ABOUT DOORDARSHAN KENDRA JAIPUR

The first television broadcast was viewed by the people of Rajasthan on 1st August 1975 under the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment targeting the districts of Kota, Sawai Madhopur and Jaipur. The footprint of the American satellite ATS -6 fell on 388 villages in these districts which were provided with Direct Receiving sets. Special educational programmes were then produced at Delhi. On 1st March 1977, Upgrah Doordarshan Kendra (UDK) was set up at Delhi. The programmes produced at UDK for Jaipur were relayed via high power transmitters. On 1st June 1987, Jaipur Doordarshan Kendra was set up. Initially the Kendra produced only 30 minutes of programming and this was gradually increased. Presently the Kendra originates about four hours of programming daily. The terrestrial channel covers 78% by population and 71% by area of Rajasthan. The total numbers of transmitters are: 1. 2. 3. 4. High Power: 8 Nos. Low Power: 80 Nos. Very Low Power: 18 Nos. Transposes: 2 Nos.

Transmitters in Rajasthan for DD2 3 Nos (Jaipur, Jodhpur & Kota)

1. AUDIO BASICS
VOICE UNIT

1. BEL AND DECIBEL

Bel is defined as the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the change in power level for audio measurement. Bel = log (p2/p1) Where p1 and p2 are the powers being compared. In practice, the unit Bel was found to be high. Hence the unit decibel was defined which is equal to one tenth of a Bel. Decibel = 10log(p2/p1) The Decibel is called as dB. Although dB was originally derived for audio, but now the dB unit is commonly used for R.F. Signal also. Change in audio power of 1 dB is barely noticeable. However some people can notice a change of 2 dB. A positive (+) sign indicates that P2 is greater than P1 and it may be stated as P2 is so many dB above P1. A negative (-) sign indicates that P2 is less than P1 and it may be stated as P2 is so many dB below P1. 0 dB indicates that P2 is equal to P1.

2. DBM
The advantages of calculating power ratios by the dB method is clearly demonstrated by the following example : The power output of a particular microphone is of a milli watt. This signal is then amplified to 1 kilowatt power. The system gain expressed as an arithmetical ratio is 10 000 000 000 000 = 1013. Expressed in the decibel notation this

becomes 130 dB. The microphone power output could be stated as 70 dB relative to 1 mw and the audio power output as +60 dB relative to 1 mw. dB is used only to indicate Gain or Loss in a system like amplifier or attenuator respectively.

Reference levels
The dB may be used to indicate absolute power provided that the reference level is known. Without a reference level power expressed in dB is meaningless. A reference level of 1 mill watt is widely used and accepted internationally. Using this as reference level a power of 1 watt may be specified as : a) + 30 dB (Reference level 1 milli watt) b) + 30 dB ( 0 dB = 1 mw) c) + 30 dBm (dBm indicates a power expressed in dB with a reference level of 1 mW). In Broadcasting, 1 Watt is generally expressed as +30 dBm.

TV STUDIO AUDIO
Sound mixing and control
As a rule, in television, sound accompanies the picture. Several microphones are generally required for production of complex television programs besides other audio sources also called marred sound from telecine, VTR, and audio tape/disc replays. All these audio sources are connected to the sound control console. The sounds from different sources are controlled and mixed in accordance with the requirement of the program. Split second accuracy is required for providing the correct audio source in synchronization with the picture thus requiring lot of skill from the engineer.

Even the level of sound sometimes is varied in accordance with the shot composition called prospective.

AUDIO FACILITIES
An audio mixing console, with a number of inputs, say about 32 inputs is provided in major studio. This includes special facilities such as equalization, PFL, phase reversal, echo send/receive and Digital reverberation units at some places console tape recorders and disc reproducers provide for playing back/creating audio effects as independent sources (Unmarried) to the switcher.

Microphones
Introduction
A microphone is a transducer that converts acoustic energy to electrical energy. There are five key types of microphone that we may use 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Moving coil microphone Ribbon microphone Condenser microphone Electret microphone Crystal microphone

All employ different mechanisms to convert sound energy to electrical energy. Hence all have different advantages and disadvantages. We will hence need to choose the right type of microphone for the right type of application.

The microphone is not expected to deliver electrical power- it operates into HIGH ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE such that there is (approximately) zero current - VOLTAGE is the output variable. Consequently, it is conventional to talk of the "Open Circuit" response The microphone may be sensitive to any combination of acoustic variables, but the simplest case is a microphone that is responsive to pressure input.

Microphone Sensitivity
When choosing a microphone pressure sensitivity is an important parameter. A microphones sensitivity (pressure sensitivity) is defined as the voltage generated in response to a certain pressure input. The common notation is: M0 (Volts/Pascal) Alternatively a microphones sensitivity can be expressed in logarithmic form. As with pressure and power, voltages can be expressed in decibels relative to a reference. I.e. dB re 1 V/Pa So converting to this scale

dB re 1 V/Pa Generally the greater the pressure sensitivity the more sensitive the microphone is to quieter sounds. Also the greater the signal will be produced relative to noise in cables, etc. However, as we shall see a high sensitivity may not be the first consideration when choosing a microphone for a given application.

Frequency Response
The frequency response of a microphone is the characteristic graph obtained by recording the voltage output level in dB, while the microphone is exposed to a range (sweep) of pure

sinusoidal tones of equal intensity. The frequency response is often given as a graph or stated as variation within a given range, e.g. Frequency response 3dB from 20Hz - 20 kHz The frequency response gives important information about the tonal balance of the microphone under different acoustic conditions. For high quality instrument grade microphones a large flat range (20Hz to 20 KHz) is required.

1. Moving Coil Microphone

The moving coil microphone works on the principle of Electromagnetic Induction. As a copper wire coil moves in the magnetic field a voltage is generated as given by

Where V is resulting voltage from B is magnetic field, l is the length of the copper wire and u is the velocity at which it passes thought the field. An incoming sound causes pressure variations which cause a corresponding movement of the microphones diaphragm and hence the attached coil in a magnetic field. Moving coil microphones are cheap and robust making them good for the rigors of live performance and touring. They are especially suited for the close miking of Bass and Guitar speaker cabinets and Drum kits. They are also good for live vocals as their resonance peak of around 5 kHz provides an inbuilt presence boost that improves speech/singing intelligibility

The Shure SM58 shown is a classic moving coil microphone being an industry standard for live vocal, cabinet and drum miking. They are rugged and dont require phantom power (see later). However the inertia of the coil reduces high frequency response. Hence they are NOT best suited to studio applications where quality and subtlety are important such as high quality vocal recording or acoustic instrument micking.

The above shows the frequency response of an SM58 Frequency range 20 Hz...15 kHz Sensitivity of SM58 2.8mV/Pa (-54.5 dBV/Pa)

2. Condenser Microphones

A thin plastic diaphragm coated with an extremely thin vaporized metal (gold or aluminum) is stretched over a shallow cavity closed by a metal back plate. The resultant capacitor can be charged with 48 Volts DC phantom power. As the diaphragm moves in sympathy with sound pressure the distance with respect to the back plate varies, so does capacitance (ability to hold charges) causing current and hence a change in voltage (mechano/electrical transduction).The output impedance must be very high (100Mohms) to achieved useful signal which then must be amplified (pre-amp stage).

Size and shape of diaphragm doesnt have to be dictated by suitable positioning along magnetic field, hence it can be a very light disk (12-25mm diameter). 9

The resultant sound quality is hence very good, capacitor mics being the standard for top quality music and audio recording. Convenience is reduced by the need for phantom power and a susceptibility to humidity. The Neumann U87 is a classic condenser microphone be an industry standard for vocals and orchestra instruments. The microphone has a warm sound clear sound.

U87 Frequency Response (cardioid Frequency range 20 Hz...20 kHz Pressure Sensitivity 20/28/22 mV/Pa @ 1kHz for omni/polar/figure8 respectively Maximum SPL for THD 0.5% 117 dB (cardioid) Maximum SPL for THD 0.5% with pre attenuation 127 dB

Factors influencing open circuit sensitivity: If the polarizing field Vpol too big then sparks can puncture the thin metal diaphragm. If the displacement response of the diaphragm is too big or then the microphone.

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operates at a lower bandwidth has a disrupted field (polar effects) experiences distortion

Practical Construction
The internal components of an instrumentation grade pressure microphone, such as this Bruel and Kjaer 4190 Are shown in the exploded diagram....

The microphone has zero response at zero frequency due to: i) Pressure release vent (component 4) ii) Blocking capacitor The DC blocking capacitor simply prevents the phantom power from entering the head amplifier, allowing only audio signals to pass.

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3. Electret Microphones
These work as capacitor microphone except a permanent (electrostatic) charge applied to microphone during manufacture removing need for phantom power. However the diaphragm requires a larger mass to hold the electrostatic charge adversely effecting frequency response. Electrets tend to be cheap, compact and easy to mass-produce. Classic applications include built in microphones for portable cassettes and tie clip microphones. However, recently some high quality examples have begun to appear such as the AKG C1000S. Called Back Electrets they can have similar diaphragms to traditional condenser microphones by applying the electrostatic charge to the rigid back plate. The AKG C1000S represents terrific value for money having a high quality response without the need for external phantom power of pre amplification (an internal nine volt battery is used for the preamp stage). Theyre great for recording vocals and acoustic instruments, and are convenient enough for live applications though humidity can be a problem so they should be looked after. However, professional studios still prefer the more expensive large diaphragm phantom powered

AKG C1000S Frequency Response

Sensitivity 6 mV/Pa (-45 dBV) MAXIMUM SPL FOR 0.5% THD: 137 dB

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EQUIVALENT NOISE LEVEL 19 dB-A

4. Ribbon Microphones

Ribbon microphones employ electromagnetic induction to convert sound to voltage. A long thin strip of conductive foil moves within a magnetic field to generate a current hence voltage. The foils lower weight when compared to a moving coil gives it a smother and higher frequency response. However the relatively low output requires a step up transformer. Ribbon microphones are good for quality studio recording of acoustic instruments though can be delicate, for instance you wouldnt want to put one in front of a bass cabinet.

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The ROYER R121 ribbon microphone gives a beautifully warm and smooth sound quality.

ROYER R121 Frequency Response

Frequency Response: 30-15,000 Hz +/- 3dB Sensitivity: >-53 dBv Re. 1v/pa Maximum SPL: >135dB

5. Crystal Microphones
These microphones utilize the piezoelectric effect. Piezo (Greek for Push) electric solids produce a voltage between surfaces when a mechanical stress is applied. Conversely they exhibit deformation when a voltage is applied. This is due to structure of their crystal lattice. Certain types of crystal such as Quartz and Rochelle Salt will have the charges of their respective molecules polarized by deformation. There is a cumulative effect through out the crystal creating a voltage.

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Heres how the effect can be applied to a microphone.

Sound waves couple their movement to a diaphragm which intern communicates the resulting vibration to an attached piezo electric crystal. Charges and hence voltages are proportional to the crystals bending. The frequency response of crystal microphones is often limited to a relatively narrow band restricting their application. Also older Rochelle Salt versions were sensitive to moisture, though modern choices of ceramic peizo electric crystals (barium titanate and lead zirconate) are more robust. Crystal microphones tend to be used for low quality audio applications such as telephone handsets since they dont require phantom powering or amplification and are cheap to produce. However, there are some high quality versions, such as CADs HM50, which are ideal for specific applications.

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The HM 50s is A superb omni directional crystal microphone used by discriminating Harmonica musicians. The HM 50s high output crystal element has been factory tuned to provide just the right presence or bite to create the ideal sound for blues and many other styles of play. Piezo electric transducers can be attached directly to the sound board of acoustic instruments such as guitars. The resulting vibration produces a signal large enough to be sent to guitar amplifiers. They are also are used in accelerometers for vibration analysis.

Frequency Response: 30 Hz - 8 kHz Open Circuit Voltage: -49 dB (0 dB = 1 volt per microbar) @

max. gain 35 mV/Pascal

Directional Properties of Microphones

Every microphone has a property known as directionality. This describes the microphone's sensitivity to sound from various directions. Some microphones pick up sound equally from all directions; others pick up sound only from one direction or a particular combination of directions. The types of directionality are divided into three main categories: 1. Omni directional Picks up sound evenly from all directions (omni means "all" or "every"). 2.

Unidirectional
Picks up sound predominantly from one direction. This includes cardioid and hypercardioid microphones (see below). 16

3.

Bidirectional
Picks up sound from two opposite directions.

Omni directional

Cardioid

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Hypercardioid

Bidirectional

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING
Lighting can emphasize important details or hide them. It can flatter a subject by bringing out positive attributes, and it can de-emphasize or hide less attractive attributes. Lighting can even impart a sinister and hostile look. Television is based on the medium of light; in fact, without light there could be no video. Just as sound must be skillfully controlled in audio production, light must be expertly controlled in television. But, before we can successfully control light, we need to understand and control its three basic characteristics: coherence (quality) color temperature intensity

1. Light Coherence
Coherence, often called quality, is the hardness or softness of light. Light quality is probably the least understood and the most neglected of the three variables.

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In the photos above the objects are exactly the same. Two of the variables of light are also exactly the same: intensity and color temperature. The only difference is the third variable: the coherence of the light. The first photo was shot with soft light, the second with a hard light source. (In Module 35, "Altering Appearances," we'll look at additional factors that can affect the appearance of subject matter.)

1.Hard Light
Light that is transmitted directly from a small point source results in relatively coherent (parallel) rays. This gives the light a hard, crisp, sharply represent hard light sources.

defined appearance. The light

from a clear, unfrosted light bulb, a focused spotlight, or the noonday sun in a clear sky, all

Point Source OBJECT

Single Hard Edge shadow

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Hard light casts a sharp, clearly defined shadow. When hard light is used to illuminate a face, imperfections in the skin stand out. The result is less than flattering. But in other applications, such as bringing out the texture in leather, or the engraving on a piece of jewelry, this can be an advantage.

Fig. Component of a hard Light Note in the photo on the left how the writing stands out. Also note the clearly defined shadow of the flower at the bottom of the photo. Compare this photo with the one in the section below (with soft light) where the letters are hard to read and the shadow of the flower has all but disappeared. Several types of lighting instruments are used in TV to create hard light, including the beam-spot projector and the ellipsoidal spotlight.

2. Soft Light
Soft (diffused) light has the opposite effect. As shown in the photo on the left below, soft light tends to hide surface irregularities and detail

Large area Source Multiple Shadows Giving SOFT edge

OBJECT

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Spun-glass diffusers (above) are used over the front of lights to soften and diffuse their beams. Note resulting photo on the left. At the same time, diffusers also reduce the intensity of light.

Soft light sources are used in production to create a broad, even area of light. In the field, videographers often rely on umbrella reflectors (on the right, below) to create a soft lighting effect. As you can see, this is simply a light bounced off the inside of a silver or white, umbrellalike reflector. The illustration below on the left shows a much heavier soft light that is commonly hung from the grid in studios

Because soft light tends to hide lines, wrinkles and blemishes, it's desirable in doing glamour work. The photo of the model on the left was shot with soft light. A soft light source placed close to the camera minimizes surface detail. The effect is commonly referred to as flat lighting. Although it has certain applications, especially in extreme close-ups of objects where shadows would obscure important details, flat lighting leaves subject matter somewhat 21

"dimensionless." When used over a large area, it can impart an arid and sterile-looking appearance.

Color Temperature
Although the second attribute of light, color temperature, refers to its basic color, we're also speaking of a characteristic of light that goes beyond the obvious. As we've noted, under normal conditions approximate color consistency comes into play and automatically makes a perceptual adjustments for these different sources of light. Although light can be any color between infrared and ultraviolet, there are two basic color standards: 3,200K (Kelvin) for incandescent lamps used in studios and 5,500K for average daylight.

Light Intensity
The third and last lighting variable is intensity. As we will see, the control of light intensity (or quantity) represents a major variable in dramatic production. Light intensity (quantity) is measured in foot-candles (candela) in the United States, or in lux in most other countries. Even in the United States "lux" seems to be replacing "foot-candles." As we've noted, a foot-candle equals about 10.74 lux (or, for a rough conversion, multiply footcandles by 10 to get lux). To provide some points of reference: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sunlight on an average day ranges from 32,000 to 100,000 lux. TV studios are lit at about 1,000 lux. A bright office has about 400 lux. Moonlight represents about 1 lux. Starlight measures a mere 0.00005 lux.

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The Key Light

In typical lighting setups, lighting instruments serve four functions: key lights fill lights back lights background lights

The photo below was shot with so-called formula or three-point lighting. If you study this photo you may detect four light sources: one on the left (the key light ) one of the right (a much dimmer fill light ) one on the hair (a back light ) one on the background (a background light )

The combination effect of these four lights (put in exactly the right place, at exactly the right intensity and with the right quality/coherence), creates an optimum over-all effect.

Key Light Considerations

As the name implies, the key light is the main light.The key light highlights the form, dimension and surface detail of subject matter. In terms of coherence or quality, it should be in the middle of the hard-to-soft range. As you can see from some of the illustrations in these chapters, light that is either too hard or too soft is not desirable for most subject matter. A "middle ground" is achieved with a Fresnel light. In three-point (formula) lighting the key light is placed at an angle of between 30- and 45-degrees from either the left or the right of the camera.

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In the photograph of the model above, the key light is on the left, just as it's shown here. Forty-five degrees off to one side is best (as shown in the drawing), because, among other things, it brings out more texture and form (dimension) in the subject. For the sake of consistency, the 45-degree angle will be used throughout this discussion. This brings us to the rule we'll need to keep in mind, especially if multiple cameras and camera angles are involved in the production.

The Key's Vertical Angle

We have established that the horizontal angle for the key light is approximately 45degrees to the left or right of the subject in relation to the camera. One other key light angle should be considered: elevation. As shown below, this angle is also commonly 45 degrees for the key light. Some lighting directors prefer to place the key right next to the camera, or at a vertical angle of less than 30 degrees. Sometimes in limited on-location conditions this may be unavoidable.

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However, three problems result from reducing these angles: The full illusion of depth and form will be sacrificed (not especially desirable unless you want to create a flat effect with minimal surface detail). There is a risk of having shadows from the key light appear on the background directly behind the subject (where they are most objectionable). The talent is forced to look almost directly into a bright key light when they try to look at their camera, which can result in squinting, not to mention make reading a camera prompter difficult... Ideally, when the talent face their close-up camera they should see the key light 45degrees off to one side of the camera at an elevation of about 45-degrees-which is not unlike the effect we often see outside in sunlight.

The Fill Light

Ideally, the fill light should be about 90 degrees away from the key light. This means that if you draw lines from the key to the subject and then to the fill light, you'll create a right angle. Although the fill can be positioned at any point from right beside the camera to 45 degrees away, it's safest to place the fill 45 degrees from the camera.

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By lighting a full 90 degree area, an important margin of safety is created in case subjects unexpectedly move and camera angles have to be changed during the production. Although the horizontal angle for the key should be about 45-degrees, the vertical angle

of the fill is less critical. Generally, the fill is placed just above the camera, as shown above, which means it ends up being slightly lower than the key. In this position it can easily do what it's intended to do: partially fill in the shadows created by the key light. The height of the fill can be lowered from the grid to the proper angle by an extension rod (pipe) or by a counterbalanced extension device shown above on the right. We've suggested that the fill light should be softer than the key. A soft light source is able to subtly fill in some of the key's shadows without creating a second catch light in the eyes. Note in the photo here how the shadow from the key on the cheek is only partially removed by the fill, creating a gradual rounding off of the key light on the cheek. This key-fill difference provides much of the perception of three dimensions that's desirable in a medium that's limited to two dimensions. If a key light puts out a wide beam of light, part of this light can be bounced off of a reflector board to act as a fill.

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The Back Light

At this point in formula lighting we've covered two of the three lights on the subject. The third point is represented by the back light. The function of the back light is to separate the subject from the background by light around the subject. creating a subtle rim of

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The back light, sometimes called a hair light, should be placed directly behind the subject in relation to the close-up camera. From an overhead perspective you should be able to draw a straight line from the lens of the close-up camera, through the subject, directly to the back light. Note drawing above. Although the elevation of the back light is often dictated by conditions, a 45 degree angle is most desirable. If the back light is too low, it will be picked up by the camera in wide shots; if it's too high it will spill over the top of the subject's head, lighting up the tip of the nose, creating "the Rudolph effect," after a well-known reindeer. Compared to the key, a smaller, lower-wattage instrument can be used for a back light for two reasons. First, back lights are often placed closer to the subject than the key light, and, second, with subjects confined to a limited area like a chair, the beams of most Fresnel lights can easily be "pinned down" (focused into a narrower beam) to intensify the beam.

Background Lights
Background lights are used to illuminate the background area and add depth and separation between scene elements. (Remember that a back light is designed to light up the back of subjects and a background light is designed to light up the front of backgrounds.) The effect of the backlight is shown below.

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Once the background light is added, the lighting setup is complete, as shown in the drawing on the right above. Any type of light can be used as a background light as long as it provides fairly even illumination across the background, does not hit the central subject matter, and is at the appropriate intensity. If the background has detail or texture, you will want to put the background light on the same side as the key, as shown in the drawing above. This keeps the dominant light consistent in the scene. Note in the photo on the left above that you can see the effect of both the back light and the background lights.

Lighting Instruments
"Quartz" Lamps
Almost all incandescent lamps used in TV production are tungsten-halogen lamps (commonly called quartz lamps). They normally range from 500 to 2,000 watts.

This type of lamp is more efficient than the common light bulb-type incandescent lamp, and it does not darken with age.

Ceramic Lights
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Ceramic lamps, which were introduced by the Arri Company in 2006, address several of the shortcomings of quartz (tungsten-halogen) lamps. First, they are much more efficient. A 250-watt ceramic spot provides as much light as a conventional 1,000-watt tungsten-halogen light. This means that for the same amount of light they take one-quarter the power.

Next, they operate at a much cooler temperature. If you touch a quartz lighting fixture while it's on, you would probably get a rather painful burn. Ceramic lights get warm, but not excessively hot. Third, ceramic lamps last about eight times as long as a quartz, or tungsten halogen lamp.

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HMI Lights
HMI lights also have several advantages over standard quartz or incandescent lights. First, compared to standard incandescent lights they deliver five times the light output per watt. This means that they generate less heat, which is an important consideration when shooting inside in a confined space. (Incidentally, HMI stands for Hydrargyrum Medium Arclength Iodide.)

Fresnels
Thus far we've been talking about the lamps used in lighting instruments. These lamps must be mounted in some sort of housing. For decades the most widely used has been the Fresnel (pronounced fra-nell). The HMI light pictured above is mounted in housing with a Fresnel lens (see below).

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Although these lights used to be so bulky and heavy that they were confined to studios, recent versions are small enough to be packed away in lighting kits and used on location. The Fresnel lens in the front of the light (named for the person who devised it) consists of concentric circles that both concentrate and slightly diffuse the light. Note the photo on the left below. The coherence (quality) of the resulting light represents an ideal blend between hard and soft. In the studio these lights are typically hung from a grid in the ceiling.

Scoops
Scoops produce a softer light than Fresnels. The incandescent (tungsten-halogen) lamps they normally use range from 500 to 2,000 watts. Because there is no lens, the light is not projected any significant distance. As we will see, scoops are commonly used in studio for fill light. Note that this scoop shown here has a square filter frame attached to the front. Colored gels, diffusers, and scrims can be slid into this frame to change the light in various ways. the

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Barn doors
From lighting instruments themselves we now turn to attachments that are used with these lights. Adjustable black metal flaps called barn doors can be attached to some lights to mask off unwanted light and to keep it from spilling into areas where it's not needed. While barn doors provide a soft cutoff (edge) to the perimeters of the light, flags provide a sharper, more defined cutoff point.

TV STUDIO CHAIN
In Doordarshan Studio programme can be recorded or transmitted. Studio can be divided into three major areas such as: 1. 2. 3. Action Area (i.e. Studio). Production Control Room (P.C.R) Central Apparatus Room (C.A.R).

1. Action Area
This place requires large space and ceiling. Artist gives performance in this area. Typical size of TV studio is 20 x 20 x 8.5 meters. Requirement for a TV Studio:i. Very efficient air conditioning. 33

ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x.

Uniform and even flooring for smooth operation of camera. Acoustic treatment. Communication between studio and P.C.R. Three or more cameras with teleprompter. Pick up wall sockets for audio operations. Tie lines for video & audio from P.C.R. Cyclorama and curtain. Audio & Video monitoring facilities. Alarming light, safety devices like fire alarm system, fire fighting equipment &

digital clock display.

2.

Production Control Room (P.C.R)

Activities in this area are:i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Monitoring facilities for all the input and output sources (audio & video). Communication facilities with all technical areas and studio floor. Video & audio switcher for smooth switching. Ampex Digital optics (A.D.O) for getting various digital effects. Character Generator (C.G) for Titles & Credit captions. Camera Control Unit (CCU) for controlling video level, color matching and other Light control room - A large number of lights are used to meet the needs of key,

various parameters of video. fill and back lights. Modern TV studios have a computer controlled system. The intensities of various lights can be controlled from the light control unit.

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viii.

Video Tape Recorder room (VTR) In VTR room few broadcast standard video cassette recorders (VCRs) are provided for

recording and play back purposes. 3. Central Apparatus Room (CAR). This is the nerve centre for a television station. Activities in this area are: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Distribution of regulated power supply to different technical areas. Sync pulse generator (S.P.G). Electronics for camera chain, video switcher, A.D.O & other equipment. Microwave links. Patch panel for audio & video lines.

Video Chain
The block diagram on facing page connects all these sections and it can be observed that the CAR is the nodal area. Now let us follow a CAM-I signal. CAM-I first goes to a Camera electronics in CAR via a multi-core cable, the signal is then matched/adjusted for quality in CCU and then like any other sources it goes to video switcher via PP (Patch Panel) and respective VDAs(Video Distribution Amplifiers) and optional Hum compensator/Cable equalizers. Output from the switcher goes to stabilizing amplifier via PP and VDAs. Output from the stab. Is further distributed to various destinations. It may be noted that the use of VDAs helps to monitor the video signal at different locations and the use of PP is very helpful for emergency arrangements during breakdowns and trouble shooting. A separate monitoring bus is provided in CCU, LCU and END CONTROL with sources as shown. END CONTROL also has

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a remote for the adjustment of levels etc. in the STAB AMP unit. Route for the other sources is similar to this and can be understood from the block schematic. Block Diagram of Video Chain Shown in Figure: - 1.

Areas connected with Studio Chain:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. M PP VDA ADO CG OBS SPG Studio CCU LCR PCR VTR CAR MSR M/W FS Camera Control Unit Light Control Room Production Central Room Video Tape Recording (VCR) Central Apparatus Room Master Switching Room Microwave Room

Frame Synchronizer Monitors & Waveform Monitors Patch Panel Video Distribution Amplifier Ampex Digital Optics Character Generator O.B.Signal Sync Pulse Generator

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CAM ERA 1

Electronics & CCU

M PP VDA

CCU

VDA

CCU

VDA

VCR

VDA

VCR

V I D E O S W I T C H E R

(Pre View )

P/V M SR

VDA

M W

ADO

STAB AM PLIFIER

CG

OBS

FS

SPG 1 C/O SPG 2

OTHER SOURCES

Fig. 1 Block diagram of Video Chain

TV CAMERA
A TV Camera consists of four sections.

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1. device. 2. 3. signal. 4. 1. I. II.

Camera lens and optics - To form optical image on the face plate of a pick up Optical Block. Transducer or pick up device To convert optical image into an electrical Electronics - To process output of a transducer to get a Color Composite Video Camera Lens - The lens for a video camera has following sections :Focus - To form a focused optical image. Zoom Section - A lens with a variable focal length is called as Zoom lens. For

Signal. (CCVS).

getting different composition of pictures like long shot or close up, lens with variable focal length is required. III. Aperture or Ins Control - Intensity of the light can be controlled by changing the Ins of the camera. Ins can be operated in manual mode or it can be automatic. 2. Optical Block - Optical Block consists of filters and beam splitter. Beam splitter

splits the incoming light into three beams i.e. red, green and blue.

3. Transducer or Pickup device -

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I. Photo emissive material - These materials emit electrons when the light falls on them. Amount of emitted electrons depends on the light. These cameras are bulky and need lot of light. These are no longer in use. II. Charge coupled devices (CCD Camera) - These semiconductor devices convert light into a charge image which is collected at a high speed to form a signal. 4. Electronics - The signal received from the pick up device is amplified and processed to get a CCV signal. How picture signals are produced in the TV camera are shown in figure.

The latter camera, and in fact most of today's video cameras, use an imaging chip, such as the CCD shown on the left. Many cameras now use a CMOS chip, but at this point the distinction is not that important. The most common chip sizes are 1/4 inch, 1/3 inch, 1/2 inch and 2/3 inch (the size of the little box shown near the center of the CCD chip above).

Video Resolution
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Video resolution is a measure of the ability of a video camera to reproduce fine detail. The higher the resolution -- the more distinct lines in a given space that the camera can discern -- the sharper the picture will look. We'll take a closer look at how this is measured in a moment. The standard NTSC broadcast TV system can potentially produce a picture resolution equal to about 300 lines of horizontal resolution. (This is after it goes through the broadcast process. What you see in a TV control room is generally much higher.) CATV, DVD, HDTVD, and digital satellite TV transmissions go beyond 400 lines of resolution. Note that the number of lines of resolution is different than the total number of horizontal scanning lines, which are 525 or 625 in SDTV.

Contrast Ratio
Contrast Ratio is a measurement of the difference in brightness between the whitest white and the darkest black within an image. A ratio of 300:1 means the brightest point in the image is 300 times as bright as the darkest point. A higher contrast ratio therefore means a larger difference in brightness. Contrast ratio is of interest in two situations: 1. 2. Cameras: When recording an image (video, film, photography) TVs, Monitors, etc. When choosing or setting up a playback device (TV,

computer monitor, etc)

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Camera Angles
The term camera angle means slightly different things to different people but it always refers to the way a shot is composed. Some people use it to include all camera shot types, others use it to specifically mean the angle between the camera and the subject. We will concentrate on the literal interpretation of camera angles, that is, the angle of the camera relative to the subject. Eye-Level This is the most common view, being the real-world angle that we are all used to. It shows subjects as we would expect to see them in real life. It is a fairly neutral shot. High Angle A high angle shows the subject from above, i.e. the camera is angled down towards the subject. This has the effect of diminishing the subject, making them appear less powerful, less significant or even submissive. Low Angle This shows the subject from below, giving them the impression of being more powerful or dominant. Bird's Eye The scene is shown from directly above. This is a completely different and somewhat unnatural point of view which can be used for dramatic effect or for showing a different spatial perspective. In drama it can be used to show the positions and motions of different characters and objects, enabling the viewer to see things the characters can't. The bird's-eye view is also very useful in sports, documentaries, etc. Slanted Also known as a Dutch tilt, this is where the camera is purposely tilted to one side so the horizon is on an angle. This creates an interesting and dramatic effect. Famous examples include Carol Reed's The Third Man, Orson Welles' Citizen Kane and the Batman series. Dutch tilts are also popular in MTV-style video production, where unusual angles and lots of camera movement play a big part.

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Video Camera Focus

The ability to manually focus your camera is a critical skill at any level of video production. This page shows you the basics at the end of the page you can choose to continue and learn more advanced focus techniques. Note: Manual focus is so important that most professional cameras don't even have an auto-focus feature.

Video Camera White Balance

White balance basically means color balance. It is a function which gives the camera a reference to "true white" it tells the camera what the color white looks like, so the camera will record it correctly. Since white light is the sum of all other colors, the camera will then display all colors correctly.

How to Perform a Black Balance

Black balance is an operation similar to white balance. As white balance gives the camera a reference to "true white", black balance gives a reference to "true black". This function is normally available only in professional cameras home video users don't need to worry about it.

Aperture
This important parameter of a lens is also called as aperture or iris. The opening of the lens is controlled by collapsible fins inside the lens. This control like ZOOM can be either manual or automatic. Since camera man has to control focus and zoom by his two hands the third variable i.e., iris is preferred on auto mode most of the time. It is also related by the f stop number.
focal length diameter of lens opening through fins

f stop no. =

Lens nomenclature

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A camera lens number specifies image size, zoom ratio, focal length at widest angle. Built in extender details and iris servo details etc. For example in a typical lens no. J 18 8.5 B I R S = = = = = = = J 18 x 8.5 B I R S we can decode:

2/3 Tube/CCD (PV for 1" size and PH for 1/2" Size) Zoom Ratio focal length at widest angle optical adjustment for prism camera included No built in Extender Zoom focus iris servo control

Lens mount:
It is usually of two types for the Cameras used for ENG/EFP applications, these are (1) (2) Bayonet type & C - type.

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R, G & B different optical wave length signals, as separated by the optical block are converted to electrical signal in the transducer section of the camera. electronics to give ccvs (color composite video signal) output. It is then processed in camera

Terminology
Pan Tilt Zoom Iris (Exposure) White balance Shutter Audio Side-to-side camera movement. Up-and-down camera movement. In-and-out camera movement (i.e. closer and more distant). The opening which lets light into the camera. A wider iris means more light and a brighter picture. Adjusting the colors until they look natural and consistent. Analogous to the shutter in a still camera. Sound which is recorded to go with the pictures.

FUNDAMENTALS OF MONOCHROME AND COLOUR TV SYSTEM

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A picture can be considered to contain a number of small elementary areas of light or shade which are called picture elements. In the case of a TV camera the scene is focused on the photo-sensitive surface of pickup device and an optical image is formed. The photoelectric properties of the pickup device convert. The optical image to an electric charge image depending on the light and shade of the scene. To transmit this information scanning is employed. Electron beam scans the charge image and produce corresponding electrical signal. The electron beam scans the image from left to right (line by line) & from top to bottom (frame by frame) or field by field to provide signal variations in a successive order.

The scanning is done both in horizontal and vertical direction simultaneously. The horizontal scanning frequency is 15,625 hertz. The vertical scanning frequency is 50 Hz. The frame is divided in two fields. Odd lines are scanned first and then the even lines. The odd and even lines are interlaced. The frame is divided into 2 fields the flicker reduces. The field rate is 50 hertz. The frame rate is 25 hertz (field rate is the same as power supply frequency).

There are 625 lines in a frame ie.312.5 lines in each field.

PAL VIDEO
625 scan lines per frame, 25 frames per second (40 m sec/frame)

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Aspect ratio 4:3 Interlaced, each frame is divided into 2 fields, 312.5 lines/field 1. Color representation: 2. PAL uses Y,U,V color model 3. Luminance (Y ) =0.3R+ 0.59G +0.11B

Three important points to remember:

In the PAL system the chrominance bandwidth is restricted to 1 MHz. Side bands extend from 3.43 to 5.43 MHz. The sub carrier Frequency is 4.43 MHz. The (R-Y) and (B-Y) chrominance signals may be recovered at the television receiver by suitable synchronous demodulation. The sub-carrier is to be generated by a local oscillator. This generated sub-carrier in the receiver must have same phase and frequency as that of transmitted sub-carrier. This is achieved by transmitting 10 cycles of sub-carrier frequency on the back porch of H synchronizing pulse and is known as BURST or color BURST.

The two modulated signals at 90 degrees to each other produce the resultant chrominance signal which gets added to Luminance signal to form Composite color Video Signal (CCVS).

In PAL System carrier is single, we need two signals i.e. (RY) and (BY) to modulate independently. 46

Both are of the same frequency but are displaced in phase by 90 degrees. Hence it uses quadrature Amplitude modulation (QAM).

Composite Video
Composite video, as its name suggests, composite video is a single video signal that is a composite of the black-and-white information (Y) and the color information (C). Phase error correction in PAL system

Received vector with NTSC line + Transmitted vector At angle Received vector with PAL line

-U

- U -

-V

Advantage of PAL over NTSC

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Phase Alteration by Line: Changing phase of the sub-carrier by 180 degree at each alternating line to minimize the phase error. The phase error causes error in color reproduction. Correction of colors is done in the Human Visual System.

Color correction is not done in NTSC system

Digital Earth Station

Modes of Distribution of TV Programmes
Terrestrial Satellite Cable

All the above three modes can be either in Analog or in digital domain.

Satellite Transmission

Uplink

Downlink

Earth station

Satellite Transmission Frequency bands

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Frequency band C-band X-band Ku-band Ka-band

Up Link 6 GHz 8 GHz 14 GHz 30 GHz

Down Link 4 GHz 7GHz 11 GHz 20 GHz

Satellite Transmission: C-Band

Frequency band 4000 to 8000 MHz Large sized dish required for reception Useful to System Providers / Cable Operators Mainly used for contribution & distribution

Satellite Transmission: Ku Band

Frequency Band 12.5 to 18 GHz Smaller dish ( 60 90 Cms dia) needed for reception Most useful for DTH application Suitable for fly away terminals Coverage limited as compared to C band due to narrow beam Reception susceptible to failure during heavy rains

Satellite Broadcasting (C-band vs. Ku-band)

Feature Frequency band Receive dish size No. of dishes Rain attenuation Individual direct reception C-band 4/6 GHz 2 -3 meter Multiple since received from different satellites Low Not so easy Ku-band 11/14 GHz 0.6 meter One High Very easy

Earth Station
Earth Station is an uplink center from which the signals are fed to Satellite for distribution in a specified area covered by the Satellite.

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The signal is up-linked from the earth station and received by many down link centers in TV broad casting. It is a very important part of satellite communication system for broadcasting of signals.

Earth Station classification

1. Analog Earth Station 2. Analog / Digital Simulcast 3. Digital Earth Station 4. ASNG 5. DSNG 6. C-band or Ku-band

TYPICAL ANALOG E/S SET UP

Baseband V:0-5MHz A:5.5/5.75MHZ combiner IF Mod Channel freq. 70MHz
UPconverter

A1-A2

Sound Mod

Video

HPA

A1-A2 Video

Sound Mod

Baseband V:0-5MHz A:5.5/5.75MHZ combiner IF Mod

Channel freq. 70MHz

UPconverter

HPA

DUMMY LOAD

Problems of Analog
One programme per channel / transponder Comparatively noisy 50

Ghosts in Terrestrial Transmission Lower quality with respect to VCD, DVD digital media Fixed reception

Why Digital?
More programmes per channel / Transponder i.e. spectrum efficient Noise-Free Reception Ghost elimination CD quality sound & better than DVD quality picture Reduced transmission power Flexibility in service planning etc. Interactive services like e-commerce, e-banking, tele-quiz, tele-games etc. Automated operation in broadcast plan Non availability of analog systems in near future Future of TV transmission DTH, DTT & Digital Cable -quality / Bandwidth trade off.

New services like Pay TV, VOD, Teletext, Data, and Surround sound, Multimedia

Satellite Broadcasting -Digital

Tremendous savings in satellite capacity. 10 to 14 TV channels per 36 MHz Transponder ( DVB-S , MPEG 2 ) 25 to 50 TV channels in 36 MHz Transponder ( DVB-S2, MPEG 4 / WM 9) Excellent quality of signal reception. New services like VOD, PPV etc.

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V A V

B ase band E nc. 1 P r o c e s s in A g

B a s e b a n dV E nc. 2 A P r o c e s s in g
A V B ase band E nc. R P r o c e s s inAg

R O U T E R

MUX 1

M o d u la to r# 1 M o d u la to r # R

U /C 1

HPA 1

MUXR

U /C -R

HPA R ES PDA

V A

What is Digital TV?

Analog signal is sampled at 27 MHz, encoded into 10 bits PCM - Total bit rate : 270 Mbits/s Compression used : MPEG (Motion Picture Expert Group) to reduce bit rate varying from 1.5 Mbits to 15 Mbits

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Up-conversion
Up-converters
The up-conversion is required to raise the frequency of the signal in desired band: Cband, Extended C-band or Ku-band before transmission. The input to up converter is 70 MHz (output of modulator) and output of Up-converter is fed to HPA. The up-conversion may done in stages or in one stage directly. For example the 70 MHz signal is first converted into L band and then L band signal raised to desired frequency band. Normally L-band monitoring point is also provided in Up-converters for monitoring purposes.

The important parameters of UP-converters are are:

1. Frequency band 2. Bandwidth 3. Input/ Output Return Loss 4. Noise Figure 5. LO Leakage 6. Frequency stability: (a) 7. Spurious: (a) Daily 5x10-9 Max, (b) Yearly 1x 10-7 Max and c) 2x 108 Max over entire operating Temperature. -80 dBm Max ( Non Carrier), (b) 60 dBm Max( Carrier)

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Power Amplification (HPA)

High Power Amplifier
The high power amplifier is used for the final power amplification of the digital RF signal in C-band/ Ku band that is fed to the antenna.

The important parameters of HPAs are:

1. Frequency range 2. Output power at flange 3. Bandwidth 4. Gain variation (1.0 db (max.) for 40 MHz (narrow band) 5. 2.50 db for full bandwidth)

The different types of HPAs are:

1. KHPA - Klystron High Power Amplifier 2. TWTA -Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier 3. SSPA- Solid state Power Amplifier

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Antenna system
1. Parabolic Dish Antennas (PDA)
The most widely used narrow beam antennas are reflector antennas. The shape is generally a paraboloid of revolution. For full earth coverage from a geostationary satellite, a horn antenna is used. Horns are also used as feeds for reflector antennas. A small earth terminal, the feed horn is located at the focus or may be offset to one side of the focus. Large earth station antennas have a sub reflector at the focus. In the Cassegrain design, the sub reflector is convex with an hyperboloid surface, while in the Gregorian design it is concave with an ellipsoidal surface.

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A Typical Uplink PDA

DSNG
Antenna case: Antenna segment case, Antenna mount case, Antenna hub case, Antenna feed horn case;1.9 mtr antenna (C band) & 1.2 mtr antenna ( Ku-band) HPA case: 400 W TWTA ( C band) & 125 W TWTA ( Ku-band) Base band unit : Test and monitoring case Digital case : Encoder,Modulator,Upconvertor(L band) HPA control and Upconvertor case: Upconvertor(C band / Ku-band ),HPA controller Power supply conditioner and distributor

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Vehicle mounted DSNG

SATTELITE COMMUNICATION
Doordarshan set up in Rajasthan
Two Modes : 1. Terrestrial 2. Satellite

Doordarshan setup
o Studio Centre o Uplink Station : 1 : 1

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o Transmitters

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Coverage :
By area Terrestrial Satellite : : 72% 100% By Population 80% 100%

Satellite Communication
Started in 1957 in Russia (Sputnik) Started in India on 14.04.82 (INSAT 1A)

Advantages
Large coverage area (42% of Earth) Very High B.W. (Wide band Multi channel) Terrestrial uncovered pockets like valleys and mountains regions. Uniform Signal. Establish easily for Point to Point Communication.

Geostationary Orbit
A satellite in Geostationary Orbit is synchronized with the rotation of the Earth and the period of Rotation is 23 Hrs. 56 Mts. 4.1 Sec. (Sidereal day) and it is static while looking from a point of Earth. The inclination (Latitude difference with equator in degree) at any time is Zero degree. The path is perfectly circular and so eccentricity is Zero. In this orbit, the orbit may be inclined at any angle to the equatorial plane. While looking from an Earth Station 58

Sidereal day=23 Hrs. 56 Mts. 4.1 Sec. Sunday = 24 Hrs. Satellite is placed at a height of 35786 Km. with a velocity of 3.074 Km/sec. Earth rotates from East to West Radius of Earth = 6378 Km.

Digital Earth Station at DDK, Jaipur

Satellite Position (Parking Angle) 93.50E

Satellite - INSAT 3A Transponder C-6 Uplinking Frequency 6165.5 MHz (Horizontal) Downlink Frequency 3940.5 MHz (Vertical) System - (2+1) MCPC Mode DD19 DD Jaipur DD News Feed

Format - MPEG 2 DVB (Video) MPEG 1, Layer II (Audio) Modulation QPSK FEC -

Symbol Rate 6.25 MSPS AZ 144.320 EL 52.330

Frequency Range
S-Band C-Band Ext. C-Band KU-Band KA-Band 2.5 to 2.7 GHz 3.7 to 4.2 GHz 4.5 to 4.8 GHz 10.7 to 12.75GHz 20 to 30 GHz BSS (Sound) MSS FSS BSS(TV) Military FSS FSS BSS(TV) FSS BSS MSS

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FSS Fixed Satellite Service (Telephony, Data & TV) BSS Broadcast Satellite Service (TV, Digital Audio Bcasting (DAB)Satellite Internet Service MSS Mobile Satellite Service (Mobile & Fixed Terminal) Frequency (Uplink) > Frequency (Down link) 6165.5 > 3940.5 MHz 6165.5 = 3940.5 + 2225 MHz

Reasons
(1) (2) (3) To avoid interference between the uplink and down link. Because the satellite has a limited R.F. power out put. As path loss is proportional to Frequency

TYPE OF FEED[
Prime Focus Feed Off set Focus Feed Gregorian Feed (Off set focus reflector & off set focus sub reflector ) Cassegrain feed.

Look Angles
The coordinates to which an Antenna must be pointed to communicate the satellite are called Look Angles (Azimuth Angle & Elevation Angle) Azimuth angle- The angle between the Direction of Antenna Beam & Earth in Horizontal plane. Elevation Angle The angle between the Antenna centre Beam & Ground measured in Vertical Plane. Calculation of Az & El For Geostationary satellite, three parameters are required: 60

1. Longitude of the Satellite DS 2. Longitude of the Place DE 3. Latitude of the Place Radius of the Earth r = 6378 Km Radius of the geostationary orbit R = 42164 Km I.e. r + Distance of orbit = R (6378+35786) Difference in Longitudes of Place & satellite (Absolute value ) D= |DE DS| EL= Tan-1 [ CosD Cos r/R 1-(CosD Cos )2 Az= 1800 + Tan-1[ Tan D ] Sin (+) Plus sign is taken when the Longitude of Satellite DS< Longitude of the Place (E/S) DE (-) Minus Sign DS>DE

OUTSIDE BROADCASTING (OB)

OBJECTIVES:
1. To cater the aims of television - Education, Enrichment & Entertainment. 2. To make available the real live experience of various events/games or sports events to the remote viewers.

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3. To create a sense of involvement in various events according to the individuals aptitude. 4. To inspire and captivate right from younger kids to senile Persons 5. To bring out the latent talents from prodigies and sports person also. even from a consummate

TYPES OF COVERAGES
1. CULTURAL PROGRAMS 2. CEREMONIAL FUNCTIONS 3. ORGANISED EVENTS 4. SPORTS EVENTS

MODE OF COVERAGES
Generally various coverages are covered by any one of the following methods :1. Single camera recordings ( for T.V reports ) 2. Multi camera with additional video effects facility and back ground commentary for LIVE coverages.

THE EQUIPMENTS USED IN COVERAGES

The outside broadcast van, which itself is a self contained and full Complement studio setup, has the following Equipment with it. 1. Cameras 62

2. Video switcher

with DVE

3 Video Tape Recorders 4. Video server for slow & super slow motion 5. Character generator with Text & Graphics system 6. Microphones 7. Audio switcher 8. Intercom system 9. DSNG

7,8 Mid wicket cameras 9,10,11,12 Ground cameras 13,14,15,16 Crease cameras(Un -manned) 17,18 Stump cameras (Un -manned) 19,20 Red Zone cameras (LBW+Un -maned )
10 6

19

12

17 15 13 7 18 14 16

11 9

1,2 Wkt to Wkt (pavilion) 3,4 Wkt to Wkt (rear) 5,6 Spin vision (Super slow motion)

20

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