (

( )

( )

[ ]

]
( )

( )

When

( ) ( )

From equations 1 & 2

( )

( )

If both ends are fed with same voltage V1 then

( )

( )

If the other end of the distributor is open circuited

( )

( )

O/C

Figure 2 Voltage variation along a uniformly loaded cable

PROCEDURE Data : Nominal voltage of the system = 225V Resistance per unit length of distributors = 0.0001/m

The loads and the lengths of the cables are as follows Cable 1 2 3 4 5 Loads (A/m) 1.05 0.48 0.72 1.55 1.05 Length (m) 400 500 750 340 340

Models for the experiment are selected to represent the above cables using the scale factors as given below Scale 2.5 : 1 220000 : 1 1/88000 ; 1 Hence the model values are as follows Model 1 2 3 4 5 No. of sections 7 4 6 6 6 Series Resistance k (per section 0.5 1.1 1.1 0.5 0.5 Shunt resistance k (per section) 330 330 220 220 330 Quantity Voltage Current Resistance

Nominal supply voltage for the model is 90 V 1. Uniformly loaded cable Feed the model 1 at a voltage of 90V at one end and measure the voltage drop along the line , with the other end a. Open circuited b. At 90V 2. Uniformly loaded radial distributor Connect the models 1, 4 & 5 as shown in the figure 3 and feed one end at a voltage of 90V. Measure the voltage drop along the lines with the other ends open circuited

90 V

Figure 3

3. Uniformly loaded ring main distributor Connect the five models in ring main at a voltage of 90 V a) At a junction between the lines and measure the voltage drops along the lines. Determine the minimum voltage point b) At two points (Selecting the junction used in part (a) as one point and minimum voltage point as the other point). Measure the voltage drops along the ring main distributor.

90 V

CALCULATIONS Uniformly loaded cable (Theoretical values) a) When fed at one end and open circuited other end Nominal voltage = V1 = 225V Resistance per unit length = r = 0.0001 /m Load per unit length = i = 1.05 A/m Using equation 5,

( )
At section 2, x = 400/7 m Voltage at section ( )
( )

= 222.77 V
b) When fed at both ends with 225 V Using equation 4,

( )
At section 2, x=400/7 m Voltage at section 2 =

)
( )

= 223.97 V

Practical values Voltage scale factor = 2.5 : 1 At section 2 , Voltage when open circuit at other end = 892.5 = 222.5 V Voltage when 225 at other end = 88.72.5 = 221.75 V

Section 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 \

Length (m) 0 57.143 114.286 171.429 228.571 285.714 342.857 400.000

Open circuit at other end Practical (V) Theoretical (V) 225.00 225.00 222.50 222.77 221.25 220.89 219.50 219.34 218.75 218.14 217.25 217.29 216.25 216.77 216.25 216.60

Fed at both ends with 225V Practical (V) Theoretical (V) 225.00 225.00 221.75 223.97 221.25 223.28 220.75 222.94 221.25 222.94 221.75 223.28 222.50 223.97 225.00 225.00

Voltage distribution of uniformly loaded cable

Uniformly loaded Radial distributor Section h g f e d c b a Model 1 Distance (m) 0 57.143 114.286 171.429 228.571 285.714 342.857 400.000 Voltage (V) 225.00 221.75 219.50 218.25 217.00 216.25 215.75 215.50 Section i j k l m n Model 4 Distance (m) 56.667 113.333 170.000 226.667 283.333 340.000 Voltage (V) 221.75 219.75 218.25 216.50 215.25 215.25 Section o p q r s t Model 5 Distance Voltage (m) (V) 56.667 223.00 113.333 220.75 170.000 219.50 226.667 218.00 283.333 217.50 340.000 217.25

Voltage distribution of uniformly loaded radial distributor

Uniformly loaded Ring Distributor Distance from feeding point is measured in counter clockwise direction Model Section a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab Distance (m) 57.14 114.29 171.43 228.57 285.71 342.86 400.00 525.00 650.00 775.00 900.00 1025.00 1150.00 1275.00 1400.00 1525.00 1650.00 1706.67 1763.33 1820.00 1876.67 1933.33 1990.00 2046.67 2103.33 2160.00 2216.67 2273.33 Voltage (V) Case (a) Case (b) 218.25 222.25 213.25 219.50 208.50 217.25 204.50 215.25 201.25 213.75 197.50 212.75 195.00 212.25 190.00 211.25 185.75 211.50 182.50 212.25 179.25 214.50 177.25 217.25 175.75 221.50 225.00 175.00 175.75 220.75 176.75 215.75 179.75 211.50 181.50 210.50 184.00 210.50 186.75 209.75 189.50 210.75 191.75 210.75 195.25 213.00 199.25 213.25 203.00 215.50 207.00 217.00 212.75 220.50 218.25 223.25

Voltage distribution of uniformly loaded radial distributor

For case (a) Minimum voltage point is n Minimum voltage = 175.0 V Maximum voltage drop of the distributor = 225.0 175.0 V = 50 V Maximum percentage drop = = 22.22%

For case (b) Minimum voltage point is t Minimum voltage = 209.75 V Maximum voltage drop = 225.00 209.75 = 15.25 V Maximum percentage drop = = 6.78 %

DISCUSSION 1. Radial distribution system Advantages : Easy to install and maintain the system. Installing the system is relatively small. Can be used in rural areas. Need least amount of conductors. Can be easily expanded. Useful when the power is generated at low voltage and substation is located at the centre of the load. Disadvantages : The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded Any fault on the distributor or feeder cuts off supply to the consumers who are on the side of the fault away from the substation System cannot restored until the fault is fixed Consumer line which is near to the feeding point is heavily loaded and consumers who are far away from the feeding point has heavily fluctuated voltage. Ring Distributor System Advantages : There are less voltage fluctuations at consumers terminals. The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via two feeders. In the event of fault on any section of the feeder , the continuity of supply is maintained. Disadvantages : Due to the additional switching, and greater circuit complexity this is very expensive method to install. Maintenance is difficult. Difficult to expand.

2. Methods to Improve the voltage profile Application of shunt capacitors on the primary feeders Install optimal size of capacitor so it would cause achieve voltage profile improvement with minimum power losses. Installing of new primary feeders and substations Introduce voltage regulators out on the primary feeders and in the distribution substation. Balance the loads on the primary feeders and transfer the load to new feeders. Use feeder conductors with suitable cross sectional areas and high conductivity.

3. Allowable limits of distribution system voltage and frequency Allowable voltage limit is for rated value of 230 V 6% of nominal voltage. That is between 216V and 244V

Allowable Frequency limit is for rated value of 50Hz

1% of rated value. That is between 49.5Hz and 50.5Hz

4. Comparison of Underground and overhead systems Overhead lines are generally mounted on wooden, concrete or steel poles which are arranged to carry distribution transformers in addition to the conductors. The underground system uses conduits, cables and manholes underground.

Underground System Public safety Initial cost More safe because all distribution wiring is underground More expensive due to the high cost of trenching, conduits, cables, manholes, and other special equipment Less flexible. Manholes and duct lines etc are permanently placed .Once installed expansion can only be met by laying new cables Faults are very rare, but if a fault occurs its difficult to find the fault and repair. Appearance is better as all lines are invisible Much longer than overhead lines Less because less chances of faults and service interruptions from wind, ice lightning as well as from traffic hazards. High No interference with telephone lines No damages from bad weather conditions like wind or storms

Overhead System Can be hazardous to people and animals (birds) sometimes Less expensive compared to underground system More flexible. Poles ,Wires and other equipments can be easily shifted to meet the changes in load conditions Faults can identify and repair easily. There is high chance of faults. Overhead lines cause some damage to the beauty of the nature Less then underground cables High compared to underground systems due to the high probability of faults Low Causes electromagnetic interference with telephone lines. Over head lines can damaged from wind and storm

Flexibility

Faults Appearance Useful life Maintenance Cost Initial cost Interference Damages from wind and storm

Voltage Distribution of Uniformly Loaded Cable Fed at one end

226 Practical Theoretical 225 Voltage (V)

224

223

222

221

220

219

218

217

216

215 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Distance (m)

Voltage Distribution of uniformly loaded Cable Fed at both ends with 225 V
225.5 Voltage (V) Linear (Series2) Theoretical 225

224.5

224

223.5

223

222.5

222

221.5

221

220.5

220 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Distance (m)

Voltage Distribution of Uniformly loaded Radial Distributor

226 Voltage (V)

225

Model 1 Model 4

224

Model 5

223

222

221

220

219

218

217

216

215

214 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

Distance (m)

Voltage distribution of uniformly loaded ring distributor

230

Voltage (v) 220 210 200

case (b) case (a)

190

180

170 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 Distance (m) 2250