T H E AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGISTS BULLETIN

V . 52, N O . 12 ( D E C E M B E R . 1968). P, 2422-2437, 6 F I G S , ' TABLF

G E O L O G I C A L E V O L U T I O N OF ASSAM A M ) CAMBAY T E R T I A R Y BASINS OF I N D I A ' A. T. R. RAJU' Uehra Dun, India .\BSTRACT Assam and Cambay sedimentary basins are the two major oil-bearing regions in India. Applying the principles of regional geotectonics, an attempt is made to correlate the structural and lithologic features of the Tertiary sedimentary sequence of Assam and Cambay with the stages in basin evolution. The Tertiary succession in Assam includes deposits in a geosynclinal belt including fiysch stages, overlain by lower and upper molasse deposits, and Paleogene platform deposits overlain by Neogene molasse. The Disang-Naga thrust zone separates these two associations and determines the transition from platform to geosynclinal conditions. The Cambay basin represents platform structure of avlakogen type. It is characterized by predominantly negative movements controlled by basement faults until middle Eocene. Definite inversion during late Eocene-Oligocene is indicated by generally shallow-marine to lagoonal conditions of deposition and probable growth of structures. The Neogene was a period of regional uplift and encompassing both the source and depositional areas and resulting in change of drainage pattern. More arenaceous sediments were formed in the basin during this period with frequent changes from shallow marine to continental conditions. The sea .gradually receded southward, forming the present Gulf of Cambay.
INTRODUCTION

T h e Assam and Cambay Tertiary basins are the two principal petroliferous regions of India. The occurrence of oil in Assam was known as early as 1825. Intensive geologic investigation of the Assam Tertiary rocks has been carried out by, among others, Assam Oil Company, Burma Oil Company, Geological Survey of India, and Oil and Natural Gas Commission. General descriptions of the geology of Assam and the tectonic framework are given by Wadia (1957) and Krishnan (1953). Regional geotectonic framework of southeast Asia was described by Umhgrove (1949). Apart from broad generalizations and local detailed stratigraphic studies for oil exploration, published work on the geological evolution of the Assam-Arakan geological province is meager. A few recent papers on regional geological analysis are by Evans (1959, 1964), Biswas ' Manuscript received, February 2, 1967; revised, July 18, 1967; accepted, December 15, 1967. The opinions expressed in this paper are those of the writer and not necessarily of the organization in which he is working. This paper is published with the kind permission of Director of Geology, Oil and Gas Commission. ^ Senior geologist. Oil and Natural Gas Commission. The writer thanks his many colleagues with whom several aspects of this paper were discussed and whose unpublished field and laboratory reports were consulted. The writer is particularly indebted to Shri .S. N. Talukdar for his guidance in the preparation of this paper, and to Shri P, V. Dehadrai for his encouragement and advice.

(1963), and Eremenko i I9f)4). Credit for the discovery of oil and gas in the Cambay basin is given to the Oil and Natural Gas Commission. Since 195s intensive exploration by that group has proved the presence of several commercial oil and ga.-- fields. Sufficient subsurface information has been (ibtained to warrant a regional analysis of geological data on which to plan further sean h. Increasing attention is being paid to regional geotectonics in the evolution of sedimentary basins. Fundamental papers on concepts of basin evolution are those of Stille (1924, 1940), Kay (1947, 1951), King (1950i, Weeks (1952), and Ivovorsen (1954). In the Soviet Union basic principles of geotectonic evolution are described by Beloussov (1956 1, Khain (1946), and liremenko (1961). T h e present paper attempts to integrate the available lithologic data from Assam and Cambay Tertiary basins, in order to visuaHze the stages in basin evolution. Figure 1 locates these regions within the Indian subcontinent. Both basins are discussed in this paper to contrast the tectonic evolution of the two main petroliferous regions in India. The Cambay Tertiary basin demonstrates exclusively platform tectonics, whereas the Assam region encompasses areas of widely differing mobility. It is hoped that the geological synthesis presented may adequately explain the lithologic and structural attributes of most of the sediments involved.

2422

GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF ASSAM AND CAMBAY TERTIARY BASINS, INDIA

2423

r" '~l Igneous and melomorphic rocks,ancient 1 ' A sediments^ and Deccan Trap 1 Mesozoic sedlmenis concealed I Deccon Trap. |\; ; ; 1 Areas with faulted 1 -\-^1 Gondwana beds rougns by

containing

Sumatro *

P'iG. 1.Indian subcontinent, showing Assam-Arakan and Camhay basins.

ASSAM TERTIARY BASINS

Evans (1964) gave an excellent account to the International Geological Congress of the geology of Tertiary basins in Assam, stressing their geological history (Table I). Papers by Eremenko (1964) and Kalinin (1965) were published recently on regional geological analysis. Biswas (1963) also has given an account of the results of exploration for petroleum in the western part of the Bengal basin. Geological data from Assam and adjoining territories suggest the following geotectonic provinces of differing mobilities (Figs. 2, 3). Comparatively stable parts of crust characterized by epeirogenic movements.These are (1) Shillong Plateau, including the Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, and Mikir Hills, and (2) platform areas peripheral to the shield in West Bengal, northeast

East Pakistan, north Cachar, and the upper Assam Valley. Transitional areas to the mobile belt.The transitional areas are those of (1) pericratonic downwarp (or simply pericraton), comprising areas of comparatively steep regional slope of the basement toward the Naga-Lushai geosynclinal belt; and (2) foredeeps ('in part overlapping the pericraton) between fht- pericratonic downwarp and the geosynclinal belt, bounded by steep basement faults. Mobile belts characterized by erogenic movements during Tertiary geotectonic cycle.Two mobile belts are Naga-Lushai miogeosyncline and Arakan-Chin Hills geanticline. Geological information on the Arakan-Chin Hills geanticline is very meager. Only recently Brunnschweiler i'1965) published a paper on the

2424

A. T. R. RAJU
TABLE I. TERTIARY SUCCESSION IN ASSAM (AFTER EVANS, 1964) STAGES AGE
(Approximate)

AND

LOCAL

FACIE S SHELF SEDIMENTS Alluvium and high-level terraces 1800

c

SERIES

GEOSYNCLINAL
SURMA VALLEY

SEDIMENTS
UPPER ASSAM AND NAGA H I L L S

RECENT a PLEISTOCENE PLIOCENE DIHING ^^^ MIO-PLIOCENE

Alluvium and high-level terraces Unconformity I Not subdivided Unconformity Upper Dupi Tilo Lower Oupi Tila 2800 500

Alluvium and high-level terraces

4 0 0 Not subdivided

900 Ohekiojuli Beds

DUPI TILA

Namsong Beds

800 Namsong Beds

600 600 900 200

Unconformity TIPAM MIOCENE SURMA Boko Bil Bhubon Uncomformity Renji Jenam Laisong

Girujan Clay

1500 Girujan Cloy

1800 Girujon Cloy

Tipom Sandstone 1600 Tipom Sandstone 2300 Tipom Sondstone

1500 4000*

Not subdivided

900 Not subdivided

OLIGOCENE

1000 Tikok Parbot 1200 2400 Borogoloi Noogaon over 1500 probably over

600 3300 2200

Not subdivided

1200

EOCENE

DISANG

fKopili Alternations 500 3000 SERIES 1 ^'"'*' '-'"'stone 500 LTherria ?100

NOTES Figures give maximum thickness in meters.

a) Total original thickness must hove been much greater. b) The 4 0 0 0 meters of Dihing ^ e r i e s in the extreme Eastern Himoloyon foredeep7

Local fades nomes

northeost of Assam may belong to the

c) In the Garo Hill the Dupi Tilo Series reaches 1 0 0 0 meters. d) The increased thickness is due to loterol passage of uppermost Surma beds into Tipom Sandstone. e) The Bhubon Stoge thickens southward to exceed 6 0 0 0 meters in Arokon

f ) Including Poleocene. gl May ronge down into uppermost Cretaceous.

AFTER p. EVANS (1964).

regional geology and tectonic history of the Indoburman Ranges. The boundaries of the Arakan-Chin Hills geanticline shown in Figure 2 are based on Brunnschweiler's Figure 14. In this classification, the East Himalayan mobile belt was not treated in detail because of insufficient data. It is discussed only insofar as it influenced the upper Assam Valley during Neogene evolution. The geotectonic provinces are bounded by well known tectonic lineaments which were active during various stages of the Tertiary. Eremenko (1964) emphasized the main basement tectonic trends and probable accompanying faults in Bengal and eastern India. Many other faults, some of them oblique to these major trends, were also re-

sponsible for the environmental and lithofacies changes in the resulting sediments. The main lineaments defining the tectonic provinces in Assam are; 1. Frontal Himalayan ihrust zone bordering the upper Assam Valley on the north and northeast. 2. Basement faults bordering the Shillong Plateau the east-west-trending Dauki fault on its south flank extending east certainly to Haflong; a suspected east-west fault along the Brahmaputra on the north flank; and northwest-southtast faults east and west of the plateau area. 3. The Naga and Disang thrusts southeast of the upper Assam Valley reflect basement trends and merge near Haflong. 4. The northeasl-soutliwesi. Calcutta-Mymensingh gravity high, probably pa.ssing south of Sylhet to south of the Barail Range

GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF ASSAM AND CAMBAY TERTIARY BASINS, INDIA

2425

FIG. 2.Geotectonic provinces in Assam-Arakan geological province. Only a few of numerous anticlines in Tripura and .Silchar are shown 5. Northeast-southwest-trending Barisal-Chandpur high, probably passing west of Agarthala, skirting the northern limits of the frontal ranges in Tripura, and finally merging with the Calcutta-Mymensingh trend north of Silchar (not known with certainty). 6. Possible north-south trending tectonic lines a.-;so dated with the Arakan-Chin Hills geanticline. The major northeast-southwest tectonic trends include the Naga thrust, the Disang thrust, the Calcutta-Mymensingh gravity high, and the Barisal-Chandpur gravity high. The la.st two arc slightly offset near Haflong by the Dauki fault. It is believed that all these trends are associated with deep-seated basement faults crossing various structural features in the earth's crust (Eremenko, 1964). Not onh' have they determined the limits of the platform and its pericraton, but their reactivation formed foredeeps during various stages of e\'()lution. The close proximity of these tectonic trends lo the shield area in the Surma Valley region resulted in eliminating the pericraton in the area of the Surma Valley and thrusting in the valley region brought platform Paleogene sediment.- of north (^achar into direct contact with correlati\'e trcosynclinal Hthofacies on either side of Haflong. The Assam-.Arakan geologi(al province was in-

2426
NAGA

A. T. R. RAJU
HILLS
BELT

SCHUPPEN

PLAT FORM

PERICRATON

FORE DEEP

MOBILE

BELT

( MIOGEOSYNCLINE;

B' B
"~"--^ >."^^ SURMA V^~"_^Ol^ANC '^^ " ^ ^ ^

I G N E 0 U

^^x

lATL

MIOCENt

OVt RTHRMSTS OF BASIN

:1EVEL0PED WEAKNESS NORMA..

CN L I N E S

P R O V I DED B V

DOWN-TO

FIG. 3.Diagrammatic sections: A-A' across Naga Hills (by S N Tiilukdar) and B-B' across upper Assam (by Evans, 19641 fluenced by the Tertiary geotectonic cycle of the Naga-Lushai miogeosyncline. Each of the geotectonic provinces within it behaved differently depending upon its mobility; this is clearly reflected in the lithologic and structural attributes of the associated sediments. The miogeosyncline passed through all the four recognized stages of geosynclinal developmentnamely, the geosynclinal (or Aspid stage according to terminology in vogue in USSR), flysch, and early and late molasseduring the Tertiary period.
GEOSYNCLINAL STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT

The first stage in the evolution of a mobile belt is characterized by an increase in subsidence of basinal zones concomitant with elevation of associated geanticlines. In the Naga-Lushai belt it is not exactly known when this stage began (Late Cretaceous?). However, during the Eocene the basin was experiencing the geosynclinal stage of development with the Arakan-Chin Hills geantii li-

nal belt on the east. According to Evans (1964), this geanticlinal belt is not likely to have been a persistent barrier between Assam and Burma north of lat. 24', even though important uplifts probably occurred during iilocene time. Brunnschweiler (1966) also suggested that the Naga metamorphic (omjjle.v in ihe northern exten.sion of the geanticline remained above sea level, whereas its southern continuation, although belonging to a geanticlinal framework, remained mostly submerged and formi'd the facies-dividing threshold represented by ihe iiplhrust zone along the east side of the Chin Mills and Arakan Yoma. Brunnschweiler i onsidered the entire Paleogene succession within the geanticlinal environment to be llysch deposits Ho\ve\er, within the Naga-Luchai belt we.si of the ueaiiticline, a clear distinction exists in the sedimentologic history of the Uisang and Barail Groups, The Naga-Lushai belt forms an external trough nearer the platform and corresponds to 'he niioceosynclinal belt of Stille

GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF ASSAM AND CAMBAY TERTIAK'' (1924). In this trough a thick body (nearly 4,000 m) of gray to dark-gray, almost black, splintery shales, in places concretionary, with thin bands of siltstone and fine sandstone, was deposited (Disang Group). The sandstone is poorly sorted, with appreciable matrix, gray to dark gray, and micaceous. This is a graywacke with detrital minerals showing little indication of derivation from igneous or metamorphic rocks, but including wellrounded grains of more resistant minerals. The terrane supplying these sediments probably was composed of sedimentary or low-grade metamorphic (green-schist facies) rocks, since reworking in a rapidly sinking basin is unlikely. Evans (1954) suggested the provenance might be a land mass east of long. 89J^ in the eastern Himalaya. It is also possible that part of the detritus might have been received from the geanticline, as well as from the peneplaned shield areas. During the period of maximum geosynclinal activity in the Naga-Lushai belt, submergence of the platform and adjacent parts of the shield resulted in platform lithologic associations in parts of the Shillong Plateau and in the upper Assam Valley. Evans suggested that the Calcutta-Mymensingh trend acted as a hinge during Paleogene time, and its possible extension through Haflong to the Naga thrust served as a basement feature separating platform facies northwest of the geosynclinal facies. The platform during this period did not behave like a stable shelf, as is evident in the account given by Biswas (1963) of West Bengal and by Evans (1964) of Assam shelf facies. The exposed Eocene sediments along the fringes of the shield area suggest that deposition was in a shallow marine to lagoonal environment, and during periods of less terrigenous supply carbonate deposition took place. Platform conditions were controlled by block movements along ba.sement faults, and the platform was gently merging with the geosynclinal belt. As is known from many published works, the passage from platform to a geosyncline is generally marked by steepening of the basement slope. Information about the basement in the upper Assam Valley is very meager. However, according to the tectonic map of Assam published by Evans (1964, Fig. 8, p. 24, "Oil in India" brochure), the generalized basement contours in Bengal do indicate a zone about 50 km wide northwest of the Calcutta-Mymensingh trend wherein the basement dips more steeply

IIA'-IXS, INDIA

2427

into the foredeep. 'riu? might, be the result of several step faults in ihe basement. Such a zone is characteristic o: a peril raton. In the upper Assam Valley also a narrow zone adjoining the Naga thrust probaJ)K' lejiresents the pericraton. North of the Barail Range, however, such a zone is missing, probabh because of the close proximity of a major tectoni( lineament to the shield (Fig. 2). Locally a considerable thickness of sediments accumulated on the pericraton under conditions favorable fur hydrocarbon preservation. In contrast with the intense lokling in the geosynclinal belt, the structure> mi the pericraton are gentle, bounded by basemeni laults. Because of limiied iniormation either from West Bengal or from Assam, the boundaries of this tectonic province as shown in Figure 2 are necessarily conjectural,
FLYSCH >r\(,V. 1)1 DEVELOPMENT

The end of Disaiig depo.siiion was marked by shallowing of the miogeosymiine, as evidenced by the general arenaceous i haracter of the uppermost Disang formation vvhich, in most places, passes imperceptibly into the Barail Group. This is clearly pointed mit liy Evans (1964), who stated that t,he lowest Barail beds (Laisong and Xaogaon Formations i \-ary \onsiderably in thickness, probably beiause oi their lateral passage into Disang shales. Even though for the most part the transition from ihe Disang Group to the Barail Group is gradual, Das Gupta (1956, p. 3) asserted that there is record of a break in sedimentation in other parts of the basin resulting from orogenesis at the end of the Eocene. The second stage in the geotet. tonic cycle of a mobile belt, namely the tlysch stage is characterized by the process of further sul)division of the geosynclinal belt into second order troughs and geanticlines, the latter in many cases acting as subaqueous barriers. This results in a general shallowing of the basin and further transgression onto the platform. Continued subsidence, keeping pace with sedimentation in some troughs, may produce considerable thickness of tlysch deposits (up to 3,500 m in the Surma Valley . Depending on the degree of separation of the troughs and the nature of the terrigenous supply, flysch deposits may range from coarse tlysch to subflysch or carbonate flysch. In the N'aga-Lushai belt, mainly subflysch was deposited. Beiause of the compen-

2428

A. T. R. RAJU The third stage in a geotectonic cycle, namely the early molasse stage, is characterized by predominance of uplifts o\ er downwarps, and reactivation of basement trends near shield areas. This results in the overall shallowing of the geosynclinal belt, formation of foredeeps adjoining the platform, and regional elevation of the platform with uplift of shield areas. This stage of evolution in Assam is characterized by the following features. A strong tilt ui curred from north to south, starting late during Barail deposition, thereby converting most parts of upper Assam into a land area and leaving localized early molasse basins. Tilt probably wa> accomplished along the eastwest Dauki fault as the hinge, following the southern margin of the Shillong Plateau, against which the Barail Ranges of Surma Valley were uplifted. Uplift of the Shillong Plateau along the .same trend supplied profuse terrigenous detritus to the early molasse liasiii on the south. The Surma foredeep was formed by reactivation of the basement Calcutta-Mymensingh and Barail-Chandpur trends, which probably extend into the Surma Valley south of the Barail Ranges. This foredeep had a regional southwest plunge and partly I'nt loac hed on the pericraton in a series of step faults. On the southeast it gradually shallowed against submerged Paleogene structures, and the Manipur area might already have been converteti into land undergoing erosion. The Surma Group, therefore, received its detritus partly from the elevated inner ranges and partly from the Shillong from. This accounts for the mineralogical change in the Surma Group between Agarthala and SiKhar. In the Tripura area, epidote and hornblende ouur well down in the Bhubhan Formation, whereas in Silchar they are distributed sporadically in the Bokabil Formation because of the predominance of detrital supply from the elevated inner ranges. Regionally, the Surma Group becomes inoie arenaceous and contains coarser clastic material when traced from the Silchar area to Tripura, where the uplifted Shillong Plateau was the principal source of supp'y. _ Thickness variations and facies changes within the Surma Group are marked. In the frontal ranges of Tripura and south Cachar (Baramura, Bachia, Patharia, Badarpur, Masimpur, etc.), variations may be accounted for by synsedimentary upheavals in the basin. In the Surma fore-

satory mechanism in the flysch stage, in contrast to predominantly negative movement in the geosynclinal stage, well marked rhythms are a characteristic feature of flysch deposits. However, in subflysch sections, as is the case with the Barail Group, such rhythms are not well marked. As stated by Evans (1964), throughout the whole period sedimentation kept pace with subsidence, but intermittent periods of slight emergence allowed coal to form, especially in upper Assam. The regional paleoslope during the deposition of upper Barail Group (Renji and Tikak Parbat Formations) appears to have been from northeast to southwest, with more coal accumulation in upper Assam. The upper part of the Renji Formation is absent there, in part because of nondeposition, and partly as a result of erosion. The platform lithologies of the Barail Group include medium- to coarse-grained sandstone, carbonaceous shale, and thin coal seams deposited on an unstable shelf. Sediments deposited under different shallow marine, lagoonal, deltaic, and even fluviatile conditions are present in the Barail Group in the subsurface of upper Assam. It is therefore not surprising that this complex lithofacies in the subsurface poses major problems in oil-field development. This is particularly (rue of the upper part of the Barail Group in which epeirogenic uplift caused regression and produced an erosional unconformity at the top. Absence of data on the nature of the pericraton renders it difficult to visualize the gradation of the platform Barail Group into the outer flysch sequence of Surma Valley and the Naga Hill region. However, the Nahorkatiya field 40 km southwest of Digboi on a basement high proved to be an important producer from the Barail. Uplift of the basement probably occurred during Mio-Pliocene time. A less important oil field, Moran, 40 km west-southwest of Nahorkatiya, is on a similar structure but with a significant northeast-southwest fault that divides the proved area into two parts (Evans, 1964). It is not unlikely that Nahorkatiya lies above the pericraton, whereas Moran is located within the platform.
EARLY MOLASSE STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT

The end of the Oligocene is marked by important changes in the Assam Tertiary. A regional uplift resulted in a widespread unconformity between the Barail Group and succeeding sediments.

GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF ASSAM AND CAMBAY TERTIARY HASINS, INDIA deep, sedimentation kept pace with sinking, permitting huge thicknesses (up to 4,000 m) to be deposited and preserved, whereas the frontal ranges of Tripura underwent contemporaneous deformation in response to the general geotectonic evolution of the mobile belt, causing changes of local facies and environments. Therefore, even though marine conditions may have prevailed in the early molasse stage along the southwest plunge of the Surma foredeep, they may have been replaced by brackish, deltaic, and even fluviatile conditions in the frontal ranges. Hence exploration for Surma oil prospects in the frontal ranges requires detailed facies analysis. In upper Assam the Surma stage is marked by regional uplift of both geosynclinal and platform areas, whereby part of the Barail was eroded. Deposition of the Surma Group was confined to some structural lows on the pericraton (up to 600 m) and local depressions in the platform (up to 200 m). Here, however, data on Surma Group are scanty. The Surma Group of the early molasse stage is transitional into the overlying Tipam Group of the late molasse stage of development. However, the mineralogical change between the groups is sufficiently diagnostic in many areas to indicate a sharp increase in the elevation of source areas which contributed higher grade metamorphic minerals to the sedimentary basins.
LATE MOLASSE STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT

2429

Assam through the Naga Hills. Evans (1964), however, believed in lontinuous deposition of the Tipam Group across the Disang thrust zone, even though there is a gap of 40 km between the nearest Tipam outcrops on either side. In spite of striking lithologic ^imilarity and undoubted correlation of this group across the Disang thrust, the following factor.s strongly suggest that the two Tipam foredeeps were separate and not a single continuous basin ^lrer(hing from Tripura (o Sa(iiya Frontier, 1. There was rejuvenation and intense epeirogenic uplift of the Shillong Plateau during this stage along the Dauki fault, which undoubtedly extends to Haflong. 2. The east-west Barail Range, which was already uplifted at the end of the flysch stage and partly eroded, must again have been subjected to orogenic uplift during this stage. The second-order topography of the Kohima Range forming the northeastern extension of the Barail Range testifies to repeated uplifts and consequent erosion during various stages; hence the Barail Range must have been uplifted against the Dauki fault, forming an arch that separated the two Tipam foredeeps. This may also account for the local northerly hade of the thrust near Haflong and Haranganjao, a.s noted hy Chiindra and Banerjee (1960). 3. The Tipam Group of Tripura and the Surma Valley is characterized by the presence of an enstatite-sillimanite-andalusite suite, although the suite is not continuous in the Surma Valley. In the Naga Hill region this suite is absent. These two areas, therefore, belong to two different terrigenous mineral provinces, even though they may f.irm tlie same superprovince. 4. The .schuppen belt of E^vans (1964) abruptly ends near Haflong, where the Disang-Barail arch is in close proximity with the shield area. This arch therefore acted as an impediment to later compressive forces which uplifted the Naga Hills. The geologic history of upper Assam during Neogene time is different from that of the Surma Valley-Tripura area, a.-, the former was also involved in East Himalayan orogeny during this period. This fact must be noted in considering the probable tectonic evolution of the Assam-Arakan geologic province south of the Dauki fault. The southwest Tipam foredeep was probably superimposed on the earlier Surma foredeep, having the same plunge, but it was presumably narrower as a result of epeirogenic positive movements on the north and northwest (Shillong Plateau and West Bengal) and of orogenesis in the frontal ranges on the southeast (Tripura and south Cachar). The Tipam Group gradually thins toward the northwest, since its development was controlled by step faulting, and it is either poorly

The late molasse stage in the Naga-Lushai geosynclinal belt is represented by the Tipam Group, consisting of the lower Tipam Sandstone formation and the upper Girujan clay formation. The fourth or late molasse stage in a geotectonic cycle is characterized by a sharp increase in elevation of frontal and inner uplifts, which are transformed into mountain chains, and by concomitant subsidence of intermountain troughs and foredeeps. The limits and areal extent of the troughs and foredeeps could be defined accurately only by isopach and facies analyses. According to available data, two main foredeep basins might have existed in Assam during this stage, one extending from south Cachar to Comilla bordering the frontal ranges of Tripura on the north and northwest (conveniently referred to as the S.W. foredeep), and the other, referred to as the N.E. foredeep, extending from east Cachar hills to northeast

2430

A. T, R. RAJU like nappe formation here in the late Tertiary. As a result, Tripura and Surma Valley structures show greater complexity in older groups at depth, in contrast lo upper Assam structures in the Naga Hills. In summary, the evolution of the Naga-Lushai Tertiary geosyncline south of Dauki basement fault i:an be traced through the following stages. A geosynclinal stage of development commenced in Late Cretaceous and extended well into Eocene time. This was succeeded by the fiysch stage during the Oligocene. The Miocene was characterized liy the molasse stage of development. The area attained a platform stage in Mio-Pliocene. and all subsequent movements are of a platform type along established structural features.
NEOGENE EVOLli ION irE UPPER ASSAM

developed or not developed at all on the West Bengal platform northwest of Calcutta-Mymensingh high. In the foredeep, the thickness of the group may be considerable, probably thinning on the northeast against the foredeep plunge. The development of the Tipam Group southeast of the foredeep was controlled mainly by the frontal ranges, the broad synclines among them affording the loci of deposition. These tectonic basins in Tripura and south Cachar probably had a regional northern plunge to join the foredeep. This may partly account for the strong northern plunge of Tripura folds and the southwestern plunge of some folds developed in the HaflongDamchara area. The extent of upheaval of the frontal ranges and their effectiveness as land barriers, which they must have been at least in part during this stage, can only be determined by detailed facies mapping. The Girujan clay formation is poorly developed in the area and is not present in some outer structures, such as Batchia, Baramura, and Atharmura. There its absence is explained by large scale erosion following post-Miocene foldinp (Evans, 1964), but it is also possible that in these areas the Girujan clay may have been considerably thinner. In the foredeep, which was unstable and undergoing subsidence concomitant with deposition, Girujan clay might have lieen widespread and thick.
POST-MOLASSE DEVELOPMENT SOUTH OF DAUKI FAULT

The last of the orogenic movements in the Manipur-Lushai belt were in Mio-Pliocene time, marking the close of geosynclinal evolution and ushering in a stage of platform development. By this time most of the geosyncline had been converted into land and was undergoing erosion, but epeirogenic activity in the Shillong Plateau along the Dauki fault continued, resulting in the unconformable deposition of a considerable thickness of Dupi Tila sediments in parts of the Surma Valley. All post-Miocene deposits (Dupi Tila, Dihing, and alluvium) are continental, occurring as scattered outcrops in topographic valley and as river terrace deposits. Movements were confined generally to the already established structural grain, as is amply illustrated by lack of complex folding in the younger sediments of Tripura. As pointed out by Evans (1964), there was nothing

Marked contrasts in the Neogene evolution of upper Assam are evident .starting from the early molasse stage. Deldrmatuin along the Dauki hinge during this stafre i aused widespread erosion of the Barail (;rou[). Ii j< possible that an appreciable thickness <>\ -ediments contemporaneous with the Surma (Jroup i e(|uivalent to lower Siwalik of Sahni and Mathur, 1964) was deposited along the Kast Himalayan foredeep at this time. During the late molasse stage the Patkai and Kohima Ranges, as well as the East Himalayan frontal ranges, must ha\e been uplifted considerably: there were also pronounced positive epeirogenic movements in the Shilhjiig Plateau. These movements converted the upper Assam platform and pericraton into an intenmiuiitain Iiasin with a foredeep in the .\aga Hill- retrion, bordered on all sides by positive element,-.. Thus, in the northeast Naga foredeep. tht' Tipam Groujj was deposited with its probable equivalents (middle Siwalik) along the east Himalayan foredeep. The latter was presumably continuous with the former under the Brahmaputra, Valley. The Namsang hecU represent a phase in the late molasse development of the Naga belt and, as pointed out by Evans (1964), the unconformity at their base is probably less pronounced than that at the base of the Dupi Tila in the Surma Valley, which liy then had attained the platform stage. The last stage of development is marked by intense orogeny in the Ea<t Himalayan mobile belt

GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF ASSAM AND CAMBAY TERTIARY BASINS, INDIA and Naga Hills, and by the reactivation of basement faults on the Assam platform. As a result a considerable thickness of Dihing (equivalent to upper Siwalik) accumulated in front of the rising Himalayas, as much as 4,000 m at the Sadiya Frontier and averaging 1,500 m in the Brahmaputra Valley. Concurrently the mobile belts adjoining the platform were subjected to compression which caused the formation of nappes. During Neogene times, the East Himalayan geotec tonic cycle was superposed on the Naga-Lushai geotectonic cycle, converting the upper Assam platform into an intermountain continental ba.sin. In this basin the Paleogene platform deposits of the Naga-Lushai mobile belt are overlain by inlermountain Neogene molasse.
CAMB.IY TERTIARY BASIN

2431

The Cambay Tertiary basin, situated in Gujerat state in western India, extends from north of Mehsana to the Gulf of Cambay and south beneath the Arabian Sea. It fringes the west-northwest margin of the Indian shield on the Indo-Arabian platform. Systematic collection of geological data in this basin started in 1958, with the exploration activity of the Oil and Natural Gas Commission. Surface data on Tertiary sediments are meager, confined to a few isolated localities (Broach, Surat, Gogha, etc.), but many subsurface data have been accumulated during the last few years. Stratigraphy and geology of the basin were discussed by Mathur and Kohli (1963) and Mathur and Evans (1964). Some problems of oil and gas geology were brought out by Kalinin (1965). Recently Mathur et al. (1966) described the tectonic framework of the Cambay basin. The block structure of the basin, controlled by basement faults cutting across the Deccan basalts and extending into Tertiary sediments, was brought out in this work. Differential movements along these faults are believed to account for some of the Kthologic and structural characteristics of the Tertiary sediments. The present paper attempts a regional analysis of available lithologic data in order to visualize the stages in tectonic evolution of the basin. The basin (Fig. 4) is on the Indo-Arabian platform, flanked on the northeast by the Aravalli swell and on the east and west by Deccan basic extrusives. The last of the orogenic cycles' (Delhi cycle) along the northwestern Indian shield is dated Bai-

kal age (700-550 million years). In post-Proterozoic periods western and northwestern India functioned as a platform, responsive to epeirogenic movements. The discontinuous Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary outcrops around Cambay basin (upper Carboniferous Umaria beds. Upper Jurassic Dhangadra beds, and Cretaceous Wadhwan Sandstone and Bagh beds) were deposited in alternating shallow manue, l)rackish, and deltaic environments on a platform which, at other times, was emergent. Toward the close of Mesozoic time tensional fault.-, dex'eloped along ancient basement trends, probalily submerging parts of the jilatform. These movements were accompanied by large-scale extrusive volcanic activity, the basalts of which constitute ihe Tertiary floor of the Cambay basin. The evolution of the tectonic Ijrovince since this period lan he deciphered with some degree of certainty. .Mathur el al. (1966) have divided the liasiii into four tectonic blocks (l"ig. 4), namely the \arniaila block (1), Jambusar-Broach block i2), (""ambay-Tarapur block (3), and Ahmedabad-Mthsana block (4), demarcated by recognizable basement fault trends. It is the ta.sk of the gc(ilogi>ls of the Oil and Natural Gas Commission to deiirie within these blocks tectonic and lithologic facies zono^ most favorable for hydrocarbon accumulation. The Cambay Tertiary basin is bounded by step faults on its eastern and western margins, the former being more severely faulted than the latter. Even though these marginal faults have not been continuously traced from north to south, there is no doubt about their essential continuity south into the Gulf of (.'amliay as en echelon step faults. The liasin has been (lesc:ribed variously as a graben or half-graben. li is imperative that such an interpretation be substantiated by an integrated study of the lithologic character of the associated sediments, to visualize the stages in basin evolution. Figure = L'ives a diagrammatic . cross-section acros> the Cambay Tertiary basin, and Figure 6 shows the four distinct lithologic suites that ha\e been recognized. A lithologic suite, as used here, is a sequence of beds consisting ol paragciietically interrelated lithofacies derived, deposited, and buried to form rock units in a particular geographic, geochemical, and geotectonic environment. The geotectonic factorthe extent and nature of dynamic activity -is the most important of these

( A S E MAP FROM 0. S.I., 1991)

1 t;V"|P"ECAMBRIAN [I PROBABLE

|x

X|DECCAN TRAP FAULT LINES

^^MESOZOIC THROUGH TRAP FLOOR.

BASEMENT

I. NARMADA

BLOCK BLOCK

3. CAMBAY-TAR APU R

BLOCK BLOCK

2.JAMBUSAR- BROACH

4. AHMAOABAD-MEHSANA

FIG. 4.Cambay Tertiary tectonic proviiut'.

GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF ASSAM AND CAMBAY TERTIARY BASINS, INDIA

24,13

SANANO-5

KALOL-e

WAVEL-6

MESOiOIC

OECCAN

TRAP

FIG. S.Diagrammatic section: C~C' across Cambay basin (by Malhur and Evans, 1964).
QCNENAUZED MAX. SEDiMCHrAirr THICK. SUCCESSION

GROSS

LITHOLOGIC

DESCRIPTION

DYNAMIC CONDITIONS OF DEPOSITION

BOUNDARY CHARACTER

Chioritic, micaceous sonds pebbly toword top with variegated claystones, silty clays, ond silts Horizons with thin corbonaceous streoks ond broken shell frogments ore present. Pyritic cloystones are noted toword the bottom

POSITIVE STAGE

Unstoble posi'we movements in the bosin with reqiona epeiorogenic upl f t of source areos Source oreas are mixed peirograph character

uj

v--^^':: '-;"

Woo a: I- ?

i^f

CortX)naceous gray sholes, some pyritic with thin coal beds,$ilts, and sondstones. Chioritic sands with cleon bands in some areosf., cyclic alternations of shole, siderite, coal, silt, and sand are noted locoliy. Thin morl biodosltc bonds occasional. Uniform dork-gray to block fissile shale with syngenetic pyrite and rich in combined organic matter. Corbonoceous streaks ore occasional. Olive-grc^ and light greenish-gray shades in shales ore present in the middle port of the section. Brownish gray shade in shale along with sideritic spherulites is a feature in the lower section. Silts ore rare and sondstones ore almost absent.

OSCILLATORY OR STAGE OF INVERSION

Un stable.osciMotory bosin with moderate to insignificont relief between the source and deposilionol oreos. Mild epeiorogenic movements in source ond depositionoi May be ctiarocTerized by nondeposition in oreasStable regional negotive charocter of the bosin which wos moderately deep. Source area of uniform petrographic charocter, peneploned and supplying very fine clastic?.

In a ma)orily of cases tronsgressive, oveflopping the bosoltlc floor and the basement on bosm margins.

' s o m e c a s e s ond t r a n s i t i o n in oTher coses

Trap (bosoltic) conglomerotes, trap wocke sands, silts, and cloystones. Poorly sorted clastic bosolt frognrwnts embedded in a reddish-brown, gray, or greenishgray motrix. Corbonate enriched bonds with rare glauconite are present.

WACKE OR FORMATIVE STAGE

Unstable with strong relief between the source and depositionol areas. Quick deposition and buriol- Source oreas near to the depositionol sites with uniform petrogrophic character

B o u n d a r y is o local _ u n c o n f o r m i t y in a m o j o r i l y of cases a l o n g bosin m a r g i n :

^p: fSw
. Lower boundary is i erosionol unconformi Baioltic floor

E^'

PDERITE BANOa

cot

[(O) @ jcMAf

^:cj..co

FIG. 6.Lithologic suites in Cambay Tertiary avlaliogen.

2434

A. T. R. RAJU tained so far suggest that the localized occurrence of this suite was controlled by northeast-southwest faults which cut the basalt floor into positive and negative areas in (he initial stage of basin development. In Olpad and Kosamba, where a thick section of this suite is present, in contrast to its complete absence in the Anklesvar area, it is believed I hat grabens within a tectonic block were the sites of deposition. This suite marks the first stage in the evolution of the Cambay basin, in which reactivation along northeast-southwest basement faults produced an uneven relief in the basalt floor of the Indo-Arabian platform during Paleocene-early Eocene time.
NE(JATIVE STAlJt: <ll DEVELOPMENT

factors. Thus the boundaries between the lithologic suites should conform naturally to changes in the mode of evolution of the basin, and each suite may be considered as representing a tectonic stage or cycle. Such changes in the mode of basin evolution and are reflected in the sedimentary section in different ways: structural pattern of the associated sediments; fauna and flora; petrology and mineralogy; fault patterns within the sediments; unconformities; localization of hydrocarbons; etc. Subsequent movements in the basin may modify the picture to some extent. The stages (or cycles) in tectonic evolution of the Cambay Tertiary basin as depicted by the several lithologic suites are as follow.
WACKE OR FORMATIVE STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT

Directly overlying the Deccan trap floor in parts of the Cambay basin (Olpad, Ko.samba, Atali, Nawagam, Mehsana, and Kalol) is a thick sedimentary section consisting of volcanic conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and claystone derived entirely from Deccan trap basalts. These sediments are variously termed "trap conglomerates" and "trap wacke," with associated finer elastics (trap-wash products). The sediments exhibit an erratic distribution with varying lithology, and it is not uncommon that a conglomerate grades into a reddish-brown siltstone or claystone without any intervening sandstone. The succession exhibits a variety of color shades from light steel gray where trap elastics are comparatively fresh, to reddish brown where the source material was highly weathered. In the conglomerate the fragments occur as pebbles, gravel, sand, and silt, showing no selective sorting except locally. Many trap fragments contain zeolite veins and vugs filled with chalcedony. In the sand grades, the matrix is clayey and chloritic, derived from diagenetically altered trap. A feW'glauconite pellets are found in the section in the northern part of the basin (Nawagam and Kalol). Carbonate-enriched zones are not uncommon. Locally, the succession exhibits steep dips, slumps, and disturbed bedding. The limited areal extent of this suite is significant; thick prisms of the unit probably were deposited as fanglomerates along bordering fault scarps. Where the depositional areas are large tpossibly in Ahmedabad-Mehsana block), finer clastic sequences may be present. The data ob-

The lithologic suite .suetceding the trap-wacke sequence in the ('ambay basin is composed of uniform dark-gray lo lilaik fissile shale, commonly pyritic and rich in or;;anic matter. In the basal part grayish-bruvvn ^hak, locally with sideritic spherulites, may iie present, overlain by greenish-gray chloritic shale. Black lustrous material described as kerabitumen is sparingly found. This sequence is conspicuously free from any recognizable sandstone, but siltstone forms a few thin lenticular bands. In the ujiper part of the sequence, glauconite is common. The suite is not sufficiently rich in micro fauna lo permit exact determination of its age, but an early to middle Eocene range is indicated. This lithologic unit is well developed throughout the ba>iii exiejit along its fringes where Miocene sediments overlap the trap and Precambrian basement. The lithology is conspicuously similar in all icctoiiic blocks, thereby indicating regional sulisidencc of the basin probably along en echelon north-south faults. The source was weathered trap regoliih which supplied fine detritus to depositional arc;i~ subsiding at a rate slightly in excess of the rate of supply of terrigenous material. Regional isopach study indicates greater subsidence in the northern part of the Cambay basin i .Ahmedabad-Mehsana block), where this suite attains a thickness of 1,800 m compared with a normal thickness of 500-1,000 m elsewhere. Mathur et d. (1966) found that, during the Eocene, there was a general slope of the basin toward (he north, with a zone of highs along the Cambay-Kathana alignment. This suite records slov\ deposition in compara-

GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF ASSAM AND CAMBAY TERTIAR^' KASINS, INDIA lively deep marine waters under a highly reducing environment (euxinic black shales predominate in the section). Products of plant origin, intimately mixed with light-yellow colloidal material of probable sapropelite affinity, are important constituents of the shale. It is reasonable to assume that conditions were favorable for the generation of hydrocarbons. The upper part of the suite is characterized by the presence of glauconite in localized zones, suggesting shallower water toward the end of this stage.
OSCILLATORY STAGE OR STAGE OF INVERSION

243S

The third stage in the evolution of the Cambay Tertiary basin is represented by a suite of alternating light- to dark-gray fissile shale, greenishgray chloritic shale, carbonaceous shale, coal beds, sideritic mudstone, siltstone, and chloritic and clean sandstone beds. The lower boundary of this suite is locally gradational but in many places contemporaneous displacement along preexisting fault planes is suggested by the presence of clay pellet intraclasts. In the upper part, the suite contains thin coal streaks, oolites, and sideritic spherulites. In Kalol, rhythmic sedimentation is indicated by recurrent gradation from pyritic dark-gray shale to sandstone or siltstone through sideritic mudstone, carbonaceous shale, and a coal bed. This suite contains some sandstone, and beds of chloritic and clean sandstone of Anklesvar. The suite is characterized by drastic thickness variations and accompanying facies changes that imply that deposition took place in an unstable basin with an uneven floor. These variations lead to serious difficulties in detailed correlation of sections, for depositional environments changed in time and space from shallow marine to littoral and lagoonal. Marine reducing conditions alternated with brackish and even mild oxidizing conditions. The microfauna indicates a late Eocene to Oligocene age for this lithologic suite.
POSITIVE STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT

Broken shell fragments are found at different intervals. Brownish claystone with pebbly sandstone is conspicuous in the upper part, Jasper, flint, and agate are present as gravel. The sandstones are chloritic, and some are in a kaolinitic matrix. The source area was essentially metamorphic (probably the Aravalli swell on the northeast) with an admixture of terrigenous matter from the Deccan trap. The basin was shallow and the environment was continental to .shallow marine. Frequent epeirogenic movement caused temporary marine incursions, and the effects of uplift in source areas were reflected in jiuorly sorted sand, gravel, and conglomerate of continental type that accumulated along the basm margins and overlapped the basaltic floor and ihe Ijascment in some areas. This stage may record a i:hange of drainage pattern as the metamorphics became the main source of sediment supply A regional southward dip of the basin during this [leriod contrasts with its northward slope during the Eocene (Mathur et al., 1966). Reactivation i)i certain fault trends has also been suggested. The epeirogenic movements of the platform . aused the gradual emergence of the Cambay area and the retreat of the coastline to the south. The origin and development of the basin can be attributed to basement faulting of large magnitude which probably determined the configuration of the west coast of India. The evolution of individual structures within the basin is related mainly to the first three developmental stages. The initial irregular relief in the basaltic floor, produced by northeast-southwest and east-west basement faults (first stage i, was moderated to a considerable degree by subsidence along northsouth en echelon faults (second stage), resulting in a generally uniform distribution of black shale in the basin. A stage of regeneration probably followed in the third stage, during which preexisting fault trends were reaitivated and there was regional shallowing. This resulted in several disjunctive drape structures in this suite along the positive elements. These structures are being explored currently for hydrocarbons. Future investigators must define the irregular paleoslopes in the basin during the third stage, as the distribution of terrigenous reservoirs will be greatly influenced by them. Basins of this tvpe located in extensive plat-

The last stage in the tectonic evolution of the Cambay Tertiary basin was characterized by unstable, platform-type sedimentation. The lithologic suite is essentially arenaceous with olivegreen, grayish-green, brownish-gray and variegated claystone, locally pyritic in the lower part. Thin carbonaceous streaks are evident in places.

2436

A. T. R, RAJU yan orogeny and was subjected to compressive forces that formed the schuppen belt. The Cambay Tertiary basin is an intraplatform structure located on a post-Proterozoic platform of the Indo-Arabian geological province. The evolution of the Cambay basin can be traced through formative, negative, oscillatory and positive stages. The oscillatory stage is considered the most important from the point of local structural development, and paleosiope studies in the basin will lead to demarcation of lithologic traps for hydrocarbon exploration. The tectonic evolution of the basin agrees very well with that of an avlakogen, and a closer study of each tectonic block for tectonic and lithologic facies zones will lead t<i more discoveries of hydrocarbons.
SELEcrKi) REFERENCES

form regions are not uncommon (Rhine graben, Suez basin, Reconcavo graben in Brazil, etc.). A study of such basins and their tectonic evolution led Russian geologists to recognize them as a separate class of platform structure under the term "avlakogen" (Decisions on the classification of platform structures, VNIGRI, Leningrad, 1953). Structures of this type are characterized by pronounced subsidence during the early stages of their development, sometimes accompanied by volcanism. Subsequent regeneration, or gentle downwarping with the formation of zones of elongated elevationridges, swells, etc.produced as a result of inversion in tectonic development, are characteristic. Fault-bounded structures are common. The tectonic evolution of the Cambay Tertiary basin followed this general pattern, hence is regarded as of the "avlakogen" type. Classification of the basin on the basis of its tectonic history is absolutely necessary, to guide the preparation of paleogeographic maps of each interval and the restoration of depositional surfaces which control the distribution of lithologic traps for hydrocarbon exploration.

CONCLUSIONS

Geotectonic provinces within the Assam-Arakan geological province are identified, and basement tectonic lineaments bounding them described. The Tertiary geotectonic cycle of Naga-Lushai mobile belt is traced through the geosynclinal, flysch, early and late molasse stages, and the mobility of different geotectonic provinces is discussed in the light of available lithological and structural data. The marked contrast in the tectonic development of Tripura and Surma Valley vis-a-vis Naga Hills and upper Assam Valley during Neogene time is attributed to (1) epeirogenic uplift of the shield area along the Dauki hinge and concomitant orogenic deformation of the Barail Range at the end of flysch stage of development, and (2) transformation of the upper Assam Valley into an intermountain basin in the late molasse stage as a result of superposition of two independent geotectonic cycles. Tripura and the Surma Valley areas attained a platform stage in post-Miocene time, characterized by epeirogenic movements, whereas the Naga Hills region was influenced by the East Himala-

Aubouin, J., 1965, Geosjiulines: Amsterdam-New York, Elsevier, 288 p. Beloussov, V. V., 1950, Grundfragen der allgemeinen Geotektonik: tjeol. Rundschau, bd. 45, heft 2, p. 353-369. Biswas, B., 1963, Results of exploration for petroleum in the western part of the Bengal basin, in U. N. Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, symposium on the development of petroleum resources: 2d Session Proc, v. 1, pt. 2, p. 241. Bouma, A. H., 1962, Sedimentology of some flysch deposits: Amsterdam-New York, Elsevier, 168 p. Brunnschweiler, R. O., 1966, The geology of the Indoburman ranges (Arakan coast and Yoma, Chin Hills, Naga Hills) : (jeol. Soc. Australia Jour., v. 13, pt. l,p. 139-194 Chandra, P. K., and A. Batierjee, 1960, Progress report of the work done in Haflong-Dalu-Damchara area, Assam: Unpuh rept to Oil and Natural (ias Commission. Das Gupta, A. B., 1956, On the structure and stratig raphy of north-eastern India: Unpub. rept. to Assam Oil Company. Eardley, A. } . , 1962, Structural geology of North America: New York, Harper Brothers, p. 4-11. Eremenko, N. A., 1961, Geology of oil and gas (in Russian) : Moscow, (jortikhizdak. 1964, Oil and gas possibilities of West Bengal: Oil and Natural Gas Comm. Bull., v. 1, p. 11-25. Evans, P., 1959, Stratigraphy and tectonics of the Assam oil field region, in V. K. Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, symposium on the development of petroleum resources: New Delhi session. United Nations, Bangkok, p. 170. 1964, The tectonic framework of Assam: Geol. Soc. India Jour., v. 5, p. 80-96. Grossgeim, V. A., 1959, Some petrographic and paleogeographic features of sediments in geosynclinal formations (as demonstrated in the Caucasian fold province): Acad. Sci USSR Bull., Geol. Ser. no. 7, p. 51-62 (F^nglish translation) Kalinin, N. A., 1965, Problems of oil and gas geology

GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF ASSAM AND CAMBAY TERTIARY BASINS. INDIA

in India: Tokyo, UN Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, symposium on the development of petroleum resources, 3d session, p. 1-16. Kay, G. M., 1947, Geosynclinal nomenclature and the craton: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 31, p. 1289-1293. 19S1, North American geosynchnes: Geol. See. America Mem. 48, 147 p. Khain, V. E., 1946, Osnovnyye Zakonomer nasti razvitiya geosynklinaley (The basic laws governing the development of geosynclines): Akad. Nauk. SSR 12 v., Ser. Geol. no. 6. Khan, A. H., and J. Azad, 1963, Geology of Pakistan gas fields: Teheran, U. N. Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, symposium on the development of petroleum resources, 2d session Proc, V. 1, pt. 2, p. 275. King, P. B., 1950, Tectonic framework of southeastern United States: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., V. 34, p. 63.5-671. Krishnan, M. S., 1953, The structural and tectonic history of India: Calcutta, Geol. Survey India Mem., V. 81, 109 p. Kuenen, P. H., and A. Carozzi, 1953, Turbidity currents and sliding geosynclinal basins of the Alps: Jour. Geology, v. 61, p. 363-373. Levorsen, A. I., 1954, Geology of petroleum: San Francisco, W. H. Freeman, 703 p. Mathur, L. P., and P. Evans, 1964, Oil in India: New

2437

Delhi, 22d Internal. Geol. Cong. C. R., Brochure, p. 1-87. and G. Kohli, 1963, Exploration and development for oil in India: Frankfurt, 6th World Petroleum Cong. Proc, sec. 1, p. 633-658. K. L. N. Rao, and .\. N. Choube, 1966, Tectonic framework of Cambay basin, India: Paper presented to 7th World Petroleum Cong., Mexico. Sahni, M. R., and L. P. Mathur, 1964, Stratigraphy of the Siwalik group: New Delhi, 22d Internal. Geol. Cong., C. R., Brochure, p. 1-24. Stille, H., 1924, Grundfragen der vergleichenden Tektonik: Berlin, Gebriider Bomtraeger, p. 443. 1940, Einfiihrung in den Bau Nordamerikas: Berlin, Gebriider Bomtraeger, 717 p. Ilmbgrove, J. H. F., 1949, Structural history of the East Indies: Cambridge Univ. Press, 63 p. Vassoevich, N. B., 1957, Flish i tektonicheskaya obstanovka ego obrazovaniya: 20th Internat. Geol. Congress, Mexico, C. R., sec, 5, v. 1, p. 303-324. Wadia, D. N., 1957, Geology of India: London, Macmillan & Co. Ltd., p. 321. Weeks, L. G., 1952, Factors of sedimentary basin development that control oil occurrence: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 36, p. 2071-2124. Williams, H., F. J. Turner, and C. M. Gilbert, 19SS, Petrography; San Francisco, W. H. Freeman and Company, p. 289-303,