DESCENT O F T H E GODDESS ISHTAR T O T H E N E T H E R W O R L D AND N A H U M II 8 by ARON PINKER

Maryland, U.S.A.

I Reider observed, "The diminutive Book of Nahum, prophesying the destruction of Nineveh, is replete with textual difficulties of all sorts, but undoubtedly the greatest of them all, a veritable crux interpretum, is ii 8, on which a flood of ink and reams of paper have been spent from time immemorial."1 Similarly, Smith noted, "The meaning of this line is hopelessly obscured. The first word presents an apparently insoluble problem."2 Van der Woude, somewhat more optimistically, opined that "The text of ii 8 is admittedly obscure, although perhaps not hopelessly corrupt."3 The first line of this verse has been the subject of extensive exegetical analysis. Yet, it is difficult to say that this effort has made its meaning any clearer.4 Each of the three words D2m, nrf?3 and nrfoSfil has posed significant difficulties of interpretation. In particular, the word 32$m appeared enigmatic, though its grammatical form is obvious if assumed a verb. The second hemistich does not pose any unusual textual problems, but its

J. Reider, "A New Ishtar Epithet in the Bible," JNES 8 (1949), p. 104. J.M.P. Smith, "Commentary on the Book of Nahum," in J.M.P. Smith, W.H. Ward, J.A. Bewer, Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Micah, fypkaniah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Obadiah and Joel (Edinburgh, 1985), p. 320. 3 A.S. van der Woude, "The Book of Nahum: A Letter Written in Exile," OTS 20 (1977), p. 115. 4 H.W.F. Saggs, "Nahum and the Fall of Nineveh," JTS n.s. 20 (1969), pp. 220-5. Saggs provides an example of interesting textual analysis that ends with a translation defying logic. He translates this verse thus: "Its column-base(s) is/are dissolved (and) carried away; And its gate-frames(?) are groaning, with the sound of the attacker hammering upon the midst of them." One wonders why would the attacker hammer on the gates of the palace when its foundations are already being dissolved and carried away. Would the Assyrian builders make column bases from material that can be easily dissolved?
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specific meaning depends on the context within which each of the three words of the first hemistich makes sense. The purpose of this paper is to suggest an understanding of Nah. ii 8 within the framework of a religious rite that was based on the myth of Ishtar's descent to the Netherworld. Already the Versions are divided on what 2 means, giving the following translations: Septuagint"and the foundation" ( ), perhaps relating it to 20; Targum"and the queen sits in a litter" (fcO^ ^) makes a twofold use of ^, as "queen" (cf. Ps. xlv 10) and as "litter" (cf. Num. vii 3 and Isa. lxvi 20, in Akkadian sumbu or subbu is "cart"); 5 Peshitta"and made to stand" (nO'pR'l); Vulgate"and the army, soldier" (et miles), perhaps reading fcO^m.6 Taken as a verb, ) (hussab) is the Hophal perfect 3rd masculine (singular) of the root DH3, occurring only in this verse. Thus, 3 means "and he/it has been set/erected," but can also have the implied sense "and that which has been set/erected, and he who has been set/erected" p2H [(?]1). However, it is not clear what or who has been erected or set, and how does it relate to the following two feminine words. Some traditional Jewish commentators follow the Targum, construing the first line of this verse as having "queen" for its subject. Rashi, Trani, and Metzudot take 3^ as referring to the queen relying on Ps. xlv 10. Yet, in Ps. xlv 10 the text * 2 ? 2, "the consort stands," clearly indi 7E cates that 2$3 means "stand" not "queen," and not everything that stands is a "queen." Ibn Ezra assumed that ^ was the name of the queen of Nineveh, and his view was adopted by many. 7 Kimchi takes nism as referring to the long lasting palace ("2OTT 2^ bynn ), in which case the word is more properly linked to the preceding verse. Ibn Kaspi and Abarbanel give 31 the sense of D^DI, "and the

5 K.J. Gathcart and R. Gordon, The Targum of the Minor Prophets (Edinburgh, 1989), p. 136, n. 24. With regard to the Targum's rendering D2fiTl as "litter" the authors note that the Targum "is in striking agreement with the Greek Dodekapropheton discovered in the Dead Sea region (8HevXIIgr), in which hsb is rendered by h lampn." 6 The Nova Vulgata has et speciosa. 7 F. Brown, S.R. Driver, and C.A. Briggs (BDB), Hebrew and English Lxicon of the Old Testament (Peabody, 2001), p. 662. BDB finds the meaning "he/it has been fixed, he/it has been fixed," very dubious and suggest that ^ is a proper name or epithet of a queen. The KJV and Webster translate 3 "Huzzab," and RSV "its mistress."

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state." Tanhum mentions an intriguing opinion that connects this verse with the end of Nah. ii 6: When the pavis (large shield) or mantelet (moveable shelter) were erected (32SH), the city was revealed (nrfa), and it was invaded (^^).8 As Ibn Ezra, many felt that 3^ is the proper name of some female Assyrian personality. Wellhausen assumed that 3^ is the proper name of an Assyrian princess, some believed she was a queen, and others just used the epithet Huzzab. 9 These positions were to a great degree shaped by the difficult 3 and the reference to "maidservants" in the following hemistich. However, the female name Huzzab would be of an unusual formation, and it has not been found elsewhere. Driver tried to debunk this notion by making creative use of Greek and Arabic. According to Driver, "the answer to the riddle stares the interpreter in the face, if only he can combine an adequate knowledge of the Greek and Arabic vocabularies with sufficient imagination to explain a rare or unique Hebrew term." 1 0 Driver obtains a meaning "(captive) train" for a noun hassob, which he relates to a similar Arabic word. Reider considers D^l a contraction of 2 (haCasb), "female idol," which he takes as referring to Nineveh's goddess Ishtar (cf. Jer. xliv 19). He explains the omission of the by euphony, and that of the as a common biblical phenomenon. 11 Saggs takes D2Sn as derived from the root 32S3, a cognate of the Akkadian nasbu, "to suck out." The following fflrfa he takes as the cognate of the Akkadian gullatu (column-base), obtaining "its column-base(s) is/are dissolved."12 However, it can be questioned whether the Akkadian allows such an extension of meaning. Ehrlich emends 32m to (ufhussat), "and it was put to fire," and takes it as the last word of the previous verse, reading TiDl ^DTIiTI n^m (Jer. li 30).13 It is not clear what additional destruction does add to y\l. Others similarly link D2Sm to the previous verse rendering, "the palace is dissolved, though firmly established," or "the palace is

8 H. Shy, Tanhum Ha-Terushalmi's Commentary on the Minor Prophets (Jerusalem, 1991), p. 196. 9 J. Wellhausen, Du kleinen Propheten, 2nd ed. Skizzen und Vorarbeiten 5 (Berlin, 1893), p. 262. 10 G.R. Driver, "Farewell to Queen Huzzab," JTS n.s. 15 (1964), p. 296. 11 J. Reider, "A New Ishtar Epithet in the Bible," JNES 8 (1949), pp. 104-107, especially p. 106. 12 Saggs (. 4), pp. 220-2. 13 A.B. Ehrlich, Mra ki-Pschuto (New York, 1969), p. 446.

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dissolved and made to flow away (rpsm)." Yet, attaching D2Sm to the previous verse leaves the first hemistich bereft of a subject and too short. Haupt emends D2$m to 2 ) "brought out." Since this reading , deprives the hemistich of a subject, he inserts arbitrarily "]^0 bffl, "the Kings consort."14 Smith leaves 21n untranslated.15 However, he finds as noteworthy the following interpretations for the first hemistich: "and the queen is stripped naked, uncovered and made to ascend (the pyre)," "brought out, a captive, deported is the king's fair consort," "the goddess (Zib) is uncovered and brought to the light," Zib being the name of the planet Venus with which Ishtar was identified.16 Rudolph emended 3 to , "she (the queen) was made to stand among the exiled," in his reconstruction of the first hemistich into rf?3pl] [rfpHm *??.17 Many have made the first word some sort of a designation of the Assyrian queen, who is either carried into captivity or made to ascend the funeral pyre. That D^n still defies a solution acceptable to most scholars is evidenced by the more recent interpretations. Despite Driver's hopes the NJPS translates 2 "Huzzab." Roberts renders nam "is made to stand." 18 Many standard English translations of the Bible (NKJV, NLT, Darby's, ASV, HNV) have "And it is decreed," a meaning unattested anywhere else in the HB. Achtemeier further connects it incorrectly with the homophone 1 in i 14.19 Van der Woude proposes the repointing 2 wehassb, "on a wagon."20 Yet, the copulative waw has nowhere in the Hebrew Bible the meaning "on." Cathcart reads hasseb% "The Beauty," referring to Ishtar of Nineveh.21 Spronk understands as shaming 2 of the king in a situation in which the queen is exposed and raped. He translates , "and he is put down." 22

P. Haupt, The Book of Nahum: A New Metrical Translation with an Introduction, Restoration of the Hebrew Text and Explanatory and Critical Notes (Baltimore, 1907), pp. 14, 45, 50. 15 Smith (n. 2), p. 310. 16 Smith (n. 2), p. 320. 17 W. Rudolph, Micha-Nahum-Habakuk-^ephanja (; Gtersloh, 1975), p. 168. 18 J J . M . Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and ^ephaniah (Louisville, 1991), p. 55. While "is made to stand," a proper translation of D^PI, goes well with "princess" (^^) in English, in Hebrew the gender of the two words does not agree. 19 E. Achtemeier, Nahum-Malachi. Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching (Atlanta, 1986), pp. 19-20. 20 Van der Woude (n. 3), p. 115. 21 K.J. Cathcart, "Nahum in the Light of Northwest Semitic Studies," BibOR 26 (1973), p. 96. Note: It has been suggested that one of Ishtar's proper names was Zib. 22 K. Spronk, Nahum (Kampen, 1997), p. 98.

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The difficult 3 has certainly given rise to a host of interpretations 2 and emendations, none of them compelling.23 Perhaps, D refers to 2H the idol that was erected. Such sense can be found in Palmyrene msb\ Nabatean nsb, Punic nsb, "statue, image." Dahood vocalizes nssb for MT nissb in Ps. xxxix 6, and translates "a false image."24 Clearly, the sense of "god, goddess, idol, statue, the erected (figure)" for 3 would seem proper. In Nineveh the most prominent goddess was Ishtar. Thus, it is possible that Nahum alludes to Ishtar by the oblique reference D2$m "and [which] was erected," meaning "and the statue that was erected." The masculine may reflect a certain ambiguity with respect to the gender of a god since Assyrian masculine deities had feminine forms, and it is not by any means improbable that the god desses had masculine forms. For instance, Ishtar, in her aspect of the fighting deity, is designated as male ferocious animals. 25 II The second word in Nah. ii 8, irfa (guitta), seems to be the Pual perfect 3rd feminine (singular) of the root 03, meaning "she was uncov ered." 26 While the Septuagint understands it so, translating , the Targum's ^ has been interpreted as "among the exiles (on foot),"27 or "roaming dazed." 28 The disparity among the Versions is highlighted by the Peshitta's understanding nn'PD as "summons her horsemen," and the Vulgate's "captives" (captivus).29

Among other emendations offered for 3^ are hassb (Hitzig), w'hassb3 (Gratz), massb or massba (Volck), ufhuss'pa (Gheyne), ufhassegl (Marti), wehusse3 (Haupt, BHS), hsf (Gry, BHS), etc. D & was believed to be "the divine statue" (Haldar), the "splendid 27 city" (Knabenbauer), "the female idol" (Reider), "symbolic name of Nineveh" (Jerome), "the lizzard" (Hitzig), "it is settled" (Ridderbos), some leave the word untranslated (Kautzsch, Ruben, J.P.M. Smith), etc. 24 M. Dahood, Psalms II, AB 17 (Garden City, 1979), p. 93. 25 G.P. Theophilus, "The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria," www.sacred-texts, com/ane/rbaa.htm. 26 G.R. Driver, a n d J . C . Miles, The Assyrian Laws (Oxford, 1935), pp. 126-134 and pp. 407-409. Assyrian women covered their faces outside their homes. Only the maidservants and prostitutes had to keep their face uncovered. Thus, uncovering of a woman connoted shaming or an indecent act. 27 M.A. Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Terushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature (New York, 1950), p. 248. 28 Cathcart and Gordon (n. 5), p. 136. 29 The Nova Vulgata has denudatur.

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Rashi appears to take nrta in a dual sense: "publicly, openly" C'frjQ), and "captivity, exile" (OEQ). A similar understanding is implied in Ibn Ezra's explanation that the queen was openly exiled. Kimchi interprets nrbl as referring to the city, "Nineveh was stripped of its defenses." Ibn Kaspi and Abarbanel, however, take nrfa = mCD#, "crown" (Zee. iv 2), assuming that the verse speaks about Nebuchadnezzar's attack on Jerusalem. He explains that D!m means, "the state of its crown (Shechina)." Trani explains *73 as taking the queen from her private chambers. 30 Haupt reads hogtt, "she was exiled." He claims that the omission of the is due to haplography: ^^ -> ^ -> n r t a s m nrbl D2$m.31 Driver proposed the repointing guitta as gatta, "goes into captivity."32 Cathcart renders irb, "has been stripped."33 Saggs takes as the cognate of the Akkadian gullatu (column-base), obtain ing "and its column-base(s) is/are dissolved" for .34 Ehrlich takes irta as meaning "she was discovered," the lady of the palace was discovered in her hiding.35 Smith leaves nrb untranslated.36 Spronk understands 01 in a context of shaming the king by the queen's exposure and rape. He translates irb, "she is exposed."37 Pereman considers T\rbl = rrfa r?M, "exile cart."38 Most of the exegetes seem to give nrfa one of the meanings "she was denuded, she was exiled," or a nuance of each meaning. Both meanings would fit a situation of a city that was captured. However, there is no textual evidence that the city Nineveh has actually been conquered at this point. The irony in the following verse would make sense only in the case when Nineveh has not yet been captured. Only then would the futile attempts of its people, trying to desert the city, when there is no place where to go, seem ironic.39 It will be shown

I. Trani, Perush Neviim Uketuvim II (Jerusalem, 1978), p. 117. Haupt (. 14), pp. 14, 45, 50. 32 G.R. Driver, "Farewell to Queen Huzzab," JTS n.s. 15 (1964), p. 298. 33 Cathcart (n. 5), p. 96. 34 Saggs (n. 4), pp. 220-1. The morphologically equivalent Hebrew form gullatu would be gullh, with 3rd singular feminine suffixed gullth (cf. 1 Kgs. vii 41, 42 = 2 Chr. iv 12, 13). Saggs suggests that gullatu and gullh may have both originally been used for a globe-shaped section of a structure. 35 Ehrlich (. 13), p. 446. 36 Smith (n. 2), p. 310. 37 Spronk (n. 22), p. 98. 38 J. Pereman, Sepher Nahum (Tel Aviv, 1956), p. 50. 39 A. Pinker, "NinevehAn Isle is She," &W 116 (2004).
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later that Nahum used nrbl as a double entendre, in line with Rashi's interpretation, albeit not with regard to a real queen but rather to the goddess Ishtar.

Ill The third word in the hemistich, nrfPOT (hCalta), if taken as a verb, is the Hophal perfect 3rd feminine (singular) of the root ?, mean ing "she has been carried away, she has been raised." In Akkadian el is "go up, ascend, climb." The Septuagint renders ^^, "she has gone up" ( ), perhaps reading ntbv KVT. The Targum takes nrbvn as "she goes forth" (npS3), the Peshitta as "fleeing north ward," and the Vulgate as "to lead away, take away, abduct" (abductus est).40 Again, the Versions differ; though the actual difference is perhaps less than it appears on the surface. Rashi renders nvbvn "removed (from the city)." Ibn Ezra and Metzudot translate ^, "lifted (into the carriage)." Kimchi takes nrf7OT = nn-D3, "was cut off" (Job 26). Abarbanel interprets nrf?OT = *?03, "removed herself." Haupt interprets in^OT as "deported."41 Van der Woude, following Ruben and Duhm, proposed transposing the b and the in ^^ and pointing the resulting word as hCatall, thereby obtaining the Hebrew equivalent of the Akkadian etelletu, "high, exalted," and as a substantive "lady, madam, queen."42 Cathcart translates nrbVTi, "carried off."43 Smith leaves ^ untrans lated.44 Spronk translates nrfPOT, "was raped." 4 5 IV Most scholars try to understand the difficult text of the first hemistich in Nah. ii 8 in the general framework suggested by a literal understanding

The Nova Vulgata has tollitur. Haupt (n. 14), p. 45. While Haupt provides an extensive etymology for *730, there is no justification in his commentary for this specific insert. 42 Van der Woude (n. 3), p. 115. A transposition of two adjacent characters is attested in the Hebrew Bible (Lev. iv 32 and Lev. iii 7). Note that the Hebrew name T^nj? may be related to etelletu (cf. D. Jeaneane and J.D. Fowler, Theophoric Personal Names in Ancient Hebrew: A Comparative Study, JSOTS 49 (Sheffield, 1988), p. 162). 43 Cathcart (n. 5), p. 75. 44 Smith (n. 2), p. 310. 45 Spronk (n. 22), p. 98.
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of the MT. In this context, verses 7 and 8 detail the way and manner of Nineveh's fall and the exile of its queen. The protecting dams and sluices are burst open and the palace is dissolved (verse 7); the queen is uncovered and carried away, while her handmaids moan as doves, beating upon their breasts (verse 8). The differences among these scholars usually stem from the specific meaning assigned to the difficult words of the text, particularly in the first hemistich. A representative sample of interpretations, which has been provided above, illustrates the effort that has been invested in understanding this hemistich. Obviously, it is impossible to go through the plethora of suggestions that have been made and judge their relative merits. However, we may well question whether the general framework, which did not enable a simple explanation despite intensive efforts, is the right one for understanding this verse. Clearly, one has first to sort out who or what is the subject of the first hemistich. It seems to me that the most likely framework for understanding this verse is that of a religious service intended to save the city from its obvious predicament. Already Smith reached the conclusion that "The probability that the goddess of Nineveh is referred to here is certainly greater than that it is the queen. The latter plays no conspicuous part in Assyrian history, while the goddess occupied a very large place in the minds of the Assyrian monarchs."46 Smith seems to be correct in his observation that the first hemistich refers to Ishtar. However, his suggestion that this hemistich describes the exile of Assyrian gods by the conqueror, as was Assyrian custom with vanquished nations (Isa. xlvi If.), appears to be unfounded. It seems from the text that at this point Nineveh has not yet been taken and held sufficient time for implementing such a transfer of gods, usually performed upon exit from the conquered territory. Assuming that 32$m refers to the statue of Ishtar and irta means "she was denuded, she was exiled" we have to look for a situation in which Ishtar is denuded and/or exiled, while the city did not yet fall. These circumstances bring to mind the descent of Ishtar to the Netherworld. According to Assyrian mythology Ishtar sought to retrieve her lover Tammuz from the Netherworld. When she passed through the first gate of the seven gates of the Netherworld, she was told by the gatekeeper that she must remove her crown, as "such are the

Smith (n. 2), p. 320.

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decrees of Eres-ki-gal," Queen of the Netherworld and sister of Ishtar. At the second gate, the gatekeeper removed the pendants from Ishtar's ears; at the third the necklaces from her neck; at the fourth the orna ment from her breast; at the fifth the girdle of birthstones from her hips; at the sixth her bracelets and anklets; and, at the seventh he removed the garments from her body. The Semitic name of the Sumero-Babylonian goddess Eres-ki-gal is Allatu. It is Allatu that causes the "denuding" of Ishtar and her "exile" into the Netherworld. One is obviously struck by the similarity between Allatu and ^.47 If in Nah. ii 8 is understood to be the name Allatu, then the verse describes a scene of the annual rite, in which the descent of Ishtar into the Netherworld was enacted on the Assyrian New Year, which began on the first of Nisan (March-April) and lasted twelve days.48 The rite probably included the progressive denuding of the erected statue of Ishtar by a person acting as an underling of Allatu, her entry into a symbolic Netherworld, and Ishtar's maidservants ()49 moaning ()330) as the sound of doves (DOT ^IpD) and beating

J.B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton, 1955), pp. 106-109. It is not inconceivable that the original was 7id?u "thick darkness" (Gen. xv 17, Ezek. xii 6, 7, 12), which was replaced by the same sounding nrb when the mythical background was no more obvious. nd?2 would, obviously, fully describe Allatu the Queen of the Netherworld, "the house without light for him who enters therein." 48 A.K. Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, TCS 5 (Locust Valley, N.Y., 1975), p. 94, lines 43-45.26. It is interesting to note that according to Fall of Nineveh Chronicle: "The fourteenth year [612-611 BCE]: The king of Babylonia mustered his army and marched to [lacuna]. The king of the Medes marched towards the king of Babylonia, [lacuna] they met one another. The king of Babylonia [lacuna] Cyaxares [lacuna] brought across and they marched along the bank of the Tigris, [lacuna] they encamped against Nineveh. From the month Smannu [June] until the month Abu [August] for three monthsthey subjected the city to a heavy siege. On the [lacuna] day of the month Abu they inflicted a major defeat upon a great people". The enactment of Ishtar's descent to the Netherworld normally occurred about the second week of Nisan, which places it at about a month and half before the official siege started. Assuming that the attacker needed some time to bring the siege equipment and seal the city exits, Nineveh must have known that it is in dire circumstances when the New Year rites were performed. This confluence of fact and prophecy, if my interpretation of Nah. ii 8 is correct, may support a post-event dating of Nahum's Nineveh-oracles. 49 The "handmaidens" are probably the female devotees of Ishtar, the women who gave themselves up wholly to her temple service and were given the name Kadishtu (i.e. "holy women") or Ishtaritum (i.e. "dedicated to Ishtar"). The HB mentions that "The women (qedeshot) wove hangings for the grove" (2 Kgs. xxiii 7) and these cultic functionaries were banished in various religious reforms (1 Kgs. xv 12, 2 Kgs. xxiii 7). Perhaps, the DrQK wove veils that were placed on Ishtar. For instance, Hymn to Ishtar contains the line "She is glorious; veils are thrown over her head" (Pritchard, p. 383).

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on their breasts flrDD*? b ). While the metaphor of mourning as a dove is rather common, here it may allude specifically to Ishtar. 50 One common characteristic of the early images of Ishtar are her bird like facial features. Aphrodite, the Greek counterpart of Ishtar, is also often associated with doves, which are her symbol. Understanding the first hemistich of Nah. ii 8 as an allusion to the enactment of Ishtar's descent to the Netherworld fits perfectly the orthography of the MT's mrbl 321, "and [which] was erected, Allatu denuded/exiled." 51 This was understood to imply "the statue of Ishtar that was erected, Allatu denuded and exiled to the Netherworld." It is necessary now to show the relevance of an enactment of Ishtar's descent to the Netherworld for what Nineveh experienced at that time. Nineveh was located at the northwest angle of an irregular trapezium shaped plain which lay between the rivers Khoser on the northwest, Gomal on the northeast and east, Greater Zab on the southeast and south, and Tigris on the south and west. The plain thus formed was about 25 mile by 15 mile. The topography of the terrain surrounding Nineveh, strongly suggests that it may have relied on the posts at the bridges across the Tigris, Greater Zab, Khoser, and Gomel rivers for holding back and delaying an enemy's advance, and thus providing strategic warning for mobilization and deployment of its chariotry in this plain. Nahum predicted that Nineveh's defensive strategy would fail. It would not be able to deploy its chariotry (verses ii 4-5) because a swift and capable adversary would take these river crossings (verse ii 6). Quick capture of these crossings meant fall of the city. When the "court" realized that these crossings fell ( 3 2) it resorted to a drastic appeal to Ishtar, the protecting goddess of Nineveh, and the goddess of love and war. The appeal to Ishtar was in the form of an enactment of her descent to the Netherworld to save her beloved Tammuz. While the full sym bolism of the enactment for the situation at hand may elude us at this time, it is reasonable to assume that it was intended to urge Ishtar

50 Descriptions similar to the one in this verse are found in a number of ancient Assyrian texts. For instance, Prayer of Lamentation to Ishtar contains the line "I mourn like a dove night and day." 51 There is no need to emend 32iTI to 2$. Assyrian masculine deities had feminine forms, so it is not by any means improbable that the goddesses had masculine forms. For instance, Ishtar, in her aspect of the fighting deity, is designated as male ferocious animals.

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into action on behalf of her beloved city as she successfully did for Tammuz. It may have been a plea to the gods to save Ishtar's city from the potential descent to the Netherworld, as they saved Ishtar from her exile there. Perhaps, the enactment of Ishtar's denuding was a vivid depiction of what women of the city could expect if Nineveh fell to the enemy. Ishtar was the goddess concerned with the wellbeing of women
Be it slave, unattached girl, or mother, she preserves (her). One calls on her; among women one names her name ("Hymn to Ishtar"). 52

She was called now to save Nineveh and its women from the shame of personal exposure and degradation.53 Moreover, if Nineveh fell Ishtar itself would not be spared. She would be denuded as in the Netherworld by the looting soldiers.54 It should not be forgotten that as long as Tammuz the god of fertility was in the Netherworld impotence prevailed in the world. Nahum's depiction of Assyrian countermeasures vis--vis the impending military threat present an image of an inept, confused, and dispirited nation. It is possible that the enactment of Ishtar's descent to the Netherworld was supposed to restore Assyrian vitality, courage, and capability. The enactment of Ishtar's descent to the Netherworld was imbued with so much relevant symbolism for the crisis in which Nineveh found itself, that one would have assumed its enactment even if Nahum would not have alluded to it. In a terse three-word hemistich Nahum was able to convey Nineveh's desperation, impotence, and terrible fear of looming defeat. Nineveh's fall was perceived as nothing less than the

Pritchard (n. 47), p. 383. This same motif of revealing the nakedness of a female is repeated in the parallel oracle (iii 5). 54 J.A. Black, "A-Se-er Gi6-ta a balag of Inana," Acta Sumerologia 1 (1985), pp. 11-87. This Mesopotamian balag, "Sighs in the Night," contains the lines
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52

That enemy entered my dwelling-place wearing his shoes That enemy laid his unwashed hands on me He laid his hands on me, he frightened me That enemy laid his hands on me, he killed me with fright I was terrified, he was not afraid of me He tore my garments off me, he dressed his wife in them That enemy cut of my lapis lazuli, he hung it on his daughter. describing the looting of the temple treasures by the enemy and the defilement of the deity.

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traumatic and degrading descent of Ishtar to the Netherworld. How apt are then the words of N a h u m And which was erected (Ishtar), denuded Allatu, her maiden moan as with the voice of doves, tabering upon their breasts. Abstract
Nahum depicts in ii 8 Nineveh's desperate appeal to Ishtar to ward off its attackers by enacting her descent to the Netherworld to save her beloved Tammuz. In this context, the problematic words D2m, ^3, 7 refer to the erection of Ishtar's statue in some public place and its denuding by Allatu (the Sumero-Babylonian goddess Ereski-gal), assuming that Tbul = "the Allatu."

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