Assignment 2 Third Photoreceptor

Beside two classic photoreceptor cells, rods and cones, third one aiding in vision system is photosensitive ganglion cells. Its discovery process started in 1990s (Wikipedia.org). In 2002, however, a third photoreceptor was discovered and referred as intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell, or ipRGC (Umich.edu). Background This discovery has its origins in attempts to understand how endogenous 24hour body clocks (circadian clocks) are regulated by light. In the early 1990s, mice homozygous for gene defects, e.g. retinal degeneration (rd), and lacking any visual responses to light were examined to determine the impact of rod/cone loss on photoentrainment. Remarkably, rd/rd mice lacking functional rods and most cones showed normal circadian responses to light (Foster, 1991). These and a host of subsequent experiments, including studies in humans with genetic defects of the eye, David, et al., (1998) & Czeisler, et al., (1995) showed that the processing of light information by the circadian and classic visual systems must be different, and raised the possibility that the eye may contain an additional non-rod, non-cone photoreceptor. This initial thought work aided in further research on it and attracted funding bodies. The major assumption here was that only a small number of rods and/or cones were necessary for normal photoentrainment of the clock. To test this assumption, a mouse was engineered in which all rods and cones were ablated (rd/rd cl). Such genetic lesions had little effect on circadian responses to light, although loss of the eyes completely abolished this capacity (Freedman, et al., 1992; Lucas, et al.,

1999). According to Foster (2009), in mammals light-induced pupil constriction is

regulated by the rods and cones, yet multiple studies have shown that pupil constriction still occurs after profound damage to these photoreceptors. However, it is vital to note that rods and cones have major contribution to pupil constriction. While the novel receptors drive constriction under sustained bright light conditions. Lucas, et al., (2001) tested the rd/rd cl mouse for this assumption. Pupil measurements were undertaken in rd/rd cl mice and showed that these animals were fully able to constrict their pupils under bright light conditions. Characteristics This third photoreceptor, say scientists at Brown resides deeper in the retina than rods and cones and looks remarkably different, more like the underside of a canopy of twisted tree branches. There are about 1.3 million ganglion cells in the human visual system, 1 to 2% of them photosensitive (Wikipedia.org). Pigment The opsin found in the photosensitive ganglion cells of the retina that are involved in various reflexive responses of the brain and body to the presence of (day)light, such as the regulation of circadian rhythms, pupillary reflex and other nonvisual responses to light, is called melanopsin. In structure, it is an opsin, a retinylidene protein variety. When light activates the melanopsin signaling system, the melanopsin-containing ganglion cells discharge nerve impulses that are conducted through their axons to specific brain targets (Wikipdia.org).

Function

Though the functions overlap of ganglion photoreceptors, rods & cones but this novel photoreceptor have many unique functions associated. However, few are its distinctive functions which are as follows; It has contribution to our awareness of environmental light. According to Kellogg scientist Kwoon Y. Wong, Ph.D. studies its main function is to gauge ambient light intensity rather than analyze spatial details. Wong believes ipRGCs absorb light and use the energy to generate nerve impulses similar to the rods and cone. However unlike rods and cones, which send their signals to regions of the brain that deal with conscious visual perception, ipRGCs send their messages to other parts of the brain that produce subconscious physiological responses to light. These responses affect pupil constriction, enhance alertness, affect the release of hormones, and synchronize daily rhythms like the sleepwake cycle to the environmental lightdark cycle. This receptor bestows individual a proper sense of time. It also turns light energy directly into brain signals. These signals govern the bodys 24-hour clock. This third class of ocular photoreceptor is responsible for regulating circadian clock (body clock). A blind individual sensitive to bright light through pupil constriction should be encouraged to expose his or her eyes to sufficient daytime light to maintain normal circadian entrainment and sleep wake timing. This subconscious visual system has been associated with many medical conditions. For example, scientists have shown that if ipRGCs absorb too little light during the day, depression and insomnia can occur. On the other hand, if

these cells receive too much light at night, diseases such as breast and prostate cancer can develop. Subconscious vision has an enormous impact on our well-being, says Dr. Wong. The discovery of ipRGCs has made it much easier to investigate how different kinds of environmental light may influence our body, and will expedite the development of new strategies to promote health. Most important, these newly discovered photoreceptors still function in many blind patients whose rods and cones have completely degenerated (Umich.edu).

References
Czeisler, C.A., Shanahan, T.L., Klerman, E.B., et al. (1995). Suppression of melatonin secretion in some blind patients by exposure to bright light. N Engl J Med, 332, 611. David, Z.K., Janssen, J.W., DeGrip, W.J., et al. (1998). Light detection in a blind mammal. Nat Neurosci, 1, 6556.

Foster, R.G., Provencio, I., Hudson D, et al. (1991). Circadian photoreception in the retinally degenerate mouse (rd/rd). J Comp Physiol, 169, 3950.

Foster, R.G. (2009). The Third Photoreceptor System of the Eye Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells. European Ophthalmic Review 2(1), 84-6 Freedman, M.S., Lucas, R.J., Soni, B., et al. (1992). Regulation of mammalian circadian behavior by non-rod, non-cone, ocular photoreceptors. Science, 284, 5024.

Lucas, R.J., Freedman, M.S., Munoz, M., et al., (1999). Regulation of the mammalian pineal by non-rod, non-cone, ocular photoreceptors. Science, 284, 5057. Lucas, R.J., Douglas, R.H., Foster, R.G. (2001). Characterization of an ocular photopigment capable of driving pupillary constriction in mice, Nat Neurosci, 4, 6216.

http://brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/2001-02/01-080.html http://www.kellogg.umich.edu/news/newsletter/fall2010/rodscones.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell