Chapter 1

Understanding Giftedness: Introduction or on the Importance of Seeing Differently

Larisa V. Shavinina

We have to nd a new view of the world... If you can nd any other view of the world which agrees over the entire range where things have already been observed, but disagrees somewhere else, you have made a great discovery. It is very nearly impossible, but not quite... Richard Feynman, Nobel Laureate

Abstract This chapter provides a very general introduction to the handbook, thus creating a broad picture on what to expect in the chapters that follow. Specifically, the chapter presents a short overview of the multifaceted research on giftedness and advances in gifted education discussed in the chapters of this handbook. Its uniqueness and novelty are also described. The main contents of each chapter are summarized and approaches taken by chapter authors are briey described. Keywords Giftedness Gifted Education The nature of giftedness Cognitive Developmental Social Personality approaches to understanding giftedness Great discoveries are at the heart of any scientic advancement. As Feynman highlighted, great discoveries are nearly impossible, but not quite. . . if we are talking about the eld of giftedness and see it differently. In order to make discoveries, the content of any handbook should be unique and new in many respects. This handbook is clearly distinctive from other handbooks in the area of high abilities and will prove to be original and novel in a number of ways. First, the handbook introduces fresh research on giftedness, which was not considered in Heller, Monks, Sternberg, and Subotnik (2000) and in Colangelo and David (2003) handbooks (e.g., musical talent, gifted
L.V. Shavinina (B) Universit du Qu bec en Outaouais, Gatineau, Qu bec, Canada e e e e-mail: larisa.shavinina@uqo.ca

learners who drop out, legal issues in gifted education, feminine perspective on giftedness, just to mention a few) and was not presented in other books and scholarly journals (e.g., happiness of the gifted and talented, entrepreneurial giftedness, multiple giftedness in adults, managerial talent, interdisciplinary ideas in gifted education, innovation education for the gifted), just to note a few. Second, the handbook presents new research directions in the area of giftedness, which was not considered in Heller et al. (2000) and in Colangelo and David (2003) handbooks, but was published in scholarly journals only in recent years (e.g., talent in cinema or new trends in the neuropsychology of giftedness). Third, the handbook presents recent developments in giftedness research and practice that took place after the publication of Heller et al. (2000) and Colangelo and David (2003) handbooks (e.g., recent advances in gifted education in megacities like New York and London, UK). Finally, the handbook analyzes latest advances in those directions of research and gifted education which were discussed in Heller et al. (2000) and Colangelo and David (2003) handbooks, but were signicantly developed in recent years, that is, after the publication of those handbooks (e.g., online academies for the gifted). It is also interesting to note that some chapters belong to a few of the above-mentioned categories of the given handbooks novelty and uniqueness (e.g., imaginary worldplay as an indicator of creative giftedness). Plus, Colangelo et al.s report on acceleration is also a
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L.V. Shavinina (ed.), International Handbook on Giftedness, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-6162-2 1, c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

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new development in gifted education in general and in gifted education policy in particular. Taken together, all these facets of the uniqueness and novelty convincingly indicate that this new handbook is indeed a much needed endeavor. Therefore, my goal in bringing leading experts on high ability together in this handbook is to present a fully comprehensive picture of contemporary research on giftedness by integrating the recent diverse ndings and to outline directions for further research, thus advancing the eld. In choosing chapter authors, I was particularly interested in those new models, theories, and approaches, which they proposed. My deepest belief is that any handbook on any scientic topic should not only report the current ndings in the eld but also advance that eld by presenting challenging new ideas. In one way or another, each chapter in the handbook adds something new to our existing edice of knowledge about giftedness via unique analytical points of view of leading experts in the eld who are responsible for much of the current research on high ability. This is one of the main merits of this handbook, which is international in scope, reecting African, American, Asian, European, and global perspectives. The chapter authors take a number of different approaches, both empirical and theoretical, reecting a variety of possible perspectives and research methods aimed at understanding giftedness. I will briey mention these approaches below. The descriptions of each chapter are intentionally very short in order to entice readers to seek further detail contained within each chapter. The handbook is divided into 14 (XIV) parts. Part I comprises Chapter 1, Understanding Giftedness: Introduction or on the Importance of Seeing Differently, which sets the stage for understanding giftedness by providing a general introduction to the work. Parts II XIII, consisting of 76 chapters, represent distinctive, although sometimes overlapping, approaches to understanding giftedness, gifted education, and a variety of related issues. Specically, Part II of the handbook describes work aimed at the understanding the multifaceted nature of giftedness, its basic mechanisms, and its various facets. This part comprises nine chapters. Chapter 2, The History of Giftedness Research, by Heidrun Stoeger, presents a brief history of scientic study of giftedness. Heidruns task was especially difcult because she was explicitly asked not to discuss the concept of giftedness and not to analyze theories

of giftedness, because these are subjects of David Yun Dais and Janet Davidsons chapters, respectively. In Chapter 3, Essential Tensions Surrounding the Concept of Giftedness, David Yun Dai perfectly analyzes points of agreement and disagreement between various research trends currently existing in the eld of giftedness. David concludes his deep analysis by calling for a more integrated understanding of giftedness due to its complexity and multidimensionality. Chapter 4, Contemporary Models of Giftedness, by Janet E. Davidson, reminds us that one of the powerful methods for understanding, identifying, and studying gifted individuals is through theory-based models. Janet thus reviews three types of contemporary models including hierarchical, neural efciency, and complex systems. In Chapter 5, A Feminine Perspective on Giftedness, Linda Kreger Silverman and Nancy B. Miller propose a conceptual framework for understanding giftedness from a feminine perspective. Specically, they address the issue of extreme importance for the eld of giftedness, namely, how does giftedness develop differently in females so that it is less recognized? Chapter 6, An Expert-Performance Approach to the Study of Giftedness, by K. Anders Ericsson, Kiruthiga Nandagopal, and Roy W. Roring is the chapter where the authors present the expertise approach which explains how individuals can attain elite levels of performance. The bottom line is that extended training, that is, years and decades of daily deliberate practice, is behind giftedness. In Chapter 7, Debating Giftedness: Pronat vs. Antinat, Francoys Gagn summarizes extensive scientic e ndings and concludes that natural abilities really exist (the Pronat position) and that recent attacks by researchers who deny their existence (the Antinat position) can be easily repelled empirically. This chapter perfectly addresses one of the most important issues in the area of giftedness, namely the genetic basis of high abilities. Chapter 8, The Arbitrary Nature of Giftedness by Nancy B. Hertzog, discusses ve ways in which labeling and identifying children for gifted programs is an arbitrary decision. The proposed vision for the eld of gifted education is to recognize and celebrate the diversity of children, as well as to develop and nurture the strengths of all students. In Chapter 9, Gifted and Thriving: A Deeper Understanding of Meaning of GT, Michael F. Sayler focuses

Understanding Giftedness

on happiness of the gifted and talented. According to the author, thriving begins with talent development but looks beyond high-level performance to deep satisfaction and what allows the gifted and talented to ourish across their life span. Chapter 10, A Unique Type of Representation Is the Essence of Giftedness: Towards a CognitiveDevelopmental Theory by Larisa V. Shavinina, presents a new theory that explains the fundamental nature of giftedness. In short, the essence of giftedness is related to the gifteds unique, objective type of representations of everything that is going on around them. It means that gifted individuals see, understand, and interpret everything differently. Their unique intellectual picture of the world or their unique vision makes them the gifted. Part III of the handbook, The Neuropsychology of Giftedness, concentrates on neuroscientic aspects of research on high ability. This part contains three chapters. In Chapter 11, Neuropsychological Characteristics of Academic and Creative Giftedness, John G. Geake demonstrates that the brain of the gifted functions differently by reviewing evidence for such difference in neural function and structure that can account for high levels of cognitive abilities. Chapter 12, The Neural Plasticity of Giftedness by M. Layne Kalbeisch, presents a general theory of giftedness according to which giftedness is a type of neural plasticity that manifests itself in specic states of mind of the gifted. In Chapter 13, Working Memory, the Cognitive Functions of the Cerebellum and the Child Prodigy, Larry R. Vandervert claims that amazing achievements of the gifted in general and child prodigies in particular are the result of domain-specic high attentional control learned beginning in infancy and modulated between the prefrontal cortex and the cerebellum. Part IV of the handbook, Developmental and Cognitive Foundations of Giftedness, introduces the developmental and cognitive bases of giftedness. It includes ve chapters. Chapter 14, Developmental Trajectories of Giftedness in Children, by Christoph Perleth and Annett Wilde, is about a wide range of issues related to the development and identication of giftedness in children prior to elementary school age. To this end, the authors analyze various approaches explaining

how giftedness manifests itself in young age and how it can be identied in children. In Chapter 15, Highly Gifted Young People: Development from Childhood to Adulthood, Miraca U. M. Gross examines the development of highly gifted children and adolescents by analyzing their cognitive strategies, motivational orientation, conceptions and expectations of friendship, moral reasoning, and benets of radical acceleration. Chapter 16, Talent Development Across the Lifespan by Roger Moltzen, uses a completely opposite approach than the two previous chapters in this part of the handbook. Specically, the author employs retrospective strategy to investigate the process of talent development in the case of extraordinary individuals. For instance, the retrospective studies reveal that many eminent adults were perceived as anything but gifted in childhood. In Chapter 17, Creative Cognition in Gifted Youth, Katherine N. Saunders Wickes and Thomas B. Ward analyze cognitive processes that the gifted bring to bear on creative tasks. The authors particularly focus on retrieval of conceptual knowledge, abstraction, and transformation. Chapter 18, A Metagognitive Portrait of Gifted Learners, by Marion A. Barfurth, Krista C. Redden, Julie A. Irving, and Bruce M. Shore summarizes research on metacognition and giftedness. Specically, it discusses how the gifted think and solve problems, introduces the concepts of exibility and preference for complexity, offers suggestions for future research, as well as describes educational applications. Part V of the handbook, Personality of the Gifted, Individual Differences, and Gender-Related Issues, examines a wide range of issues related to personality variables of giftedness, individual differences, gender, and associated non-intellective qualities that play an important role in realizing extraordinary potential. It contains four chapters. Chapter 19, Personality Qualities That Help or Hinder Gifted and Talented Individuals, by Reva Friedman-Nimz and Olha Skyba, explores issues and identies trends in research on personality variables as they are manifested in the context of the development of high ability. The authors analyze research on key personality qualities such as selfperception, self-evaluation, motivation, attribution, and intrapersonal intelligence and then recast it into four frames of reference for understanding personality

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of the gifted: traits, processes, prediction, and development. In Chapter 20, Emotional Life and Psychotherapy of the Gifted in Light of Dabrowskis Theory, P. Susan Jackson, Vicky F. Moyle, and Michael M. Piechowski examine the emotional sphere of the gifted from the viewpoint of Dabrowskis theory, including emotional and spiritual giftedness, discuss psychotherapy for the gifted, and present two cases illustrating development through positive disintegration in the gifted. Chapter 21, On Individual Differences in Giftedness, by Andrzej Sekowski, Malgorzata Sieka ska, and n Waldemar Klinkosz, reviews a multifaceted set of issues related to individual differences and giftedness. Drawing on ndings from psychology of individual differences, the authors describe levels of individual differences, their manifestations in particular elds of human activity, their social consequences, and future research trends. In Chapter 22, A Theory of Talent Development in Women of Accomplishment, Sally M. Reis and Erin E. Sullivan offer a new theory of female talent development that is based on research of highly accomplished women. They analyze spheres in which women express their talents, factors that may promote or inhibit the development of gifts, and gender differences in experiences that contribute to female success. Part VI of the handbook, Twice-Exceptional Gifted Individuals and Suicide-Related Issues, is about the phenomenon of twice-exceptionality and suicide among the gifted. This part includes three chapters. Chapter 23, Twice-Exceptional: Multiple Pathways to Success, by Judy Lupart and Royal Toy, explores the topic of twice-exceptionality and giftedness. It specifically considers various twice-exceptional subgroups such as gifted students with learning disability, intellectual disability and/or autism, Aspergers syndrome, attention decit hyperactivity disorder, and sensory impairment, as well as discusses main areas relating to meeting the full range of needs for twice-exceptional students including identication, curriculum, instruction, and teacher preparation. In Chapter 24, Gifted Learners Who Drop out: Prevalence and Prevention, Michael S. Matthews states that although relatively few gifted learners actually drop out of school, it is a serious problem for those students who leave high school without a diploma. The analysis of recent advances in this research direction suggests interventions for min-

imizing this problem among academically gifted learners. Chapter 25, Understanding Suicidal Behavior of Gifted Students: Theory, Factors, and Cultural Expectations, by Laurie A. Hyatt and Tracy L. Cross, reviews in detail a multifaceted range of issues related to suicide among the gifted such as its incidence and causes, as well as possible vulnerability to suicide as a consequence of some social and emotional problems faced by gifted individuals. Part VII of the handbook, Types of Giftedness, examines the different types of giftedness. It consists of six chapters. Chapter 26, In Search of EmotionalSocial Giftedness: A Potentially Viable and Valuable Concept, by Reuven Bar-On and Jacobus G. Maree, is devoted to two types of giftedness, namely emotional and social ones. The relationship between emotional social intelligence and giftedness is examined based on the authors research in the eld of emotional intelligence. In Chapter 27, The Two Pioneers of Research on Creative Giftedness: Calvin W. Taylor and E. Paul Torrance, Kyung Hee Kim reviews the contributions of these two famous researchers on high ability to the study of creative giftedness. Their theoretical and practical achievements are carefully analyzed. Chapter 28, Creative Giftedness: Beginnings, Developments, and Future Promises, by James C. Kaufman, Scott B. Kaufman, Ronald A. Beghetto, Sarah A. Burgess, and Roland S. Persson, considers research on the subject that took place in more recent years. Theoretical and practical aspects of the study of creative giftedness are discussed, especially its implications for the assessment of creative abilities. In Chapter 29, Imaginary Worldplay as an Indicator of Creative Giftedness, Michele Root-Bernstein explores in detail complex imaginary worldplay of gifted children that is a good predictor of great achievements in adulthood. The imaginary worldplay can be viewed both as a learning laboratory and an early apprenticeship in creativity for the gifted. Chapter 30, Development of Gifted Motivation: Longitudinal Research and Applications, by Adele Eskeles Gottfried and Allen W. Gottfried, proposes that gifted motivation is a special type of giftedness distinct from intellectual giftedness. It refers to people who are superior in their strivings and determination pertaining to a task at hand. The authors present theory

Understanding Giftedness

and empirical ndings, as well as describe implications for education of the gifted and identication of gifted motivation. In Chapter 31, Leadership Giftedness: Is It Innate or Can It be Developed? Karen B. Rogers explains what makes leadership a special type of giftedness in terms of both outcomes and nurturance. She rst of all reviews the literature on giftedness in leadership and then discusses research conducted to determine whether the innate characteristics and behaviors of leadership can be developed more fully through a leadership development program. Part VIII of the handbook, Domain-Specic and Multiple Giftedness, concentrates on domain-specic and multiple giftedness and it consists of 11 chapters. Chapter 32, Scientic Talent: The Case of Nobel Laureates, by Larisa V. Shavinina, is about the nature of giftedness in science. It specically addresses the essence of scientic talent in the case of the most accomplished scientists, namely Nobel laureates. A great deal of the chapter focuses on Nobel laureates unique, objective types of representations and extracognitive abilities. In Chapter 33, Understanding Mathematical Giftedness: Integrating Self, Action Repertoires and the Environment, Shane N. Phillipson and Rosemary Callingham propose that being gifted in the domain of mathematics is best described by the Actiotope model of giftedness because of the clear interactive relationship between self (psychology, action repertoire, subjective action space, and goals), the external environment, and attainment of excellence. Chapter 34, Cinema Talent: Individual and Collective, by Dean Keith Simonton, shows that cinema is an unusual form of achievement in that it involves both (a) extensive collaborative effort and (b) considerable nancial resources. The chapter examines a series of investigations aimed at understanding the operation of both these characteristics in large samples of awardwinning lms. The empirical studies demonstrate that talents of screenwriters and directors are especially critical for lm success. In Chapter 35, Reading, Writing, and Raising the Bar: Exploring Gifts and Talents in Literacy, Rachel Schnur and Sarah Marmor discuss a whole set of issues related to gifted and talented readers and writers. They explore the relationship between readings and writing in such children, suggest quality literature to encourage critical thinking, and provide a living model for gifted

students to write well, as well as stress the need for excellence in writing skills. Chapter 36, The Elusive Muse: Understanding Musical Giftedness, by Roland S. Persson, examines musical giftedness from different epistemological points of view, thus highlighting agreements and disagreements existing in its research. A conceptual model of musical giftedness is outlined; the issues of heredity and accumulated practice are discussed; and differences between the development of Western classical musicians and popular musicians are analyzed. In Chapter 37, Giftedness and Talent in Sport, Jacques H. A. van Rossum presents a thorough account of talent development in sports broadly dened. The author explores the characteristics of successful athletes, addresses the issue of the amount of practice necessary to reach a high level of performance, discusses the role of parents, coaches, peers, and team mates as signicant others, as well as examines talent facilitators and talent inhibitors. Chapter 38, On Entrepreneurial Giftedness, by Larisa V. Shavinina, indicates that the phenomenon of entrepreneurial giftedness is terra incognita from a research viewpoint. The chapter introduces this concept and thus lls an apparent niche in research on high abilities. It explains the nature of entrepreneurial giftedness via analyzing its early manifestations, discussing its developmental trajectories, and considering microsocial factors that facilitate the emergence of gifted entrepreneurs. In Chapter 39, Ilk Hunting: Newbies, Cyber-Punks, Coders and the Search for Elusive, Ego-Twisted, Talented Computer Hackers, Thomas E. Heinzen and Louis M. Picciano analyze a relatively new type of giftedness, namely computer hacker talent. The authors show that apart from the dark side of their talent, hackers also (a) advance pure knowledge and demonstrate the applicability of a good theory; (b) clarify the ethical boundaries of creative giftedness; and (c) profoundly threaten the democratic process while providing protection against those threats. It is interesting to note that Bill Gates and other now famous leaders in computer industry were talented hackers in some points in the development of their successful careers. Chapter 40, What Makes a Gifted Educator? A Design for Development, by Marion Porath, is about gifted teachers. This is a teacher who is gifted in his or her ability to inspire and support truly meaningful

L.V. Shavinina

learning. The chapter reviews the existing literature on gifted teachers, presents students perspectives on meaningful teaching, and suggests directions for learning more about what makes a gifted teacher. Research on social giftedness forms the framework for the authors analysis. In Chapter 41, Understanding Managerial Talent, Larisa V. Shavinina and Marianna Medvid discuss the existing ndings explaining the nature of managerial talent. It describes the Gallup organizations study of more than 80,000 great managers worldwide and presents a new theory of managerial talent aimed at understanding the fundamental essence of this phenomenon. The theory states that the managerial talent emerges at the intersection of unique vision, unusual creative and innovative abilities, highly developed intuition and wisdom-related skills, excellence-based performance, and entrepreneurial giftedness. Chapter 42, Multiple Giftedness in Adults: The Case of Polymaths, by Robert Root-Bernstein, challenges all facets of the specialization thesis, namely (a) specialization is a requirement for adult success, (b) skills and knowledge do not transfer across domains, and (c) the domain dependence of creativity makes general creativity impossible. The chapter describes individuals who have made contributions to multiple domains, discusses literature demonstrating polymathy among creative adults, and presents data from an ongoing study that supports this creativitypolymathy connection. Part IX of the handbook, Giftedness, Society, and Economy, brings to attention a set of diverse issues that emerge at the intersection of the topics of giftedness, society, and economy. For the very rst time the major book in the eld of giftedness highlights these issues. The part consists of ve chapters. Chapter 43, Families of Gifted Children, by Abraham Reichenberg and Erika Landau, reviews current research ndings on the important role of the family in the development of gifted children. Specically, the authors demonstrate that childrens developmental trajectory of talent is considerably inuenced by their family lifestyle, values, goals, and other environmental characteristics. Outlines for future research regarding the family impact on gifted children are also described. In Chapter 44, Large-Scale Socioeconomic, Political, and Cultural Inuences on Giftedness and Talent, Don Ambroses analysis goes far beyond the inuence of immediate micro-social contexts on the realization of potential high abilities. The author examines the ten-

uous growth of democracy in some regions and its pernicious erosion in others, increases in socioeconomic inequity within and between nations, and the effects of competing ideologies. He also discusses such cultural phenomena as changing value systems worldwide, cultural responses to globalization, and various religious and secular conceptions of the ideal civil society. Chapter 45, Gifts, Talents, and their Societal Repercussions, by Dean Keith Simonton, demonstrates societal benets of adulthood achievements of todays gifted children. The author found that a large proportion of the contributions to any domain come from a small number of contributors. Therefore, any societal failure to promote the development of potential of these productive elite can have consequences out of proportion to the whole world. In Chapter 46, The Unwanted Gifted and Talented: A Sociobiological Perspective of the Societal Functions of Giftedness, Roland S. Persson addresses such critical issues as (a) impossibility for some gifted individuals to develop their talents despite the fact that they live in an environment that has both the means and the possibility to facilitate such development; (b) overemphasis on a certain group of abilities in giftedness research, whereas the study of others is ignored; and (c) the unwanted gifted. The phenomena of stigmatizing and marginalizing gifted individuals are thus discussed. Chapter 47, On Giftedness and Economy: The Impact of Talented Individuals on the Global Economy, by Larisa V. Shavinina, states that the gifted are primarily responsible for innovations worldwide and innovations are at the heart of todays economy. It means that the degree of societal interest in talented children, and societal investment in gifted education, will be ultimately reected in the level of innovations in each particular society, that is, in its economic prosperity. This is why innovation is closely related to giftedness, and why giftedness is related to economy. Part X of the handbook, Assessment and Identication of Giftedness, focuses on the measurement of high abilities. It consists of four chapters. Chapter 48, The Measurement of Giftedness, by Linda Kreger Silverman, provides the most comprehensive account available today on how to identify the gifted. The author thoroughly analyzes Ravens Progressive Matrices, Stanford-Binet scales, and Wechsler scales, which are viewed as the most widely used IQ tests in selecting gifted children worldwide.

Understanding Giftedness

She also examines an all-encompassing range of issues related to the appropriate assessment of giftedness, as well as recent advances in the assessment practice. In Chapter 49, Identifying Academically Talented Students: Some General Principles, Two Specic Procedures, David F. Lohman discusses the identication of academically talented children from the perspective of aptitude theory. Aptitude means the degree of readiness to learn and to perform well in a particular situation or domain. The aptitudes for academic success include (a) prior knowledge and skill in a domain, (b) the ability to reason in the symbol systems used to communicate new knowledge in that domain, (c) interest in the domain, and (d) persistence in the type of learning environments offered for the attainment of expertise in the domain. The chapter provides examples of procedures for combining ability test scores, achievement test scores, and teacher ratings in a principled way to assist in the identication of a talent pool. Chapter 50, The Johns Hopkins Talent Search Model for Identifying and Developing Exceptional Mathematical and Verbal Abilities, by Linda E. Brody, presents the Johns Hopkins Talent Search model, which was pioneered in the early 1970s by Julian Stanley and has now spread to many countries around the world. The chapter reviews the principles and practices of the talent search, as well as the programmatic strategies that have been created or identied to develop the talents of advanced learners. The results of over 30 years of research that have been conducted at Johns Hopkins and elsewhere that support these principles and practices are also discussed. In Chapter 51, A New Approach to the Identication of Intellectually Gifted Individuals, Larisa V. Shavinina offers a new perspective on the psychological assessment of intellectual abilities of the gifted based on the new cognitive-developmental theory of giftedness presented in this volume. The chapter focuses on the nine methodological and procedural principles, which form this approach. Examples of new intelligence tests are also presented. Part XI of the handbook, Recent Advances in Gifted Education, examines the latest progress in gifted education and consists of 16 chapters. Chapter 52, New Developments in Gifted Education, by Gary A. Davis, has its goal to provide a brief, general introduction to advances in gifted education that took place in recent years. The author compares todays most important topics in gifted education with those of

about 25 years ago. He concluded that, with one exception, the central topics of gifted education are about the same these days as a quarter century ago. The one exception concerns the identication and teaching of gifted minority students. In Chapter 53, The English Model of Gifted Education, Deborah Eyre introduces a relatively new model for educating the gifted that has been in use in England for 10 years and now forms the basis of the comprehensive national program offered to pupils of all ages and in all government-funded schools. The chapter describes its educational characteristics and discusses the various elements of the model. A key strength of the English Model is that it uses elements from existing models of gifted education to create an approach that positions gifted education deeply within overall education policy and within wider social policy objectives. Chapter 54, Enhancing Creativity in Curriculum, by Joyce Van Tassel-Baska and Bronwyn MacFarlane, explores major ways that creativity can be infused effectively within a curriculum designed for the gifted. The authors highlight specic design approaches that may be employed to ensure that creative thinking and innovation have been embedded into educational opportunities for gifted learners. Examples of this curriculum are provided to illustrate various design motifs. Issues of implementation with respect to the use of technology, professional development, and school-based leadership are also addressed. Based on the highly acclaimed report Nation Deceived: How Schools Hold Back Americas Brightest Students (Colangelo, Assouline, & Gross, 2004), Chapter 55, Acceleration: Meeting the Academic and Social Needs of Students, by Nicholas Colangelo and Susan Assouline, discusses the 20 most important points about acceleration, the 18 forms of acceleration, a treatment of the myths that surround the general issue of acceleration, as well as the research supporting the benets of academic acceleration. A case study of the decision-making process, which remains difcult for parents and educators of the gifted, is also presented as an application of the information provided by the authors. Chapter 56, Teaching for Wisdom in Public Schools to Promote Personal Giftedness, by Michel Ferrari, views wisdom as giftedness in knowing yourself and how to live a successful and fullling life. This is a very old denition, broadly traceable to the Socratic philosophers, which recommended certain exercises

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that students were encouraged to master, such as examining ones life at the end of each day to determine in what one had been successful and in what unsuccessful. The author analyzes these exercises and examples of individuals who were gifted in them, as well as consider the implications of these practices for gifted education. In Chapter 57, DISCOVER/TASC: An Approach to Teaching and Learning That Is Inclusive yet Maximizes Opportunities for Differentiation According to Pupils Needs, Belle Wallace and C. June Maker present a powerful framework for curriculum development that accommodates the varying rates of pupil development. Although intelligence and giftedness may have a genetic base, they stress that these potentials are essentially developed and driven by the processes that are used in problem solving and that all learners are capable of improving their problem-solving processes across the 10 human abilities: emotional, social, spiritual, somatic, visual/spatial, auditory, mathematical/symbolic, linguistic, mechanical/technical, and scientic. Their joint work advocates an inclusive approach to the concept of giftedness. Chapter 58, Future Problem Solving in Gifted Education, by Bonnie L. Cramond, is about the growth of the Future Problem-Solving Program from its beginning by E. Paul Torrance at one high school in Athens, Georgia, USA, in 1974 to its 30th anniversary as an International Program with over 250,000 students around the world participating from grades 1 to 12, and to the present. The various components and rationale of the program are described with examples of problems and students innovative solutions. The chapter will end with a discussion of the benets of this program for the students who participate as well as for the larger society, and an argument for widening its scope beyond gifted education will be made. I personally believe that the full potential of this program has not yet been realized, as well as its hidden tremendous impact on the whole world. This is why I invited Bonnie L. Cramond to contribute this chapter. In Chapter 59, Practical Intelligence and Wisdom in Gifted Education, Mary Anne Heng and Kai Yung (Brian) Tam present a broad conceptualization of practical intelligence that involves the notion of wisdom, highlight the role of experiential knowledge, reection, and habits of virtue, and speak to a symbiotic relationship between self and the larger community. The issue of wisdom and democracy is discussed. The Evolv-

ing Self Model, with conceptual roots in the ideas of Confucius and Dewey, is proposed that helps the gifted seek self and serve communities, as well as suggests service learning as a powerful tool for the academic, social, and moral engagement for them. Chapter 60, Recent Developments in Technology: Implications for Gifted Education, by Michael C. Pyryt, analyzes how technological advances can impact the education of the gifted. The appropriate use of technology for educational assessment, programming, and evaluation is considered. Examples of programs that utilize technology to enhance the educational experiences of gifted and talented children are provided. The Pyryt Enrichment Matrix is introduced as a vehicle for examining the degree of curriculum differentiation that is occurring. In Chapter 61, High Intellectual and Creative Educational Multimedia Technologies for the Gifted, Larisa V. Shavinina presents high intellectual and creative educational multimedia technologies (HICEMTs) as one of the possible methods for gifted education in the near future. HICEMTs will constitute one of the innovative breakthroughs in science and technology of the twenty-rst century and will lead to a new wave of innovations in psychology and education in general and gifted education in particular. HICEMTs appear at the intersection of many subdisciplines of psychology, including general, cognitive, developmental, educational, personality, media, cyber, and applied psychology, education, and multimedia. The general and specic natures of HICEMTs are described. The importance of HICEMTs is discussed from the point of view of educational, psychological, societal, economic, and technological perspectives. Chapter 62, A Technology Based Application of the Schoolwide Enrichment Model and High-End Learning Theory, by Joseph S. Renzulli and Sally M. Reis, focuses on an Internet-based enrichment program based on a high-end learning theory that focuses on the development of creative productivity through the application of knowledge rather than the mere acquisition and storage of knowledge. The program, called Renzulli Learning System (RLS) extends the pedagogy of the SEM to various forms of enrichment as well as rst-hand investigative and creative endeavors. In Chapter 63, The Iowa Online Advanced Placement Academy: Creating Access to Excellence for Gifted and Talented Rural Students, Clar M. Baldus,

Understanding Giftedness

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Susan G. Assouline, Laurie J. Croft, and Nicholas Colangelo concentrate on the Belin-Blank Centers Iowa Online Advanced Placement Academy (IOAPA) that was initiated in 2001. The goal of this online academy is to provide access to a standard of excellenceAP courses and exams. The heart of the IOAPA program is the commitment to preparing students to succeed in AP. This is achieved by a combination of three educational programs. The chapter examines the success of these programs. Chapter 64, On Bringing Interdisciplinary Ideas to Gifted Education, by Bharath Sriraman and Bettina Dahl, reminds us that ideally education should nurture talent in the classroom and create well-rounded individuals akin to the great thinkers of the Renaissance. That is, individuals who are able to pursue multiple elds of research and appreciate both the aesthetic and the structural or scientic connections between mathematics, arts, and the sciences. The authors analyze an underaddressed aspect of giftedness, namely the role of interdisciplinary activities and problems to foster talent in and across the disciplines of mathematics, science, and humanities, increasingly important for emerging professions in the twenty-rst century. In Chapter 65, Innovation Education for the Gifted: A New Direction in Gifted Education, Larisa V. Shavinina presents innovation education as a new direction in gifted education. In order to actualize and develop the unique talents of the gifted, we have to concentrate on innovation education. Innovation education refers to a wide range of educational interventions aimed at identifying, developing, and transforming child talent into adult innovation. That is, those societal actions aimed at preparing gifted children to become adult innovators. The chapter describes the main components of innovation education and discusses its importance for the economic prosperity of the whole world. Chapter 66, Dual-Language Gifted Education and Its Evaluation, by Ernesto M. Bernal and Jaime H. Garca, analyzes the two exceptionally important top ics in gifted education: dual-language education and its program evaluation. It discusses such critical issues as accountability, especially for program improvement, and the research aspects of program implementation. Successful addressing of these issues leads to continuous curricular improvement for the gifted. In Chapter 67, Observed Trends and Needed Trends in Gifted Education, Michael F. Shaughnessy and Roland S. Persson review observed current trends in

gifted education as well as discuss tendencies that need to be developed. Based on interviews with a number of leading researchers and thinkers in the area of gifted education, the authors identify and consider the number of important issues for the future of gifted education. Part XII of the handbook, Policy Implications and Legal Issues in Gifted Education, is about latest progress in gifted education policy and legal aspects of gifted education. This part consists of three chapters. Chapter 68, United States Policy Development in Gifted Education: A Patchwork Quilt, by Joyce Van Tassel-Baska, examines gifted education policy in the United States. The chapter states that policy in gifted education remains a patchwork quilt of legislative and administrative rules and regulations, mostly at the state level. Although a federal denition exists with an accompanying modest funding package, the No Child Left Behind Act, focused on raising achievement for low-performing students, has driven out gifted education as a priority for federal attention. There is a variance of policies among all 50 states that causes national reform in gifted education to be less cohesive, comprehensive, and inclusive than it needs to be. In Chapter 69, Identifying and Developing Talent in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM): An Agenda for Research, Policy, and Practice, Rena Subotnik, Martin Orland, Kristin Rayhack, Julie Schuck, Ashley Edmiston, Janice Earle, Edward Crowe, Pat Johnson, Tom Carroll, Daniel Berch, and Bruce Fuchs highlight the need to produce greater numbers of highly educated and innovative scientists, engineers, and mathematicians for securing a bright economic future for the United States. The authors discuss the current US approach to serving adolescents who are talented and interested in STEM, analyze the obstacles to meeting national goals, and offer solutions for consideration by the research, policy, and practice communities. Chapter 70, Gifted Education and Legal Issues, by Frances A. Karnes and Kristen R. Stephens, explores the legal processes (negotiation, mediation, due process, litigation) that parents of the gifted can utilize in seeking appropriate identication and services for their children. The efforts of the Ofce for Civil Rights (OCR) in resolving disputes pertaining to gifted learners are also discussed along with the role that legislation and court cases have had in policy development in gifted education.

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L.V. Shavinina

Part XIII of the handbook, Giftedness Research and Gifted Education Around the World: Institutional and Regional Examples, provides an overview of the recent efforts made at both institutional and micro- and macro-regional levels aimed at studying, developing, and educating gifted children. My idea was to offer examples of best practices in the cases of one of the oldest research center, of two megacitiesNew York and London, UK,as well as of whole countries and parts of the world. It should be emphasized that the goal of this part was not to cover absolutely all countries and regions. It provides only certain examples and consists of seven chapters. Chapter 71, Swimming in Deep Waters: Twenty Years of Research About Early University Entrance at the University of Washington, by Kathleen D. Noble and Sarah A. Childers, is about the Halbert and Nancy Robinson Center for Young Scholars (Robinson Center) at the University of Washington (UW) in Seattle, USA, and its role in giftedness research and practice. The chapter describes the Early Entrance Program initiated in 1977 that is about radical acceleration from secondary school to the university, as well as its sister program, the UW Academy for Young Scholars. In Chapter 72, How Do You Get to Carnegie Hall? Gifted Education in New York City, Dona J. Matthews opens a discussion of problems and possibilities in urban gifted education in the case of New York City (NYC). The author reviews diverse forces that are at play locally, including bottom-up and top-down political pressures, concerns about equity and social justice, media responses, and changing legislation and standards. Resulting changes in NYC educational practice are interpreted as a movement toward a mastery model of giftedness. Chapter 73, London Gifted & Talented: A Case Study in High Challenge Urban Education, by Ian Warwick, examines both Londons strengths and the challenges it faces in gifted education. It analyzes the role of London Gifted and Talented and London Challenge in realizing the potential of gifted and talented children by investigating some of the models for teaching and learning that these organizations developed and trialed across the UK capital by working with students, schools, and local authorities facing the most challenging circumstances. In Chapter 74, Giftedness and Diversity: Research and Education in Africa, Jacobus Gideon Maree and Carol No la Van der Westhuizen, present a compree

hensive review of gifted education in Africa. Focusing on signicant advances in the eld of giftedness that have informed the theory and practice of gifted education in the past decade, they argue that the challenge in sub-Saharan Africa is to extend the existing body of knowledge in gifted education to better understand giftedness in the context of third-world and developing countries. Chapter 75, Recent Developments in Gifted Education in East Asia, by Shane N. Phillipson, Jiannong Shi, Guofeng Zhang, Den-Mo Tsai, Chwee Geok Quek, Nobutaka Matsumura, and Seokhee Cho, demonstrates that in spite of sharing a common cultural heritage, latest advances in giftedness research and gifted education in several countries and regions within East Asia show that each country and region is currently distinguished by different approaches to gifted education. However, the challenges facing many of these countries and regions are remarkably similar, such as misconceptions as to the role of gifted education within communities that are dominated by extensive and pervasive examination systems, and the limited roles of indigenous research in conceptions of giftedness and curriculum development. In Chapter 76, Gifted Education in the Arabian Gulf and the Middle Eastern Region: History, Current Practices, New Directions, and Future Trends, Taisir SubhiYamin discusses provisions available to gifted and talented children in the Arabian Gulf region and the Arabic countries in the Middle East. The author reviews varying cultures in the region, each with their own practices, terminology, and conceptions of exceptionality. Major issues in the area of the identication and development of giftedness and creativity are examined and new directions in gifted education are highlighted. These issues include gifts or talents as entities, the philosophy of gifted education, identication, programs, educational technology and the digital world, future research, and challenges that lie ahead. Chapter 77, Gifted Education and Research on Giftedness in South America, by Eunice M. L. Soriano de Alencar, Denise de Souza Fleith, and Violeta Arancibia, examines the state of giftedness research and gifted education in the South American countries. As these nations do not share the same cultural, linguistic, ideological, social, and economical backgrounds, there are differences in the terminology, practices, and policies implemented for the gifted in this continent. However, these countries are characterized by the same

Understanding Giftedness

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scarcity of programs for training teachers and psychologists, shortage of nancial support for implementing programs and services for the gifted, preference for enrichment educational strategies, and predominance of misconceptions among parents, educators, and administrators. Part XIV of the handbook, Conclusions, contains a single chapter, Research on Giftedness in the 21st Century, by Albert Ziegler, which serves to integrate the other chapters in the handbook. This chapter points out common as well as unique features of the various facets of giftedness research discussed in the chapters of the handbook and suggests directions in which future research, practice, and policy might lead us. Specically, the author addresses the issues of (a) what giftedness research is all about; (b) whether present rationalizations for the existence of this eld of research can remain justied; and (c) possible synergies with expertise research and innovation research in the future. The chapters of this handbook therefore demonstrate that giftedness is inherently multidimensional, multifaceted, interdisciplinary, personally demanding, socially consequential, cross-cultural, and frequently surprising. As a result, understanding the scientic principles that explain the nature of giftedness requires

a variety of research approaches. Authors presented a wide range of approaches to understanding the fundamental essence of giftedness and of educational options aimed at the development of the gifted. This handbook thus provides what is perhaps the most comprehensive account available of what giftedness is, how it is developed, how it is measured, how it is educated, and how it affects individuals, societies, and the world as a whole. Andwhat is probably the most importantthe handbook launched many new research directions in the eld of giftedness and gifted education that have not been discussed earlier. This handbook thus greatly advances giftedness research and gifted education worldwide by making a lot of great discoveriesexactly as Richard Feynman recommended.

References
Colangelo, N., & David, G. (2003). The Handbook of Gifted Education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Heller, K. A., Monks, F., Sternberg, R. J., & Subotnik, R. F. (2000). The International Handbook of Giftedness and Talent. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science.