CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

In engineering field, metal components are required to have high dimensional precision and accuracy. After fabrication, they require further machining to facilitate dimensional control.Thus proper machining of metal parts plays a very important role in industrial production. Surface roughness plays an important role in evaluating quality of machined products. The quality of surface is of utmost important for the correct functioning of machine parts which directly affect the attributes of product such as friction, fatigue, wear resistance, coating, reflection and lubricant . There are many factors that affect surface roughness of any machined parts, these factors among others includes: machining parameters, tool geometry, work piece material, nature of chip produced, machine rigidity and cutting fluids used . In other to achieve the specified roughness, a tradeoff between the factors that affect the surface roughness is always made. Carbon Steel is widely used in various fields of engineering and industries.. Nevertheless, because of carbon steels wider area of applications coupled with its low cost and availability, machining characteristics of its surface roughness need to be optimized to further increase its area of application as well as to achieve high quality products . Steel alloys such as EN-8, EN-45, EN-31 etc. are widely used in automobile industries, aeronautical industries, construction industries etc. Hence the effect of cutting parameters on surface roughness is evaluated and the optimum cutting condition for minimizing the surface roughness is determined. The cutting parameters used for machining in this project are cutting speed, feed and depth of cut. The experiments are done on three grades of steel and using the surface finish measuring device, Ra value of the specimen is calculated. Smaller the Ra value, better the surface finish. Surface grinding is used to carry out the surface finish in the specimens due to its better removal rate. Surface grinding is the most common of the grinding operations. It is a finishing process that uses a rotating abrasive wheel to smooth the flat surface of metallic or nonmetallic materials to give them a more refined look or to attain a desired surface for a functional purpose. For machining of iron and steel , grinding process is preffered. In steel components, grinding wheel gives a better material removal rate and hence the makes the surface smooth.

1.1 Objective

To determine the effect of different parameters in machining processes of steel alloys and henceforth to obtain the maximum affecting and least affecting parameter using Taguchis method of Design Of Experiments. To obtain an optimum surface roughness and the value of the level of respective factors attributing to get the optimum value. To create a mathematical model to find out surface finish using parameters like feed, depth of cut and different types of material used. Ra = C0+ C1x+ C2 y+ C3z + C4 x2+ C5 y2 + C6 z2 +C7xy+ C8 xz + C9xy Where C0,C1,C2 are the constant and x,y z are the different parameters which are varied. In our project we consider three parameters material with different carbon composition, depth of cut and feed.

1.2 Motivation Design of experiments is a widely used technique in todays industries. This branch of applied statistics deals with planning, conducting, analyzing and interpreting controlled tests to evaluate the factors that control the value of a parameter or group of parameters. A strategically planned and executed experiment may provide a great deal of information about the effect on a response variable due to one or more factors. Taguchis method of design of experiments is useful for studying the interactions between the parameters, and also it is a powerful design of experiments tool, which provides a simple, efficient and systematic approach to determine optimal cutting parameters. Compared to the conventional approach of experimentation, this method reduces drastically the number of experiments that are required to model the response functions . It is proposed for the purpose to improve the quality of products based on the concepts of statistics and engineering. The important applications of design of experiments in manufacturing industry includes improved process yield and stability improved profits and return on investment improved process capability reduced process variability and hence better product performance consistency reduced manufacturing costs reduced process design and development time
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heightened morale of engineers with success in chronic-problem solving increased understanding of the relationship between key process inputs and output(s) increased business profitability by reducing scrap rate, defect rate, rework, retest etc.

1.3 Organisation of the Report The report is divided into five chapters. The first chapter gives an introduction and outline of the project . The second chapter discusses the literature review. All the theory and related work done in this area is briefly explained in the chapter. The third chapter reveals the methodology followed to achieve the objective of the project. The method and experimental work,is discussed in detail in this chapter. The fourth chapter is about the results and its optimization. All the values and their detailed analysis that are obtained from MINITAB 15 software to design and optimize the experiments are given in this chapter. The final chapter indicates the conclusions drawn from the work done and also suggests its future scope .

CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND THEORY

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In this chapter, the theory behind Taguchis method of Design Of Experiments and the calculations involved in it are discussed. The project was started with literature review. The following topics were covered by referring various books and papers. 2.1. Taguchis Method of Design of Experiments The Taguchi method involves reducing the variation in a process through robust design of experiments. The overall objective of the method is to produce high quality product at low cost to the manufacturer. The Taguchi method was developed by Dr. Genichi Taguchi of Japan who maintained that variation. This is a method for designing experiments to investigate how different parameters affect the mean and variance of a process performance characteristic that defines how well the process is functioning. The experimental design proposed by Taguchi involves using orthogonal arrays to organize the parameters affecting the process and the levels at which they should be varied; it allows for the collection of the necessary data to determine which factors most affect product quality with a minimum amount of experimentation, thus saving time and resources. Analysis of variance on the collected data from the Taguchi design of experiments can be used to select new parameter values to optimize the performance characteristic.

2.1.1 Steps Involved in Taguchi Method The general steps involved in the Taguchi Method are as follows: Determine the design parameters affecting the process. Parameters are variables within the process that affect the performance measure such as temperatures, pressures, etc. that can be easily controlled. The number of levels that the parameters should be varied at must be specified. Increasing the number of levels to vary a parameter at increases the number of experiments to be conducted. Create orthogonal arrays for the parameter design indicating the number of and conditions for each experiment. Conduct the experiments indicated in the completed array to collect data on the effect on the performance measure. Complete data analysis to determine the effect of the different parameters on the performance measure.

2.1.2 Taguchi Loss Function The goal of the Taguchi method is to reduce costs to the manufacturer and to society from variability in manufacturing processes. Taguchi defines the difference between the target value of the performance characteristic of a process, , and the measured value, y, as a loss function as shown below. l( y) = kc ( y )
2

The constant, kc, in the loss function can be determined by considering the specification limits or the acceptable interval, delta. kc = C 2

The difficulty in determining kc is that and C are sometimes difficult to define. If the goal is for the performance characteristic value to be minimized, the loss function is defined as follows: l( y) = kc y 2 where

=0

If the goal is for the performance characteristic value to maximized, the loss function is defined as follows: l( y) = kc y2

The loss functions described here are the loss to a customer from one product. By computing these loss functions, the overall loss to society can also be calculated. 2.1.3 Determining Parameter Design Orthogonal Array The effect of many different parameters on the performance characteristic in a condensed set of experiments can be examined by using the orthogonal array experimental design proposed by Taguchi. Once the parameters affecting a process that can be controlled have been determined, the levels at which these parameters should be varied must be determined. Determining what levels of a variable to test requires an in-depth understanding of the process, including the

minimum, maximum, and current value of the parameter. If the difference between the minimum and maximum value of a parameter is large, the values being tested can be further apart or more values can be tested. If the range of a parameter is small, then less values can be tested or the values tested can be closer together. Knowing the number of parameters and the number of levels, the proper orthogonal array can be selected. Using the array selector table shown below, the name of the appropriate array can be found by looking at the column and row corresponding to the number of parameters and number of levels. Once the name has been determined (the subscript represents the number of experiments that must be completed), the predefined array can be looked up. Links are provided to many of the predefined arrays given in the array selector table. These arrays were created using an algorithm Taguchi developed, and allows for each variable and setting to be tested equally.

Table 2.1 Array Selector Matrix

The above table shows the array selector for the Taguchis method of Design Of Experiments. This table corresponds to the minimum number of experiments which should be performed according to the number of parameters and number of levels of each parameter involved. For e.g. for 2 parameters and 2 levels minimum number of experiment performed should be 4. Similarly for 6 parameters and three levels, the minimum number of experiments to be performed is 18. In this table L4, L8, L9, L12..represents different arrays. In our experiment, we have three parameters (feed, carbon composition, depth of cut) and three levels of each factor, by reffering array selector we will get L9 array. The levels designated as 1, 2, 3 etc. should be replaced in the array with the actual level values to be varied and P1, P2, P3 should be replaced with the actual parameters .

Table 2.2 L9 array

Note : In our experiment though we have 3 factors and 3 levels of experiment, instead of L9 array, L27 array is chosen .This is done to consider the interactions between the factors and thus to get more precise and accurate analysis.

Table 2.3 L27 array

Here: P1 = carbon composition factor P2 = Feed rate factor P3 = interaction between P1 and P2 P5 = Depth of cut factor P6 = interaction between P1 and P5 P7 = interaction between P2 and P5 P8 = interaction between P1, P2, P3 According to a rule, the unwanted parameters in array table can be neglected. Thus P9 to P13 are neglected.
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2.1.4 S/N Ratio: Taguchi has used signal-noise (S\N) ratio as the quality characteristics of choice. S\N ratio is used as measurable value instead of standard deviation due to the fact that as the mean decreases, the standard deviation also decreases and vice versa. In practice, the target mean value may change during the process development. Two of the applications in which the concepts of S\N ratio is useful are the improvement of quality through variability reduction and the improvement of measurement. To determine the effect each variable has on the output, the signal-to-noise ratio, or the SN number, needs to be calculated for each experiment conducted. After calculating the SN ratio for each experiment, the average SN value is calculated for each factor and level. In the equations below, yi is the mean value and si is the variance. yi is the value of the performance characteristic for a given experiment. For the case of maximizing the performance characteristic, the following definition of the SN ratio should be calculated:

Nominal is the best characteristics y i2 SN i = 10 log 2 si

Smaller is the best characteristics Ni y 2 SN i = 10 log u N u =1 i

Larger the better characteristics SN i = 1 Ni

y
u =1

Ni

1
2 u

Where 1 y= Ni

y
u =1

NI

i ,u

10

si2 = i = Experiment Number u = Trial Number Ni = Number of experiments for trial i 2.1.5 Analysis Of Variance

1 Ni ( y i ,u y i ) N i 1 u =1

The analysis of variance (ANOVA) establishes the relative significance of factors in terms of their percentage contribution to the response. For the analysis of variance ,given equations are used. (For 9 experiments) Sm

[ Y ] =
i

S T = Yi 2 S m

SA

[ Y ] =
Ai

Sm

S E = ST S A VA = SA fA VA VE

FA0 =

where, ST = sum of squares due to the total variation,

Sm = sum of squares due to the mean, SA = sum of squares due to parameter A

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SE = sum of squares due to error, Yi = output value of each experiment (i = 1,2,.,9), YAi = sum of the i level of parameter A (i = 1,2,3), N = repeating number of each level of parameter A, fA = degree of freedom of parameter A, VA = variance of parameter A FA0 = F-test value of parameter

2.1.6 F test
When the data have been collected from more than one sample, there exists two independent methods of estimating the population parameter , called respectively the between and the within method.

Since each of the sample variances may be considered an independent estimate of the parameter , finding the mean of the variances provides a method of combining the separate estimates of into a single value. The resulting statistic is called the Mean Squares Within, often represented by MSW. It is called the within method because it computes the estimate by combining the variances within each sample. MSW = s 2 The parameter may also be estimated by comparing the means of the different samples, but the logic is slightly less straightforward and employs both the concept of the sampling distribution and the Central Limit Theorem. First, the standard error of the mean squared ( ) is the population variance of a distribution of sample means. In real life, in the situation where there is more than one sample, the variance of the sample means may be used as an estimate of the standard error of the mean squared ( ). This is analogous to the situation where the variance of the sample (s2) is used as an estimate of . In this case the Sampling Distribution consists of an infinite number of means and the real life data consists of A (in this case 5) means. The computed statistic is thus an estimate of the theoretical parameter. The relationship expressed in the Central Limit Theorem may now be used to obtain an estimate of .
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2 X

2 X = N

2 2 N * X = X

Thus the variance of the population may be found by multiplying the standard error of the mean squared ( ) by N, the size of each sample. , is an estimate of the standard error of the mean squared, ,

Since the variance of the means,

the variance of the population, , may be estimated by multiplying the size of each sample, N, by the variance of the sample means. This value is called the Mean Squares Between and is often symbolized by MSB. The computational procedure for MSB is presented below:
2 MS B = N * s X

The expressed value is called the Mean Squares Between, because it uses the variance between the sample means to compute the estimate. Using the above procedure on the example data yields: MS B = 6 * 283.21 MS B = 1699.28 At this point it has been established that there are two methods of estimating , Mean Squares Within and Mean Squares Between. It could also be demonstrated that these estimates are independent. Because of this independence, when both mean squares are computed using the same data set, different estimates will result. For example, in the presented data MSW=89.78 while MSB=1699.28. This difference provides the theoretical background for the F-ratio A new statistic, called the F-ratio is computed by dividing the MSB by MSW Fobs = MS B MSW

The F-ratio can be thought of as a measure of how different the means are relative to the variability within each sample. The larger this value, the greater the likelihood that the
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differences between the means are due to something other than chance alone, namely real effects. How big this F-ratio needs to be in order to make a decision about the reality of effects is the next topic of discussion. If the difference between the means is due only to chance, that is, there are no real effects, then the expected value of the F-ratio would be one (1.00). This is true because both the numerator and the denominator of the F-ratio are estimates of the same parameter, . Seldom will the Fratio be exactly equal to 1.00, however, because the numerator and the denominator are estimates rather than exact values. Therefore, when there are no effects the F-ratio will sometimes be greater than one, and other times less than one. To review, the basic procedure used in hypothesis testing is that a model is created in which the experiment is repeated an infinite number of times when there are no effects. A sampling distribution of a statistic is used as the model of what the world would look like if there were no effects. The results of the experiment, a statistic, is compared with what would be expected given the model of no effects was true. If the computed statistic is unlikely given the model, then the model is rejected, along with the hypothesis that there were no effects. In an ANOVA, the F-ratio is the statistic used to test the hypothesis that the effects are real: in other words, that the means are significantly different from one another. Before the details of the hypothesis test may be presented, the sampling distribution of the F-ratio must be discussed. If the experiment were repeated an infinite number of times, each time computing the Fratio, and there were no effects, the resulting distribution could be described by the Fdistribution. The F-distribution is a theoretical probability distribution characterized by two parameters, df1 and df2, both of which affect the shape of the distribution. Since the F-ratio must always be positive, the F-distribution is non-symmetrical, skewed in the positive direction. The F-ratio which cuts off various proportions of the distributions may be computed for different values of df1 and df2. These F-ratios are called Fcrit values and may be found by entering the appropriate values for degrees of freedom in the F-distribution program. 2.1.7 P test Determines the appropriateness of rejecting the null hypothesis in a hypothesis test. Pvalues range from 0 to 1. The smaller the p-value, the smaller the probability that rejecting the null hypothesis is a mistake. Before conducting any analyses, determine your alpha () level. A commonly used value is 0.05. If the p-value of a test statistic is less than your alpha, you reject the null hypothesis. Because of their indispensable role in hypothesis testing, p-values are used in many areas of statistics including basic statistics, linear models, reliability, and multivariate analysis among many others. The key is to understand what the null and alternate hypotheses represent in each test and then use the p-value to aid in your decision to reject the null.
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For example, consider a 2-sample t-test where you are testing the difference between the mean strength of steel from two mills based on random samples from each. In this case, the null hypothesis states that the two population means are equal while the alternate hypothesis states that they are not equal. A p-value below your cutoff level suggests that the population means are different. Suppose you are also conducting regression analyses on steel strength where temperature is one of the explanatory variables. You will see a p-value for each regression coefficient. Here, the default test is to determine if the estimated coefficient for temperature is different from zero. Therefore, the null hypothesis states that the coefficient equals zero while the alternate hypothesis states that it is not equal to zero. A p-value below your cutoff level suggests that the coefficient for temperature is significantly different from zero and likely to be a meaningful addition to your model. The p-value is calculated from the observed sample and represents the probability of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true . In other words, it is the probability of obtaining a difference at least as large as the one between the observed value and the hypothesized value through random error alone.

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Equipments used and their operations In this, cylindrical grinding is carried on three different steel alloys i.e EN8,EN31 and EN45 . Before grinding ,alloys were drilled , faced and turned in the lathe machine with approximate length of 125mm and diameter of 12mm. 3.1.1 Lathe A lathe is a machine tool used principally for shaping pieces of metal, wood, or other materials by causing the workpiece to be held and rotated by the lathe while a tool bit is advanced into the
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work causing the cutting action. Lathes can be divided into three types for easy identification: engine lathe, turret lathe, and special purpose lathes. Some smaller ones are bench mounted and semi-portable. The larger lathes are floor mounted and may require special transportation if they must be moved. Field and maintenance shops generally use a lathe that can be adapted to many operations and that is not too large to be moved from one work site to another. The engine lathe is ideally suited for this purpose. A trained operator can accomplish more machining jobs with the engine lathe than with any other machine tool. Turret lathes and special purpose lathes are usually used in production or job shops for mass production or specialized parts, while basic engine lathes are usually used for any type of lathe work. 3.1.1.1 Workholding methods Chuck Chucks are a very common workholding method. There are many types, some for round and square stock, and other for irregular shapes. Collet Primarily used for small round workpieces. Faceplate A faceplate, drive dog, and mandrel may be used to turn workpieces such as gear blanks.

Drive center Use hydraulic or spring-loaded teeth that "bite" into the end of workpieces and can be used when the entire length of the workpiece must be machined. 3.1.2 Grinding Machine The grinding machine is used to shape the outside of an object. It can work on a variety of shapes, however the object must have a central axis of rotation. The grinding machine consists of a power driven grinding wheel spinning at the required speed and a bed with a fixture to guide and hold the work-piece. The grinding head can be controlled to travel across a fixed work piece or the workpiece can be moved with the grind head stays in a fixed position. Very fine control of the grinding head or tables position is possible using a vernier calibrated hand wheel, or using the features of numerical controls.
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Grinding machines remove material from the workpiece by abrasion, which can generate substantial amounts of heat; they therefore incorporate a coolant to cool the workpiece so that it does not overheat and go outside its tolerance. The coolant also benefits the machinist as the heat generated may cause burns in some cases. In very high-precision grinding machines (most cylindrical and surface grinders) the final grinding stages are usually set up so that they remove about 200 nm (less than 1/100000 in) per pass - this generates so little heat that even with no coolant, the temperature rise is negligible. We generally use two types of grinding machine and they are cylindrical grinder and surface grinder. In our project cylindrical grinding machine is used. 3.1.2.1 Cylindrical Grinding Machine Cylindrical grinder includes both the types that use centers and the centerless types. A cylindrical grinder may have multiple grinding wheels. The workpiece is rotated and fed past the wheels to form a cylinder. It is used to make precision rods, tubes, bearing races, bushings, and many other parts.

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Figure 3.1 Cylindrical Grinding Machine

This machine is required for the precision grinding of various governing component.For e.g. valve seat, valve cone and mandrels etc to meet accuracy requirements.Ferrous material like carbon steels, alloy steels, tool steels etc can be grinded using this machine.

Table 3.1: Specification of cylindrical grinding machine

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Maximum Length of workpiece : Steady rest capacity Max. grinding length Centre height Grinding wheel Dia x Width Max. table traverse Table swivel either side : : : : : :

3000mm 100 to 400mm 2600mm 410mm 750 x 70 mm approx. 3500mm 40

3.1.3 Surtronic 3+ Surtronic 3+ combines advanced technology with high precision and value to give effective measurement of surface finish in the workshop, inspection room or laboratory. With Surtronic 3+, users across a wide range of skills can become proficient within minutes. Operating functions are minimal, measurement cycles are short and output is available from a built-in LCD display or various printer options. The measurement process and operation is simplicity itself, the entire cycle being controlled from a wipe-clean membrane touch key panel, via walk through menu selections. The instrument is usable on horizontal, vertical or inclined surfaces, or with selected accessories as a bench mounted system for laboratory or batch measurement applications. The pick-up holder is mounted on a slide for vertical adjustment and can be rotated to different measuring positions, including right-angled measurement. Surtronic 3+ is powered by NiCAD batteries or through an optional mains adaptor. The portable format of the Surtronic 3+ renders it particularly useful for measuring surface texture on bores and inaccessible parts which are unsuitable for conventional measuring instruments.

Table 3.2 Specifications of surtronic 3+

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Gauge range Traverse length max Pick up type Stylus Cut off values Parameters Resolution Traverse length min Traverse speed Power Overall dimension

-0.006 to +0.006 in. 25.4 mm variable reluctance diamond tip radius 5 micrometer 0.25,0.8,2.5,8 mm Ra, Rq, Rz, Ry, Sm, Rt 0.01 micrometer 0.25 mm 1 mm/sec battery or mains 130 x 80 x 65 mm

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Figure 3.2 : Surtronic 3+

Advantages Total portability for workshop or laboratory Fast, simple operation

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Accurate and versatile Selectable range of parameters, cut-off lengths and filtering Software analysis options Data processing options Multi-language selection Battery powered and completely self-contained

3.1.3.1 Surtronic accessories Replica kit Contains prepared quantities of materials for producing replica of surfaces inaccessible for direct measurement.

Detachable skid Clamped to the pick-up body, this accessory enables the Datum Support Stand to be used with standard, recess, right angle and chisel edge pick-ups.

Precision Vice High quality precision vice ideal for holding finished components. Dimensions: Jaw Width 70mm Jaw Opening 80mm

Mains Adaptor Enables instrument to be powered from the mains supply.

Datum Support Stand Provides an independent straight datum where the surface is too short to accommodate the stylus and skid of the small bore pick-up. May also be used with other pick-ups fitted
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with the detachable skid.

Ball joint vice Comprising a surface mounted swivel base and a wide jaw vice. Suitable for holding irregular shaped components.

Vice Dimensions: Overall length 280mm Jaw Width 54mm Jaw Opening 160mm

Pick-up Lift Used to lift the stylus clear of the workpiece after measurement and to retain the pick-up arm in a raised position, preventing the arm falling onto the workpiece and damaging the surface or stylus tip.

Roll and Bore Fixture This fixture allows the Surtronic 3+ to be mounted onto cylindrical components.

Impact Printer Output includes all measuring conditions such as cut-off selected, traverses length, filter and selected parameter results. The printer also outputs a range of horizontal and vertical magnification settings for scaling of the graphical outputs.

Portable Base Provides a support when used on machine tool applications and away from the measuring room.

Support Stand

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Converts Surtronic 3+ into a bench mounted instrument, particularly useful when checking small bores and for repetitive measurement. A swivel platform can be rotated and angled to keep the pick-up traverse parallel to the measured surface. 3.2 Software Used MINITAB 15 Minitab is a powerful, easy-to-use, statistical software package that provides a wide range of basic and advanced data analysis capabilities. Minitabs straightforward command structure makes it accessible to users with a great variety of background and experience. Minitab software is used to identify effects which are most important to process variability and is used to analyse and interpret the results of experiments using simple but powerful graphical tools.It is a powerful tool to analyse the statistical data. Regression Analysis, Multivariate Analysis factor analysis, cluster analysis, correspondence analysis, Analysis of Variance etc can be done using Minitab.

3.3 Operations Preformed The cylindrical grinding experiments is carried on three different steel alloys rods which have different carbon percentage : EN 8 EN 45 EN 31 0.40% 0.55% 1.00%

3.3.1 Lathe Operations 4 rods of length 125 mm of each material is taken .and then operation were carried on lathe machine . The following operations which are carried on lathe machines are : 3.3.1.1 Facing

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It is a turning operation that is carried out on a lathe on the side part of the rod. Facing is part of the turning process. It involves moving the cutting tool at right angles to the axis of rotation of the rotating workpiece.[1] This can be performed by the operation of the cross-slide, if one is fitted, as distinct from the longitudinal feed (turning). It is frequently the first operation performed in the production of the workpiece, and often the last- hence the phrase "ending up". 3.3.1.2 Drilling It is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole in solid material. The drill bit is a multipoint, end cutting tool.it cuts by applying pressure and rotating to the workpiece which forms chips at cutting edge. 3.3.1.3 Turning Turning is the process whereby a single point cutting tool is parallel to the surface. When turning, a piece of material (wood, metal, plastic, or stone) is rotated and a cutting tool is traversed along 2 axes of motion to produce precise diameters and depths. Turning can be either on the outside of the cylinder or on the inside (also known as boring) to produce tubular components to various geometries.

Dynamics of turning The relative forces in a turning operation are important in the design of machine tools. The machine tool and its components must be able to withstand these forces without causing significant deflections, vibrations, or chatter during the operation. There are three principal forces during a turning process: The cutting or tangential force acts downward on the tool tip allowing deflection of the workpiece upward. It supplies the energy required for the cutting operation. The axial, thrust or feed force acts in the longitudinal direction. It is also called the feed force because it is in the feed direction of the tool. This force tends to push the tool away from the chuck. The radial force acts in the radial direction and tends to push the tool away from the work piece.

After all this lathe operations 4 rods of each materials are converted into 20 mm diameter and 125 mm length and then it is moved to another step which is cylindrical grinding operations
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3.3.2 Grinding Operations Rods of EN 8, EN 31 and EN 45 of length 125mm and 12mm diameter are operated on cylindrical grinding machine. 27 experiments are carried out with two parameters which are as follows : Depth of cut The cutting depth of the tool affects to the processing speed and the roughness of surface. When the cutting depth is big, the processing speed becomes quick, but the surface temperature becomes high, and it has rough surface. Moreover, a life of byte also becomes short. If you do not know a suitable cutting depth, it is better to set to small value. In this experiment we take three different values is 0.02mm, 0.04mm and 0.06mm with the help of design of experiments.

Feed rate Feed rate is the velocity at which the cutter is fed, that is, advanced against the workpiece. It is expressed in units of distance per revolution for turning and boring (typically inches per revolution [ipr] or millimeters per revolution). It can be expressed thus for milling also, but it is often expressed in units of distance per time for milling (typically inches per minute [ipm] or millimeters per minute), with considerations of how many teeth (or flutes) the cutter has then determining what that means for each tooth. Feed rate depends on : Type of tool (a small drill or a large drill, high speed or carbide, a boxtool or recess, a thin form tool or wide form tool, a slide knurl or a turret straddle knurl). Surface finish desired. Power available at the spindle (to prevent stalling of the cutter or workpiece). Rigidity of the machine and tooling setup (ability to withstand vibration or chatter). Strength of the workpiece (high feed rates will collapse thin wall tubing)

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Characteristics of the material being cut, chip flow depends on material type and feed rate. The ideal chip shape is small and breaks free early, carrying heat away from the tool and work.

In our experiment we took three levels of feed rate : Slow Medium Large : : : 14mm/min 28 mm/min 42 mm/min

On completing this process, the readings are noted on the factorial table and then to find the values of surface rougnness with the help of surtronics 3+. The Ra value is also noted down on the same table.

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

In this chapter, the results of surface finish are discussed and analyzed. The tool used here is MINITAB.

4.1 Surface Roughness estimation: Using Surtronic 3+ , following values of Ra for the experiments were obtained: The Ra values are shown in the table 4.1 below :

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Table 4.1: Experimental Ra values

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E xperim ent No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

C% 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

F eed 17 17 17 28 28 28 42 42 42 17 17 17 28 28 28 42 42 42 17 17 17 28 28 28 42 42 42

D OC 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06

R a 1.49 1.56 1.77 1.53 1.6 1.78 1.59 1.62 1.82 1.36 1.46 1.58 1.42 1.56 1.64 1.48 1.62 1.72 1.08 1.19 1.53 1.19 1.26 1.56 1.39 1.54 1.59

Using MINITAB 15, analysis of the Ra values for the different parameters is done.The software uses Taguchis Design Of Experiments approach to calculate the S/N ratios by analysis of variance. Smaller the Ra value, better the surface finish we get. Thus we use smaller the better formula while calculating S/N ratio for all the experiment results. Ni y 2 SN i = 10 log u N u =1 i

These SN ratio values are calculated by MINTAB for each factor and level, they are tabulated as shown below and the range Delta (delta = high SN - low SN)of the SN for each parameter is calculated and entered into the table. The larger the Delta value for a parameter, the larger the effect the variable has on the process. This is because the same change in signal causes a larger effect on the output variable being measured.
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Table 4.2 : Smaller the better S/N ratios and ranking of factors

Level 1 2 3 Delta Rank

doc -2.816 -3.416 -4.415 1.599 2

feed -3.121 -3.486 -4.040 0.919 3

C% -4.277 -3.716 -2.655 1.622 1

According to the above results, carbon composition is the most significant parameter affecting the surface finish obtained from the machining process (grinding) of the steel rods.
M ai n Effects P l ot for S N r ati os
Data Means
-2.5 -3.0 -3.5 doc feed

Mean of SN rat ios

-4.0 -4.5 0.02 -2.5 -3.0 -3.5 -4.0 -4.5 0.4 0.6 1.0 0.04 c% 0.06 14 28 42

Signal-to-noise: Smaller is better

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Figure 4.1 : Main Effects Plots for SN ratios The above graph is obtained by MINITAB 15 and it shows the dependence of surface finish to the affecting parameters . From the table above the rank of the parameters affecting surface finish was obtained . Carbon composition was found to be the most affecting parameter whereas feed is the least affecting parameters.The graph implies that mean of SN ratio increases as the carbon composition in steel increases. That means harder the steel, better the surface finish. Similarly lower the feed rate and depth of cut , better the surface finish. Hence the optimum surface finish is obtained in high percentage carbon steel rods when subjected to minimum depth of cut and minimum feed rate during grinding process. 4.2 Geometrical model for Ra values By using the application of response surface design in MINITAB 15 we can create a mathematical equation with different variables coefficient which can be used throughout for any values. Ra = C0+ C1x+ C2 y+ C3z + C4 x2+ C5 y2 + C6 z2 +C7xy+ C8 xz + C9xy

Table 4.3: Values of Coefficients for Geometric Modeling of Ra values by MINITAB15

Term Constant c% feed doc c%*c% feed*feed doc*doc c%*feed c%*doc feed*doc

Coef 1.84672 -1.10675 -0.00286281 -1.34921 0.152778 8.78685E-05 97.2222 0.00994898 4.10714 -0.0833333

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From the above table we get the values as: Table 4.4 : Ra values Geometric Modelling Coefficients C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 1.84672 -1.10675 -0.00286281 -1.34921 0.152778 8.78685E-05 97.2222 0.00994898 4.10714 -0.0833333

Putting these values in the above equation we can obtain the mathematical model for surface roughness Ra = 1.84672 - 1.10675x 0.00286281y 1.34921 z + 0.152778 x2 + (8.78685 E -05) y2+ 97.2222 z2 + 0.00994898 xy + 4.10714 xz 0.083333 yz . 4.2.1 Calculations Ra values for different experiment conducted is calculated and verified with the geometrical equation, Ra = 1.84672 - 1.10675x 0.00286281y 1.34921 z + 0.152778 x2 + (8.78685 E -05) y2+ 97.2222 z2 + 0.00994898 xy + 4.10714 xz 0.083333 yz Considering the experiment conducted on En 45 with carbon composition of 1% , feed of 42 mm/min and depth of cut as 0.06 mm, i.e x =1 y = 42 z= 0.06 Ra = 1.84672 (1.10675 * 1) (0.00286281 * 42) (1.34921 * 0.06 )+ (0.152778 x 1 * 1) + (8.78685 E -05) (42 * 42) + (97.2222 * 0.06 * 0.06) + ( 0.00994898 *1 *42) +( 4.10714
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*1 * 0.06) ( 0.083333 * 42 * 0.06)

Ra = 1.84672 1.10675 0.120238 0.0809526 + 0.152778 + 0.155 + 0.34999 + 0.41785 + 0.246428 0.20999 Ra = 1.65 Error % = (1.65 1.59) / 1.65 x 100 = 3.68 Considering the experiment conducted on En 31 with carbon composition of 0.6 % , feed of 28 mm/min and depth of cut as 0.04 i.e x = 0.6 y = 28 z = 0.04

Ra = 1.84672 (1.10675 * 0.6) (0.00286281 * 28) (1.34921 * 0.04 )+ (0.152778 * 0.6* 0.6) + (8.78685 E -05) (28 * 28) + (97.2222 *0.04 *0.04) + ( 0.00994898 *0.6 *28) +( 4.10714 * 0.6 * 0.04) ( 0.083333 * 28 *0.04) Ra = 1.50 Error% = (1.56 - 1.5)/1.56 *100 = 3.84 Other than these experiments we also performed a experiment by varying the depth of cut and feed to verify the geometrical model. We used the En 31 steel rod with carbon composition of 0.6 % (x = 0.6) and grinding of the rod is done by giving a depth of cut of 0.05 mm ( y =0.05) and feed as 30 mm/min (z=30) and by checking out the surface finish with the help of surtronic 3+ we get the Ra value of 1.64. Using geometrical equation,

Ra= 1.84672 - 1.10675x 0.00286281y 1.34921 z + 0.152778 x2 + (8.78685 E -05) y2 + 97.2222 z2 + 0.00994898 xy + 4.10714 xz 0.083333 yz
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Ra = 1.84672 (1.10675 * 0.6) (0.00286281 * 30) (1.34921 * 0.05 )+ (0.152778 * 0.6* 0.6) + (8.78685 E -05) (30 * 30) + (97.2222 * 0.05 * 0.05) + ( 0.00994898 * 0.6 * 30) + ( 4.10714 * 0.6 * 0.05) ( 0.083333 * 30 * 0.05)

Ra = 1.84672 0.66405 0.0858843 0.06746 + 0.055 + 0.079 + 0.243 + 0.17908 + 0.1232142 0.124995 Ra = 1.5836

Error % = (1.64 -1.5836) / 1.64 * 100 = 3.43

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS
In this project we derived the following conclusions:

The effect of machining parameters on the surface roughness has been evaluated with the help of Taguchi method and optimal machining conditions to minimize the surface roughness have been determined. Taguchis method of Design Of Experiments is indeed an excellent statistical tool. It reduces the number of experiments and cost and helps in optimizing and analyzing result. Hardness is the dominant parameter for surface roughness as followed by depth of cut.Feed rate shows the minimal effect on the surface roughness compared to other parameters. For achieving good surface finish, workpieces with high hardness are preferred. MINITAB is a great software to analyse and optimizing the results .It can provide a large amount of information about the experiment in fraction of seconds. The derived geometrical model for surface roughness is
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Ra= 1.84672 - 1.10675x 0.00286281y 1.34921 z + 0.152778 x2 + (8.78685 E -05) y2+ 97.2222 z2 + 0.00994898 xy + 4.10714 xz 0.083333 yz Is verified having an error of 3.5% approx. The above geometrical equation can be widely used in many industry where machining of carbon rods are necessary with different depth of cut and feed.

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