Antenna Wcdma

TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

JARNO NIEMEL
Impact of Base Station Site and Antenna
Configuration on Capacity in WCDMA
Cellular Networks
MASTER OF SCIENCE THESIS

SUBJECT APPROVED BY THE DEPARTMENT
COUNCIL ON FEBRUARY 12
th
, 2003

EXAMINER: ProIessor Jukka Lempiinen
ProIessor Markku RenIors

ii

Preface

This Master oI Science Thesis, 'Impact oI Base Station Site and Antenna
ConIiguration on Capacity in WCDMA Cellular Networks, has been written Ior
Master oI Science degree in the Department oI Electrical Engineering in Tampere
University oI Technology, Finland. The work has been conducted during my work at
the Institute oI Communications Engineering at Tampere University oI Technology.
I would like to express my genuine appreciation to my thesis examiners ProI. Jukka
Lempiinen and ProI. Markku RenIors Ior their assistance and supervision during the
work. I would also thank European Communication Engineering (ECE) Ltd Ior
helpIul comments concerning simulation parameters and simulation environment,
Nokia Networks Ior providing NetAct Planner radio network planning tool Ior
simulations, FM Kartta Ior providing a digital map, and Advanced Techniques Ior
Mobile Positioning (MOT) project Ior Iunding the work.
Finally, I would like to express my greatest thanks to my Iiancee Eeva-Maria Ior her
support and encouragement during the work, and my parents Kirsti and Pauli, since
without their contribution this would not have been possible.

Tampere, August 7
th
, 2003

Jarno Niemel
jarno.niemelatut.Ii

Arkkitehdinkatu 20 B 23
33720 Tampere
FINLAND
Tel. 358 40 7342401
iii

Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... 12
2 MOBILE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ............................................................................. 14
2.1 CELLULAR CONCEPT................................................................................................................... 14
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL AND ENVIRONMENT ......................................... 15
2.2.1 Multipath propagation.......................................................................................................... 15
2.2.2 Fading .................................................................................................................................. 16
2.2.3 Radio propagation environments and parameters ............................................................... 17
2.2.4 Propagation models.............................................................................................................. 18
2.3 SPREAD SPECTRUM SYSTEM........................................................................................................ 20
2.4 CDMA CONCEPT........................................................................................................................ 21
2.4.1 Multiple access schemes....................................................................................................... 21
2.4.2 CDMA svstem features ......................................................................................................... 22
2.4.3 Advantages of CDMA........................................................................................................... 24
3 UMTS SYSTEM.......................................................................................................................... 25
3.1 UMTS NETWORK ARCHITECTURE AND ELEMENTS ..................................................................... 25
3.1.1 Svstem architecture............................................................................................................... 25
3.1.2 WCDMA for UMTS .............................................................................................................. 26
3.1.3 Radio resource management ................................................................................................ 28
3.2 POWER AND HANDOVER CONTROL ............................................................................................. 28
3.2.1 Power control in UMTS........................................................................................................ 28
3.2.2 Handovers in UMTS............................................................................................................. 30
4 RADIO NETWORK PLANNING FOR UMTS ....................................................................... 33
4.1 PLANNING PROCESS IN UMTS.................................................................................................... 33
4.1.1 Dimensioning........................................................................................................................ 34
4.1.2 Detailed planning ................................................................................................................. 34
4.1.3 Optimisation ......................................................................................................................... 35
4.2 TOPOLOGY PLANNING ................................................................................................................ 35
4.2.1 Initial topologv planning coverage.................................................................................... 36
4.2.2 Initial topologv planning capacitv..................................................................................... 39
4.2.3 Coverage-capacitv scenario................................................................................................. 42
4.2.4 Detailed topologv planning .................................................................................................. 43
4.3 TECHNICAL ELEMENTS IN TOPOLOGY PLANNING ........................................................................ 44
4.3.1 Site locations and sector orientations................................................................................... 45
iv

4.3.2 Sectoring and antenna beam width....................................................................................... 47
4.3.3 Antenna configuration.......................................................................................................... 50
5 SYSTEM SIMULATIONS ......................................................................................................... 55
5.1 PLANNING TOOL AND SIMULATION PARAMETERS ....................................................................... 55
5.1.1 Nokia NetAct WCDMA Planner ........................................................................................... 55
5.1.2 Simulation parameters.......................................................................................................... 56
5.2 SITE LOCATIONS AND SECTOR ORIENTATION .............................................................................. 57
5.2.1 Site location deviation simulations....................................................................................... 57
5.2.2 Sector orientation simulations.............................................................................................. 60
5.2.3 Coverage overlapping simulations ....................................................................................... 63
5.3 SECTORING AND ANTENNA BEAM WIDTH.................................................................................... 64
5.4 ANTENNA DOWN TILT................................................................................................................. 67
6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................... 74
REFERENCES...................................................................................................................................... 75
v

Abstract
TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Degree program in Electrical Engineering
Institute oI Communications Engineering
Niemel, 1arno: Impact oI Base Station Site and Antenna ConIiguration on Capacity
in WCDMA Cellular Networks
Master oI Science thesis, 77 p.
Examiner: ProIessor Jukka Lempiinen, ProIessor Markku RenIors
Funding: National Technology Agency oI Finland (TEKES)
Department oI Electrical Engineering
September 2003

The target oI radio system network planning is to provide maximum network coverage
and system capacity together with suIIicient network quality Ior the planning area
using reasonable implementation costs. These constituents deIine an operator`s base
station site density and conIiguration Ior a network planning area. Furthermore, traIIic
distribution has a great impact on the site density and conIiguration. Hence, the base
station site density and conIiguration diIIers in diIIerent environments.
WCDMA air interIace access method is used in the European 3
rd
generation mobile
communication system, UMTS. The perIormance oI a WCDMA network is highly
dependent on the interIerence level in the system. Thus, controlling this interIerence is
vital, iI the capacity oI the network is required to be maximised. Due to the nature oI
WCDMA-based cellular networks, the coverage and capacity planning phases are
closely tied. Together these phases are called topology planning. The topology
planning phase contains deIinitions oI site locations and conIigurations together with
base station antenna conIigurations. These technical elements inIluence highly the
network coverage and system capacity.
In this thesis, the main topology related elements base station site location and
antenna directions, sectoring, base station antenna beam width and conIiguration are
introduced, and their eIIect on the UMTS system perIormance is studied with a help
oI radio network system simulations.
The results oI this thesis show that the interIerence in the network can be controlled
using proper base station site and antenna conIiguration Ior each environment
separately. Hence, the system capacity and perIormance can be easily increased.
Moreover, the system simulations show the robustness oI UMTS network against
deviations in the site locations and antenna directions when practical planning cases
are considered.

vi

Tiivistelm
TAMPEREEN TEKNILLINEN YLIOPISTO
Shktekniikan koulutusohjelma
Tietoliikennetekniikan laitos
Niemel, 1arno: Tukiasemapaikan ja antennikonIiguraation vaikutus WCDMA-
verkon kapasiteettiin
Diplomity, 77 s.
Tarkastaja: ProIessori Jukka Lempiinen, ProIessori Markku RenIors
Rahoittajat: TEKES
Shktekniikan osasto
Elokuu 2003

Radioverkkosuunnittelun tavoitteena on tarjota mahdollisimman hyv peitto,
kapasiteetti ja riittv laatu kohtuullisilla kustannuksilla. Nm ovat mys trkeimmt
elementit, jotka mrittelevt verkon tukiasematiheyden ja -konIiguraation. Mys
liikennejakaumalla on suuri vaikutus thn, ja tten tukiasematiheys ja -konIiguraatio
riippuvat vahvasti ympristst.
WCDMA ilmarajapinnan psytekniikkaa kytetn UMTS-verkossa, joka on
Euroopan valitsema kolmennen sukupolven matkapuhelintekniikka. WCDMA-verkon
suorituskyky riippuu paljolti verkon hiriiden tasosta. Hiriiden rajoittaminen onkin
trke, mikli verkon kapasittetti halutaan maksimoida. WCDMA-tekniikan
luonteesta johtuen, UMTS-verkon peitto- ja kapasittettisuunnittelu ovat sidottu yhteen,
ja nm vaiheet tyt suunnitellaan yhtaikaa. Yhdess nit vaiheita kutsutaan
topologiasuunnitteluksi. Topologiasuunnittelu sislt tukiasemapaikan ja
-konIiguraation mrittmisen yhdess tukiasema-antennikonIiguraation kanssa.
Nm UMTS-verkon tekniset elementit vaikuttavat suuresti verkon peittoon ja
kapasiteettiin.
Tss tyss on keskitetty esittelemn tarkemmin nm topologiaan vaikuttavat
tekijt, joita ovat mm. tukiasemapaikka ja -antennin suuntaus, sektorointi, tukiasema-
antennin keilanleveys ja konIiguraatio. Lisksi tyss on tarkasteltu niden teknisten
elementtien vaikutusta UMTS-verkon suorituskykyyn radioverkkosimulaattorin
avulla.
Tmn tyn tulokset osoittavat, ett hyvll tukiasema- ja antenninkonIiguraatiolla
voidaan vaikuttaa verkon hiriihin. Tten verkon suorituskyky ja kapasiteettia
voidaan helposti kasvattaa. Lisksi systeemitason simulaatiot osoittavat UMTS-
verkon robustisuuden tukiasemapaikan ja antennisuuntauksien poikkeamille.
vii

List of Abbreviations
1G First Generation
2G Second Generation
3G Third Generation
3GPP Third Generation Partnership Project
AC Admission Control
AS Active Set
AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone System
BLER Block Error Rate
BS Base Station
CCCH Common Control Channel
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CN Core Network
CPICH Common Pilot Channel
CS Circuit Switched
DCH Dedicated Channel
DL Downlink
DS-CDMA Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple Access
DPCH Dedicated Physical Channel
DTX Discontinuous Transmission
EDGE Enhanced Data rates Ior Global Evolution
EIRP EIIective Isotropic Radiated Power
ETSI European Telecommunication Standards Institute
FDD Frequency Division Duplex
FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access
FH-CDMA Frequency Hopping Code Division Multiple Access
GPRS General Packet Radio System
GSM Global System Ior Mobile communications (or: Groupe Speciale
Mobile)
HC Handover Control
HCS Hierarchical Cell Structure
HSCSD High Speed Circuit Switched Data
IMT-2000 International Mobile Telecommunications 2000
viii

ITU International Telecommunication Union
IM InterIerence Margin
LC Load Control
LNA Low Noise AmpliIier
LOS Line-OI-Sight
ME Mobile Equipment
MHA Mast Head AmpliIier
MS Mobile Station
MSC Mobile Switching Centre
NLOS Non-line-oI-sight
PN Pseudo Noise
NMT Nordic Mobile Telephone
OVSF Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor
PC Power Control
PG Processing Gain
PS Packet Switched
PSTN Public Service Telephone Network
QoS Quality oI Service
QPSK Quadrature Phase ShiIt Keying
RF Radio Frequency
RLB Radio Link Budget
RMS Root mean square
RNC Radio Network Controller
RNP Radio Network Planning
RRM Radio Resource Management
RX Receiver
SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node
SCH Synchronisation Channel
SIHO SoIter Handover
SHO SoIt Handover
SIR Signal-to-InterIerence Ratio
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio
TDD Time Division Duplex
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
ix

TRX Transceiver
TX Transmitter
UE User Equipment
UL Uplink
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
USIM UMTS Subscriber Identity Module
UTRA UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access
UTRAN UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network
VLR Visitor Location Register
WCDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
x

List of Symbols
T
0
Absolute temperature
c Activity Iactor
C
m
Area type correction Iactor
D Average delay
p Background noise
h
BTS
Base station antenna height
k Boltzmann constant
B Breakpoint distance
C/I Carrier to interIerence ratio
Af
c
Coherence bandwidth
: Delay
S Delay spread
c()
-1
Despreading operation
d Distance
p
DL
Downlink load Iactor
E
b
/N
0
Energy per bit to noise ratio
E
c
/I
0
Energy per chip to interIerence radio
f Frequency
R InIormation bit rate
IM
UL
Uplink interIerence margin
h
MS
Mobile station antenna height
B
N
Noise bandwidth
NF Noise Iigure
N Noise power
N
0
Noise power spectral density
o Orthogonality
i Other-to-own-cell interIerence
L Path loss
P(:) Power delay proIile
G
p
Processing gain
y Propagation exponent
xi

C Slope Iactor
c() Spreading operation
W System bit rate
p
UL
Uplink load Iactor
Wavelength

1 Introduction
The world oI mobile telecommunications has changed dramatically during the last
decades causing demands Ior growth oI worldwide mobile service capabilities. The
Iirst generation (1G) analog mobile communication systems, like NMT (Nordic
Mobile Telephony) and AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Services), oIIered speech
services, and are nowadays widely replaced by digital second generation (2G)
systems. The 2G systems are capable oI oIIering speech and data services, and were
introduced beIore the mid 1990`s. Later on, 2G systems have been developed to
support higher data rate using HSCSD (High Speed Circuit Switched Data), GPRS
(General Packet Radio Services), and EDGE (Enhanced Data rates Ior Global
Evolution) technologies.
The deployment and Iunctionality oI the third generation (3G) radio networks has
been under discussion due to the launch oI the Iirst services. The requirements oI
multi-service mobile networks using Iixed and variable bit rate services has caused an
evolution need Ior mobile networks. Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
(UMTS) as a key member oI 3G mobile technologies identiIied by the ITU
(International Telecommunication Union) is the European choice to support the
growing requirements towards mobile telecommunication technologies.
Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) was chosen Ior the radio access
technology Ior UMTS by the European Telecommunication Standards Institute
(ETSI). This air interIace technology diIIers Irom the one used, e.g., in the GSM
system, and introduces changes also to the radio network planning process.
The required network coverage and system capacity together with suIIicient Quality
oI Service (QoS) and economical implementation costs are the most essential
elements that deIine the network layout and conIiguration Ior diIIerent planning areas.
Moreover, the utilised implementation strategy Ior the site conIiguration deIines the
overall coverage and capacity oI each particular site.
In WCDMA-based UMTS networks, network coverage and system capacity are
linked since the same carrier Irequency is used over the radio network and other users`
signals are seen as additional interIerence. Hence, the coverage and capacity planning
phases has to be done simultaneously in UMTS networks. Combined coverage and
capacity planning is called topologv planning. Due to the dynamic nature oI UMTS
network, the overall perIormance can not be determined with analytical Iormulas, and
typically, simulations are needed to veriIy the network perIormance oI diIIerent
scenarios. Site locations, number oI sectors and sector directions together with
antenna conIiguration have to be considered together in order to provide suIIicient
network coverage, system capacity, service quality, and low implementation costs.
1 Introduction 13

In this Master oI Science Thesis, the topology related technical elements are
introduced and their eIIect on the UMTS system perIormance is studied. Chapter 2
includes essential background inIormation oI mobile radio networks with emphasis on
CDMA technology. Furthermore, radio channel characteristics are shortly introduced.
In Chapter 3, the UMTS system is introduced and the main network elements are
identiIied. Chapter 4 describes the radio network planning process in UMTS
networks, and concentrates on the topology planning phase together with its main
technical elements. Chapter 5 shows the simulation environment, parameters and,
results. Finally, in Chapter 6 the results oI the simulations are discussed and
concluded.

2 Mobile Communication Systems
Mobile communication systems are designed to operate over a large geographical area
with limited air interIace resources. Mobile system diIIers greatly Irom traditional
Iixed-link communication or broadcast communication systems. Moreover, mobile
communication systems are typically characterised by high operating Irequencies,
which aIIects the radio signal propagation. This chapter introduces the basic ideas oI
cellular mobile communication systems with emphasis on CDMA air interIace access.
Moreover, radio signal propagation characteristics and environments are shortly
explained.
2.1Cellular concept
The key idea oI mobile communication system is to oIIer possibility Ior a
communication link in the serving area oI the mobile network regardless oI the
location oI the user. These demands bring about two requirements Ior the mobile
communication system service providers (operators). Firstly, the service area has to be
a geometrically large area in order to provide services Ior a large number oI
customers. Secondly, the network has to be able to guarantee mobility, i.e., customers
have to be able to move even considerably long distances without breaking already
established connections. Achieving these requirements is technically challenging, and
moreover there is only limited amount oI air interIace Irequency band available |1|.
One solution to satisIy these requirements is utilisation oI cellular concept |2|. In
cellular concept, the basic approach is to divide a large service area into smaller sub
areas called cells. The main advantage oI cellular solution is increased capacity. Since
the limited radio Irequency range is used only in small areas, the same radio
Irequency can be utilised again aIter a certain physical distance. One other advantage
is that the base station antenna heights can be much lower due to smaller serving
areas. This enables the usage oI lower transmit powers, which also saves the battery oI
the mobile. Furthermore, changed capacity and coverage demands Ior diIIerent areas
can be easily adopted using smaller cells where the traIIic density is higher.
In Figure 2-1, cells are depicted with a shape oI a hexagon. In practice, the concept oI
hexagonal cells is conceptual due to non-homogenous environment. The morphology
oI the terrain introduces diIIerent propagation environments (e.g., open areas, Iorests,
and waters) and topography Iluctuations oI the terrain. II the radio wave attenuation is
enough, or the distances between the sites are long enough, it is possible to reuse
Irequencies aIter a certain distance. The Irequencies used in all the grey areas oI the
Iigure could be the same, as well as those in the white and the lined areas,
respectively. This way the capacity oI cellular communication system is increased.
2 Mobile Communication Systems 15

Figure 2-1. The cellular concept.
The cellular concept introduces also some disadvantages. Due to the large service
areas covered by multiple cells, the system has to know the location oI the users in
order to be able to, e.g., route an incoming call. Thus, some signalling capacity is
needed in order to control the communications. Another problem arises when
continuous service is provided Ior the mobiles on move. To solve these problems, the
network management system becomes more complicated, expensive, and more
diIIicult to handle.
2.2Characteristics of mobile radio channel and
environment
The mobile radio environment or its characteristics have to be known in order to
comprehend the system behaviour in diIIerent environments. This section introduces
shortly the phenomena in the mobile radio channel. Moreover, a short introduction to
propagation models is given.
2.2.1Multipath propagation
Mobile radio channel is a time-varying Iading channel. The received signal can be a
combination oI reIlected, diIIracted, and/or scattered multipath components oI the
original, transmitted signal. The propagation is strongly aIIected by the environment
obstacles, since the wavelength oI the radio signals is much smaller than the
dimensions oI the obstacles. Moreover, the radio signal attenuates diIIerently in
diIIerent environments. In homogenous (uniIorm) environment, i.e., iI the surIace is
Ilat, and it is covered with the same environment type, a radio signal would propagate
evenly into all directions with the same attenuation. In real mobile radio
environments, the radio channel is characterised by multiple reIlections, diIIractions,
and attenuations oI the propagating signal. This creates a phenomenon called
multipath propagation. Due to multipath propagation, the received signal is a sum oI
propagated signal components through diIIerent paths with random phases and
amplitudes. |3|

Figure 2-2. Multipath environment.
2.2.2Fading
2.2.2.1 Fast fading
When a mobile is moving, the channel is changing continuously due to multipath
propagation, and the received signal can have very heavy Iluctuations. This is called
fast fading. In a non-line-oI-sight (NLOS) situation, when the distributions oI
amplitudes and phases oI the received signal are statistically independent, the Iading
is called Rayleigh Iading, and the amplitudes oI the signal components are Rayleigh
distributed. In a line-oI-sight (LOS) situation, when there is a dominating component
in the received power spectrum proIile, the Iading is said to be Ricean (or Rice)
Iading. Fading dips occurring in the receiver are caused by phase cancellation oI
multipath components. The phase cancellation may be signiIicant at one time instant,
and a small movement oI the mobile may result an opposite situation. The variation
oIten takes place over a distance oI halI a wavelength, which is only 7.5 cm Ior a 2
GHz radio Irequency carrier. |4| |5|
2.2.2.2 Slow fading
In a moving receiver, the signal level is varying continuously due to Iast Iading. The
received signal suIIers also Irom slow fading, or shadowing, which is caused by large
obstacles, e.g., buildings, hills and mountains |6|. Slow Iading reduces the mean level
oI the signal compared to homogeneous environment, and it is log-normally
distributed.
The standard deviation oI slow Iading has to be taken into account when deIining the
signal thresholds in a radio network. Normally, cell range and area are predicted with
a target location probability Iactor indicating the statistical properties oI the signal
strength over the planning area |6|. The value oI slow Iading standard deviation
depends on the environment and Irequency.

2.2.3Radio propagation environments and parameters
Radio propagation depends on the environment which is typically divided into three
major classes urban, suburban, and rural and into two special classes micro
cellular and indoor |6|. In general, iI the base station antenna installation height is
above the average rooI top level, the planning is called macro cellular, and
correspondingly, iI the antenna installation height is below the average rooI top level,
the planning is called micro cellular.

Figure 2-3. Macro and micro cellular propagation environments |6|.
Multipath propagation and Iading are both strongly dependent on the propagation
environment. Besides these phenomena, radio propagation environment is also
characterised by angular spread, delay spread, coherence bandwidth, and propagation
slope.
Angular spread describes the deviation oI the signal incident angle at the receiving
antenna. Angular spread is larger in indoor and micro cellular environments than in
macro cellular environment.
Due to multipath propagation, the received signal components have propagated
through diIIerent paths, and thus they have diIIerent arrival times. This diIIerence is
measured by RMS delav spread, which is calculated Irom the channel power delay
proIile P(:) as
( ) ( )
( )

=
0
0
2
d P
d P D
S , (2-1)
where D is the average delay. Delay spread values are closely related to the
propagation environment where the radio transmission occur. In micro cellular
environment, smaller cell sizes cause smaller delay spread values than in macro
cellular. |4|

In a time-dispersed medium, the Iades oI two received envelopes will coincide in time
iI the Irequency separation Af
C
is small enough |1|. In order to achieve uncorrelated
Iading, the Irequency separation oI two signals ought to equal or be greater than the
coherence bandwidth oI the channel. The coherence bandwidth is determined as
S
f
C
2
1
= , (2-2)
where S is the delay spread.
Moreover, radio signal attenuates diIIerently is diIIerent environments. Like in urban
environment, which is mainly characterised by buildings and parks, the attenuation oI
the signal is larger than in rural environments. Propagation slope inIorms the radio
signal attenuation as a Iunction oI distance in dB/dec. In Iree space, the propagation
exponent y equals two (2), and hence the corresponding propagation slope equals 20
dB/dec. In mobile environment, the propagation slope varies between 25 40 dB/dec
depending on the environment type.
The propagation slope between base station and mobile station antenna is not
constant, but changes according to the environment. Up to a certain distance, the
propagation slope Iollows approximately the Iree space propagation loss, i.e.,
20 dB/dec. The distance, where the propagation slope changes, is called breakpoint
distance, and it can be calculated using the Iollowing equation |1|:
MS BTS
h h
B 4 = , (2-3)
where h
BTS
is the height oI base station antenna and h
MS
the height oI mobile station
and is the signal wavelength. The existence oI the propagation slope breakpoint is an
important element that should be taken into account in cellular radio network planning
|6|.
Table 2-1 gathers typical values Ior the angular spread, delay spread, slow Iading
standard deviation, and propagation slope in diIIerent environments at GSM 900 MHz
Irequencies.
Table 2-1. Propagation characteristics Ior diIIerent environments at 900 MHz |6|.
2.2.4Propagation models
Propagation models are used to predict the path loss oI a propagating electromagnetic
wave. There exist numerous models and methods to predict the path loss. The division
Environment tvpe Angular spread []
RMS delav
spread [s]
Slow fading
standard
deviation [dB]
Propagation
slope [dB/dec]
Macrocellular
Urban 5-10 0.5 7-8 40
Suburban 5-10 7-8 30
Rural 5 0.1 7-8 25
Hilly rural 3 7-8 25
Microcellular 40-90 0.01 6-10 20
Indoor 90-360 0.1 3-6 20

oI diIIerent propagation model can be made, e.g., between empirical, semi-empirical,
and deterministic models. Empirical models are mainly macrocellular models, where
the propagation is characterised by large distances and diIIractions Irom terrain over
the average building heights. They are a set oI equations derived Irom extensive Iield
measurement campaigns. Advantage oI empirical models is their low computation
time, and the drawback is moderate accuracy. Semi-empirical models are derived
physically assuming some ideal condition, e.g., constant over rooI-top diIIraction and
uniIorm building separation, and these are developed mainly Ior microcellular
environment. Deterministic models are based on numerical methods like ray optimal
techniques, and they are characterised by great accuracy with a cost oI calculation
time and complexity. |7| |8|
OkumuraHata model is probably the most Iamous empirical propagation model,
which was developed by Hata |9| Irom the measurement campaigns done by Okumura
|10| in Tokyo area. The basic Okumura-Hata propagation model is determined as
Iollows:
+ + = ) ( ) ( log 82 . 13 ) ( log
10 10 MS BTS
h a h f B A L
m BTS
C d h C + ) log( )) ( log 55 . 6 (
10
.
(2-4)
In Equation (2-4), the parameters are
L Path loss |dB|
A Constant
B Constant
f System Irequency |MHz|
h
BTS
Base station eIIective antenna height |m|
h
MS
Mobile station antenna height |m|
d Distance between mobile and base station |km|
C Slope Iactor
C
m
Area type correction Iactor
The values oI the constants A and B are shown in Table 2-2 Ior limited Irequency
ranges.
Table 2-2. The values oI the constants in Okumura-Hata propagation model.
In Equation (2-4) a(h
MS
) is deIined as:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ) 2 ( 97 . 4 75 . 11 log 2 . 3
) 1 ( 8 . 0 log 56 . 1 7 . 0 log 1 . 1
2
10
10 10
=
=
MS MS
MS MS
h h a
f h f h a

(2-5)
In Equation (2-5) the Iormula (1) is used Ior small and medium size cities and Iormula
(2) Ior large cities.
The system Irequency f is limited in the OkumuraHata propagation model.
Furthermore, the base station antenna height is limited to the range 30 200 m.
However, the OkumuraHata propagation model does not work properly iI the
150 1000 MHz 1500 2000 MHz
A 69.55 46.3
B 26.16 33.9

average building height is close to the base station antenna height. Slope Iactor C
deIines the propagation slope. Area type correction Iactor C
m
depends on the
environment. Usually, this is 3 dB in urban environment, and can be even below -15
dB in rural environment. |6|
2.3Spread spectrum system
Traditionally, spectrum eIIiciency is obtained by using as narrow Irequency
bandwidth as possible Ior transmitting the signal. In spread spectrum systems the
basic idea is to spread the signal to a very wide bandwidth.
In Figure 2-4, spread spectrum system concept is depicted. In primary modulation,
narrowband user data is modulated using some modulation technique into signal S
n
.
The modulated user signal is thereaIter spread to a wideband signal S
w
having much
larger bandwidth than the narrow band inIormation signal. The spreading operation is
denoted by c(). A mobile radio channel is not ideal and, e.g., multipath propagation,
additive noise and other interIerence sources corrupt the propagating signal. In the
reception end, despreading operation (c()
-1
), is perIormed. Despreading operation
equals spreading operation, and it transIorms the signal back to narrowband.
Despreading and demodulation are done in reverse order; wideband signal is despread
back into narrowband signal and user data is recovered by demodulating the
narrowband signal.

Figure 2-4. Spread spectrum system concept |11|.
Wideband signal transmission oIIers some advantages compared to narrowband
transmission. In Figure 2-5, the anti-jamming capability oI wideband, spread spectrum
signal is illustrated.
f
f
f
InterIerence, i
n
Received signal
beIore despreading
Received signal
aIter despreading
Received signal
aIter Iiltering
Transmitted
signal, S
w
Trasmitted signal, S
n
InterIerence, i
w
InterIerence, i
w
Transmitted signal, S
n
B
n
B
w

Figure 2-5. Tolerance oI spread spectrum signal to narrowband interIerence.
Primary
modulation
User data
Spreading Multipath channel,
noise and interIerence
Despreading Primary
demodulation
S
n
S
w
S
w
S
n
( ) ( ) =
1
( )

Received wideband signal (S
w
) is corrupted in the radio channel by a narrowband
interIerence (i
n
). AIter despreading oI the received signal, the spread spectrum
receiver not only despreads the signal back to narrowband but also spreads the
narrowband interIerence into considerably wider bandwidth (i
w
). Hence, aIter Iiltering
the inIormation signal can be detected.
Spread spectrum system introduces a new element, namely processing gain, G
p
. It is
deIined as the ratio oI the wideband signal bandwidth B
w
and narrowband signal
bandwidth B
n
. Thus, it inIorms how much the system can reduce the power oI
narrowband interIerence. The processing gain is deIined as:
n
w
p
B
B
G = .
(2-6)
Another advantage oI spread spectrum signal is multipath diversitv. The radio channel
is constantly changing due to reIlections and diIIractions in the propagation path.
When transmitting narrowband signals, the whole channel will sometimes experience
deep Iades, and the receiver is not able to detect the signal. Spread spectrum signals
are less sensitive to this Irequency selective multipath Iading due to the larger
bandwidth, which gives natural Irequency diversity. |4|
2.4CDMA concept
A mobile communication system should provide services simultaneously Ior a large
number oI users. When users in a network are given their own codes to access the
radio interIace, the multiple access method is called Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA). CDMA is probably the most widely used spread spectrum system concept
|1|.
2.4.1Multiple access schemes
Multiple access reIers to the sharing oI common limited radio resource to allow
simultaneous communications oI multiple users using the same cellular network. In
digital communication systems, there are three diIIerent basic strategies to share to the
air interIace namely Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), Frequencv Division
Multiple Access (FDMA) and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). Multiple
access techniques are depicted in Figure 2-6. For example, in the GSM system, the
users are separated utilising a combination oI TDMA and FDMA. The principle oI
TDMA is to divide the time domain, i.e., users transmit and receive data at diIIerent
time instants. In FDMA the separation is perIormed by allocating diIIerent
Irequencies Ior diIIerent users. TDMA/FDMA systems are considered as narrowband
systems, since the primary idea has been to utilise as narrowband as possible Ior the
transmission. Thus, the objective has been to allocate minimum amount oI radio
resources to one user, and as a result, maximise the system capacity.
In contrast to TDMA/FDMA multiple access methods, the idea oI CDMA is to utilise
spread spectrum concept and to use wide band signals Ior the transmission. Thus, in

CDMA, users utilise the Irequency domain simultaneously, and the separation oI
diIIerent users is achieved using unique spreading codes.
Channel 1
Channel 2
Channel 3
Channel N
Time
Frequency
Power
Channel 1
Channel 2
Channel 3
Channel N
Time
Power
Frequency
TDMA FDMA
Frequency
Time
C
h
a
n
n
e
l

1
C
h
a
n
n
e
l

2
C
h
a
n
n
e
l

3
C
h
a
n
n
e
l

N
Power
CDMA

Figure 2-6. Principles oI multiple access schemes: TDMA, FDMA and
CDMA.
2.4.2CDMA svstem features
2.4.2.1 Sequencing
There are two basic CDMA sequencing methods: Frequency Hopping-CDMA (FH-
CDMA) and Direct Sequence-CDMA (DS-CDMA). FH-CDMA is an access
technology that allows a user to transmit Ior brieI periods oI time on a single radio
channel Irequency, and then hop to other radio channel Irequencies to continue the
transmission. Each user is assigned a particular hopping pattern, so that diIIerent users
will not interIere with each other, or the interIerence is limited to a low level that may
be Iixed through error detection and correction methods. |11|
CDMA technology is mainly deIined using the concept oI direct sequence spread
spectrum, where user data symbols are multiplied using a speciIic spreading codes
that have a much higher rate compared to the original data rate. In the reception end,
the signal is multiplied again with the same spreading code, so that the original user
data can be recovered. |11| This despreading process decreases the interIerence level
Irom other users to the desired user, so that a CDMA system allows multiple users to
share a single radio channel (or bandwidth) simultaneously.
2.4.2.2 Spreading codes
In the spreading operation, a narrowband signal is spread to have a considerably wider
bandwidth. It is achieved by multiplying the narrowband signal by a much higher rate
pseudo-noise-like signal. The pseudo-noise-like signal, i.e., the spreading code,
consists oI multiple symbols per one inIormation symbol time. One code symbol is
called chip.
The spreading codes ought to have good correlation properties; both cross-correlation
and autocorrelation properties. A good cross-correlation property ensures that the
receiver is able to separate its signal Irom other signals. In an ideal case, cross-
correlation between other users` spreading codes should be zero, and hence other
users signals would not interIere at all. Moreover, iI the autocorrelation properties oI
the spreading codes were perIect, autocorrelation Iunction would be a pure impulse

with perIect synchronization, and zero else where. This makes the separation oI
diIIerent multipath components more reliable. |11|
2.4.2.3 RAKE Receiver
Due to multipath propagation, the signal components arrive to a receiver at diIIerent
time instants. |4| An arbitrary radio channel impulse response is depicted in Figure
2-7 at two diIIerent time instants; t
0
and t
1
. Comparing the diIIerent time instants, it
can be seen that the strengths and delays oI the signal components have been changed.
In a CDMA receiver, it is possible to resolve these diIIerent signal components
separated in time domain more than one chip period.
h(t
0
)
h(t
1
)
0

Figure 2-7. Radio channel impulse response at diIIerent time instants |12|.
Resolving oI the signal components oI diIIerent delays is achieved using a RAKE
receiver, which uses maximal ratio combining (MRC) Ior combining the multipath
components. In Figure 2-8, the principle oI RAKE reception is illustrated. AIter
spreading and modulation, the transmitted signal passes through a multipath channel,
which, in this case, has three diIIerent delay Iactors (t
1,
t
2,
t
3
), and three diIIerent
attenuation Iactors (a
1,
a
2,
a
3
). The RAKE receiver has a receiver Iinger Ior each
multipath component, i.e., each Iinger oI the RAKE receiver has to estimate the delay
and attenuation oI the corresponding multipath component. Hence, the capability oI
RAKE receiver is to utilise multipath diversity, which is obtained aIter combining the
multipath components.
Code
generator
Modulator
1
Multipath channel
Demodulator
a
1
a
2
a
3
) (
1
t c
) (
2
t c
) (
3
t c
RAKE receiver
a
1
a
2
a
3

Figure 2-8. Principle oI RAKE receiver |13|.

2.4.2.4 Interference limited capacity
Considering CDMA system with N users, the required bit energy to noise density ratio
(E
b
/N
0
) Ior one communication link is given as
) S / ( ) N (
R / W
N
E
d
b
+
=
1
0
,
(2-7)
where W is the total bandwidth, R inIormation bit rate, p background noise and S
d

desired signal power. This implies that the capacity in terms oI number oI users is
S N E
R W
N
b
+ =
0
/
/
1
(2-8)
As can be noticed Irom Equation (2-8), the number oI users is reduced by the inverse
oI the signal-to-noise (SNR). Background noise thereIore establishes the required
received signal power at the cell site, which in turn, Iixes the subscriber`s power or
the cell radius Ior a given maximum transmission power. |14|
2.4.3Advantages of CDMA
The CDMA scheme was developed mainly to increase the air interIace capacity. In
theory, it does not matter whether the radio spectrum is divided into Irequencies, time
slots, or codes. However, in practical mobile communication systems, some schemes
may be more suitable Ior certain communication media than another. Since CDMA
uses spread spectrum concept, the signal is less sensitive to Irequency selective
multipath Iading. Moreover, the utilisation oI radio spectrum is more eIIicient,
because the whole Irequency band is used in every cell. CDMA technique has also
Ilexibility in supporting multiple services. From radio network planning point oI view,
the planning process becomes easier concerning Irequency planning. |1|

3 UMTS System
The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is one oI the third
generation mobile communication techniques. UMTS has been developed to oIIer
high data rate, both circuit switched and packet switched, mobile services. It has a
potential to oIIer data rates up to 2 Mbps, which Iacilitates new services like video
telephony and Web surIing. Addition to traditional circuit switched connections,
which are already provided by the existing 2G networks, UMTS will oIIer Iixed and
variable bit rate packet switched connections.
UMTS as speciIied by the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) |15| was
Iormally adopted by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) |16| as a
member oI its Iamily oI International Mobile Telecommunications 2000 (IMT-2000)
|17|. All 3G mobile communication systems, like UMTS in Europe and CDMA2000
in the US, are under IMT-2000, deIined and coordinated by ITU.
This chapter gives a short overview oI the UMTS system covering general Ieatures
and some important technical elements. Moreover, UMTS system architecture and its
typical Iunctions are shortly explained. Finally, two Iundamental elements power
control and handovers are discussed more comprehensively.
3.1UMTS network architecture and elements
3.1.1Svstem architecture
The UMTS system consists oI three diIIerent entities User Equipment (UE), UMTS
Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) and Core Network (CN). These elements
are depicted in Figure 3-1. UE (in later chapters reIerred to as mobile station) is the
interIace between the user and the radio interIace, which handles radio-related
Iunctionalities. Furthermore, UE consists oI Mobile Equipment (ME), which is the
radio terminal, and oI UMTS Subscriber Identitv Module (USIM), which is a
smartcard holding the user inIormation. The radio communication to UTRAN is
perIormed over the U
u
interIace. |12|
UTRAN consists oI two major elements; Node B (in later chapters reIerred to as base
station), which handles the data and signalling transmissions between UE and Radio
Network Controller (RNC). RNC takes care oI the switching and routing oI calls and
data connections to external networks via I
ub
interIace. Meanwhile, RNCs are Iurther
connected either into Circuit Switched Domain (CS Domain) or Packet Switched
Domain (PS Domain) oI the Core Network (CN), which interIaces are called I
u
CS
3 UMTS System 26

and I
u
PS, respectively. The Iunction oI RNC is to own and control the radio resources
in its domain. |18|
U
u
USIM
ME
UE
UTRAN
CN
C
u
Node B
Node B
RNC
Node B
Node B
RNC
I
u
CS
I
ur
I
ub
MSC/
VLC
SGSN
I
u
PS
RNS
RNS

Figure 3-1. UMTS high level system architecture and network elements |18|.
The rest oI the mobile radio network entities are located in CN, which includes, e.g.,
Mobile Switching Centre/Visitor Location Register (MSC/VLR), which takes care oI
the circuit switched data in UMTS network, and Serving GPRS (General Packet Radio
Service) Support Node (SGSN), which handles the packet switched connections. From
CN there are Iurthermore possibilities to switch the connection to other operators`
cellular network or, e.g., to Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) or Integrated
Services Digital Network (ISDN).
3.1.2WCDMA for UMTS
In Europe, the regional standardisation organisation The European
Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI) |19| selected Wideband Code Division
Multiple Access (WCDMA) Ior air interIace access technology Ior terrestrial UMTS.
This WCDMA radio interIace is based on DS-CDMA.
UMTS standards provide two diIIerent air interIaces: UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access
Time Division Duplex (UTRA TDD) and UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Frequencv
Division Duplex (UTRA FDD). Spectrum allocation Ior UTRA TDD is split into two
bands: 1900 1920 MHz and 2010 2015 MHz. In UTRA FDD uplink Irequencies
are 19201980 MHz and downlink Irequencies 2110 2170 MHz. Channel (carrier)
spacing in both systems is 5 MHz with 200 kHz raster. |20|
Table 3-1 introduces some physical layer parameters oI UTRA FDD and TDD. In this
thesis the concentration is paid on UTRA FDD systems and later it is reIerred barely
as UMTS.

3 UMTS System 27

Table 3-1. Comparison oI some UTRA FDD and TDD physical layer parameters |18|.

UTRA TDD UTRA FDD
Multiple access method
TDMA, CDMA (inherent
FDMA)
CDMA (inherent FDMA)
Duplex method TDD FDD
Channel (carrier) spacing 5 MHz (nominal)
Carrier chip rate 3.84 Mps
Timeslot structure 15 slots/Irame
Frame length Frame length 10 ms
Multirate concept
Multicode, multislot and
orthogonal variable spreading
Iactor (OVSF)
Multicode and OVSF
Modulation QPSK
Dedicated channel power
control
Uplink: open-loop; 100 Hz or
200 Hz
Downlink: closed-loop; rate
800 Hz
Fast closed-loop; rate 1500
Hz
Spreading Iactors 1.16 4.512

3.1.2.1 Code allocation
In UMTS the pseudorandom code sequence is a combination oI two diIIerent codes,
namely channelisation code and scrambling code. Orthogonal Jariable Spreading
Factor (OVSF) codes are used as channelisation codes. In downlink their Iunction is
to separate diIIerent users, and in uplink to separate data and control channels oI the
same UE. Usage oI channelisation codes in the system is managed by RNC.
Channelisation codes are used in every mobile in a network; thereIore also scrambling
codes are needed in the system. In downlink they are used to separate sectors (cells)
Irom each other, and in uplink to separate diIIerent UEs. In the uplink, there are
countless number oI channelisation codes, and hence there is practically no need to
control code usage in uplink direction, but in downlink direction some code
allocations algorithms are needed.
3.1.2.2 Channel structure
The traIIic, or user data, is not the only element that requires radio interIace capacity
in a mobile communication network. Like in other mobile communication networks,
also UMTS network requires a lot oI signalling inIormation to be sent Ior proper
Iunctionality oI the network. The channels can be roughly divided into traffic and
signalling channels. Since the maximum transmit power oI the base stations is limited
by the speciIications, the signalling capacity need (or transmit power) has to be taken
into account when planning a UMTS network.
3 UMTS System 28

3.1.3Radio resource management
Radio Resource Management (RRM) includes Iunctions which are responsible Ior
utilisation oI the WCDMA air interIace resources by guaranteeing proper Qualitv of
Service (QoS) Ior each service type at certain service area with maximum possible
capacity |12|. RRM algorithms consist oI power control (PC), handover control (HC),
admission control (AC), load control (LC), and packet data scheduling (PS).
Moreover, they exist in UEs, Node Bs, and RNCs as illustrated in Figure 3-2.
Power control
Power control
Load control
Power control
Handover control
Admission control
Load control
Packet scheduler
UE Node B RNC

Figure 3-2. Location oI diIIerent RRM Iunctions in UMTS network |18|.
Power control is responsible Ior adjusting the transmit powers in uplink and downlink
to the minimum required level to ensure satisIied quality oI a connection. Handover
control takes care that connected users are handed over Irom one cell to another as he
moves through the coverage area. Admission control handles all new incoming traIIic
and checks whether a connection can be admitted or not. Load control prevents system
Irom overloading situations. Packet scheduling handles the non-real-time traIIic. |12|
3.2Power and handover control
This section introduces two Iundamental elements oI WCDMA-based UMTS
networks namely power control and soIt/soIter handover.
3.2.1Power control in UMTS
CDMA systems are known to be interIerence limited system |21|, since every mobile
is using the same Irequency simultaneously. ThereIore, it is essential to keep the
transmit powers at a minimum level while ensuring adequate signal quality and
network perIormance at the receiving end |12|. Without accurate power control
algorithm, a near-Iar eIIect would occur in the uplink direction. It would aIIect in such
a manner that a UE near to a base station could easily block other UEs signals that are
transmitted Irom Iarther away. In the downlink, near-Iar eIIect does not exist due to
one-to-multiple power transmit scenario. Without downlink power control, mobiles at
the cell edge would experience higher inter-cell interIerence levels compared to
3 UMTS System 29

mobiles nearby the base station. To solve near-Iar eIIect in uplink and inter-cell
interIerence problem in downlink, accurate and strict power control algorithms have to
be utilised in order to guarantee high capacity and adequate network perIormance.
3GPP speciIications |22| deIine the power control mechanisms Ior UMTS. Moreover,
uplink and downlink are separated in Irequency domain, resulting in diIIerent
propagation losses, and thus requiring power control separately in both directions. The
power control system consists oI three major elements called open-loop power
control, fast closed-loop power control, and outer-loop power control. |18| |24|
In Figure 3-3 the power control schemes in UMTS are shown and they are explained
in more details in Iollowing sections.
Fast closed-loop power
control, 1.5 kHz
Outer-loop
power control
RNC
Node B
UE
UE
Open-loop
power control

Figure 3-3. Power control scenarios in UMTS |18|.
3.2.1.1 Open-loop power control
Open-loop power control is used when a UE attempts to access the network Ior the
Iirst time. UE receives inIormation about used and allowed power levels in a cell.
Furthermore, UE evaluates the path loss to Node B and decides the level oI transmit
power according those evaluations. Since uplink and downlink Irequencies are close
to each other, a signiIicant correlation exists between average path losses. Thus,
estimation oI average path loss can be made only in DL direction. |12|
3.2.1.2 Fast closed-loop power control
In UMTS system, Iast closed-loop power control is implemented to solve the near-Iar
eIIect in UL and reduce inter-cell interIerence in DL. In Iast closed-loop power
control in UL, the Node B perIorms Irequent estimates oI the received Signal-to-
InterIerence Ratio (SIR) |18|. The received SIR is then compared to SIR target and
power control commands are sent accordingly. Fast closed-loop power control is also
able to compensate the Iast Iluctuations in the received power level oI a slowly
3 UMTS System 30

moving UE. The power is adjusted trough steps 1500 times per second in both
directions, i.e., the power control rate is 1500 Hz. The impact oI the Iast power control
on UMTS network capacity in uplink direction is studied more detailed, Ior example,
in |23|.
3.2.1.3 Outer-loop power control
The purpose oI outer-loop power control is to set the service dependent SIR target on
an individual basis Ior each UE. Outer-loop power control is used to adjust the SIR
target according to changes in propagation conditions (multipath proIile) and quality
oI the connection. The SIR target is set according to Block Error Rate (BLER)
detected at RNC. The individual SIR target oI each UE depends also on the speed oI
the UE, as well as on the available multipath diversity opportunities. |24|
3.2.2Handovers in UMTS
Handover reIers to a procedure in which mobile changes the serving cell. It is an
important Ieature Ior all mobile cellular communication systems in order to ensure
continuous communication. In TDMA/FDMA systems, handover is called hard
handover, since aIter establishing a new connection to the new cell, the old connection
is immediately released. In UMTS system, this would cause serious problems, since
the same Irequency is used at the neighbouring cell. Because oI the strict power
control demands, a hard handover would create instantaneous power rise peaks (i.e.,
additional interIerence) in the cell border areas. This would deteriorate the
perIormance oI the network. Thus, in UMTS system, as in all CDMA systems, soft
handovers are utilised. When a UE is in handover with sectors belonging to diIIerent
Node Bs, the procedure is reIerred as soft handover (SHO). In contrast, iI the UE is in
handover between sectors belonging to the same Node B, the procedure is reIerred as
softer handover (SIHO). The main objectives oI soIt/soIter handover are the Iollowing
|12|:
Optimum Iast closed-loop power control, as the UE is always linked with the
strongest cells,
Seamless handover with no disconnection,
To enable a suIIicient reception level Ior maintaining communications by
combining the received signals (macro diversity) at symbol level Irom multiple
cell in cases when the UE moves to the cell boundary area, and can not obtain
a suIIicient reception level Irom a single cell,
Furthermore, the macro diversity gain achieved by combining the received
signal in the Node B or in the RNC improves the uplink quality and thus
decreases the required transmission power oI the UE.
3.2.2.1 Soft handover
In soIt handover (SHO) state, a UE is connected simultaneously to two or more Node
Bs like depicted in Figure 3-4. II a Node B is a contributor in soIt handover procedure,
it is included in UEs active set (AS). In UL, the received signal in Node Bs is
combined in RNC using maximal ratio combining.
3 UMTS System 31

In certain situations SHO introduces gain (macro diversity gain), since the same signal
is sent and received through diIIerent air interIace channels. This gain can be seen as a
reduction oI transmit power in UL and DL directions. Macro diversity gain varies
typically Irom 2-3 dB in such a manner that it tends to be a bit larger in DL direction.
Typically, SHO connections occur in 20 40 oI all the connections in the network
|12|. The observed gain depends on the received power levels oI diIIerent Node Bs,
on the speed oI the UE, and on the correlation between signals. II the power level
diIIerence oI the received signals is large, the observed gain can expected to be
smaller. In addition to macro diversity gain, the prospects oI SHO is higher UL
capacity, while disadvantages include the overhead in the radio access network and
increased downlink interIerence due to the transmission Irom multiple Node Bs.
|26||27|
Node B
Node B
UE
RNC

Figure 3-4. UE in soIt handover.
3.2.2.2 Softer handover
During soIter handover (SIHO), a UE is in the cell overlapping area oI two adjacent
sectors oI a Node B (Figure 3-5). As in SHO, the communication in SIHO occurs
concurrently via two air interIace channels. This consumes the air interIace capacity,
but on the contrary, due to the possible macro diversity gain, smaller transmit powers
can be used. The combination oI the received signals takes place in Node B. SoIter
handover typically occurs in about 5 15 oI connections |18|.
Node B
UE

Figure 3-5. UE in soIter handover.
3 UMTS System 32

3.2.2.3 Other handovers
In addition to soIt and soIter handovers (reIerred as intra-Irequency HO), UMTS
supports also diIIerent types oI handovers. Inter-Irequency handover occurs between
cells operated on diIIerent UMTS carriers (e.g., between micro and macro cell
carriers). Because oI the large and successIul use oI current 2G systems, inter-system
HOs should also be possible. Moreover, inter-mode HO, i.e., handover Irom UTRA
FDD to UTRA TDD mode ought to be possible. |28|

4 Radio network planning for UMTS

The third generation cellular systems will oIIer services well beyond the capabilities
oI today`s networks |29|. But also the radio network planning principles and methods
to achieve required coverage, capacity, and QoS Ior the planning area are changed. In
TDMA/FDMA networks coverage and capacity planning phases can be separated due
to constant transmit powers and signal reception sensitivities. In UMTS networks,
network coverage and svstem capacitv are linked, because the same carrier Irequency
is used over the radio network, and moreover other users` signals are seen as
additional interIerence. Hence, attention should be paid on coverage and capacity
planning phases simultaneously in UMTS radio network planning. The name oI
combined coverage and capacity planning is topologv planning. Due to the dynamic
nature oI UMTS network, the overall perIormance can not be determined using
analytical Iormulas as in TDMA/FDMA network, and system or link-level simulations
are typically required Ior deIining the overall network perIormance.
This chapter introduces shortly the overall radio network planning process Ior UMTS
networks. The main emphasis oI this chapter is on the topology planning phase, and
on the technical elements that aIIect the topology oI the network. Also limiting
scenarios Ior coverage and capacity are introduced.
4.1Planning process in UMTS
The target oI radio network planning in general is to provide maximum network
coverage and system capacity together with suIIicient network quality Ior the planning
area using reasonable implementation costs. Three major radio system planning
phases in UMTS are identiIied as |6|:
dimensioning
detailed radio system planning
optimisation.
Actually, the Iirst planning phase would be identiIying the radio interIace access
method, and hence the propagation environment and its parameters. All the radio
interIace parameters have to be exactly known beIore any planning strategy can be
deIined. Some oI these parameters are explained in Section 2.2. The overall planning
process is described in Figure 4-1.
4 Radio network planning Ior UMTS 34

Dimensioning
- traIIic
- planning area
- coverage thresholds
Detailed planning
- conIiguration
- topology
- code and Irequency
- parameters
Optimisation
- monitoring
- Iunctionality
- perIormance

Figure 4-1. Radio network planning process in UMTS |6|.
4.1.1Dimensioning
In the dimensioning phase, the main target is to obtain an estimation oI the required
radio network conIiguration and deployment strategy. In dimensioning, estimations oI,
e.g., initial traIIic requirements, planning area, and initial coverage thresholds are
needed.
4.1.2Detailed planning
The objective oI detailed radio svstem planning is to deIine the Iinal network
conIiguration in terms oI base station site conIigurations and locations together with
antenna conIigurations. Detailed radio system planning consists oI conIiguration
planning, topology planning (coverage and capacity), code, and Irequency planning
and parameter planning.
4.1.2.1 Configuration planning
As a result oI conIiguration planning, base station site types (macro, micro, indoor),
base station antenna line (antenna heights) and antenna line equipment and base
station coverage area thresholds are deIined. Power budget (also called link budget) is
the main tool in conIiguration planning phase. In power budget calculations, e.g., gain
oI antenna elements and ampliIiers, losses in the cable and in other equipment, and
coverage thresholds are decided. The results oI power budget calculations is uplink
and downlink maximum allowable propagation losses. Example oI UMTS power
budget is shown in Section 4.2.1.2.
4.1.2.2 Topology planning
AIter topology planning the Iinal network conIiguration and layout is deIined. The
results oI power budget calculations in conIiguration planning is used in topology
planning in coverage area estimation using propagation models. Since UMTS oIIers
multiple services (voice, circuit switched, packet switched etc.) cell ranges Ior
diIIerent services has to be identiIied using accurate coverage probability and capacity
calculations in initial topology planning. In detailed topology planning phase, the

network conIiguration is veriIied using radio network planning tools and simulations.
Topology planning phase is described more comprehensively in Section 4.2.
4.1.2.3 Code, frequency and parameter planning
The code planning phase in UMTS is quite straightIorward, since the system itselI
takes care oI most code allocation. Typically, in the Irequency planning phase, the
carrier usage Ior macro and micro cells is deIined (hierarchical cell structures, HCS)
|12|. Parameter planning includes signalling parameter and radio resource
management strategies, and hence is highly related to the optimisation phase.
4.1.3Optimisation
The optimisation phase is an adjustment process based on real liIe changes that were
not taken into account in the original radio system planning, which were based on the
coverage threshold requirements and traIIic Iorecasts |6|. Optimisation includes, e.g.,
veriIication oI call establishments and Iunctionality oI handovers. Moreover,
monitoring is also included in optimisation phase, since network perIormance is
monitored and parameters, like pilot powers, can be adjusted towards their optimum
values.
4.2Topology planning
The topology planning phase combines coverage and capacity planning. It deIines the
base station site conIiguration and location together with antenna conIiguration, i.e.,
the topology oI network. The topology planning phase can be divided into initial and
detailed topologv planning. Initial topology planning can be considered as
dimensioning phase where an approximation oI the network layout is calculated. Due
to the dynamic nature oI UMTS networks, radio network system simulations are
needed to veriIy the Iinal network topology; these simulations are done in detailed
topology planning phase, where the Iinal site locations and conIigurations together
with base station antenna conIigurations are deIined.
Figure 4-2 describes the relation between coverage and capacity oI UMTS networks
and shows the eIIect oI site and antenna conIigurations. The load oI a cell depends on
the number oI users together with service types oIIered and their bit rates the more
users in a cell, the more the load is increased. On the contrary, the load aIIects the
required interIerence margin in the power budget. II the power budget shows a smaller
maximum allowable path loss, also the cell range is smaller. Because site and antenna
conIigurations aIIect the propagation, and thus the interIerence in the network, they
link coverage and capacity together.


Cell load
InterIerence
margin
User bit rates
- 12.2 kbit/s
- 64 kbit/s
Number oI
users
Service types
- circuit switched
- packet switched
Link bugdet
Maximum
path loss
Cell range
Site / antenna
conIiguration

Figure 4-2. The link between coverage and capacity oI UMTS network.
4.2.1Initial topologv planning coverage
In the existing TDMA/FDMA networks, the coverage planning phase is
straightIorward due to the constant signal transmit level and receiver sensitivity. In
UMTS, transmit power is shared between mobiles in downlink (one-to-multiple
scenario) and signal reception sensitivity depends on the interIerence level oI a cell.
Thus, in UMTS networks, the coverage thresholds in a cell depend on the number oI
users and their bit rates. ThereIore, the coverage thresholds have to be determined Ior
each cell separately depending on the oIIered services. In practice, the service with the
tightest QoS requirement determines the cell range, and moreover, the overall site
density Ior a planning area.
4.2.1.1 Signalling and traffic channel coverage
As all ready mentioned in Section 3.1.2.2, signalling is needed in UMTS as in any
other cellular system. TraIIic channel coverage ensures that services can be used
under coverage area, and user is able to receive or send inIormation. The purpose oI
signalling is to transmit controlling messages between network and the terminals |18|.
Given that the maximum transmit power oI a UMTS cell is limited, signalling
channels are consuming the power oI traIIic channels the more signalling, the less
traIIic capacity. On the contrary, without extensive signalling, the network would not
Iunction at all.
UMTS network coverage can be roughly separated into two parts: common pilot
channel (CPICH) and dedicated channel (DCH) coverage |30|. CPICH is used Ior
channel estimation, handover measurements and cell selection/reselection procedures.
Also the other signalling channels, such as synchronisation channel (SCH) and other
common channel (CCCH), need a certain amount oI transmit power.
From UMTS radio network capacity point oI view, CPICH power has to be minimised
to leave as much power as possible Ior DCHs in order to be able to serve as many
customers as possible. However, enough power has to be allocated Ior CPICH in order
to ensure the required measurements and synchronization Ior a cell. II transmit power

oI CPICH is too low, the mobiles in the cell border areas are more likely to select a
neighbour cell, i.e., the dominance area oI the cell is decreased. On the opposite
situation, iI the CPICH power is increased, the cell dominance area is increased also.
Typically 5 10 oI the total base station power is reserved Ior CPICH |12|.
The DCH coverage depends on the user data rate, on the location oI the users, and
thus on the path loss between mobile and base station receiver. In uplink the DCH
coverage is limited by the transmit power oI the mobile, and in downlink either by the
maximum power allocated Ior one radio link, or the maximum total transmit power oI
the base station. Both, uplink and downlink DCH coverage, depend on the load and
the interIerence level oI the cell. In practical terms, this means that the eIIective range
oI a cell varies depending on the number oI active users and on the interIerence level
in the cell |32|. This variation in a cell size is known as cell-breathing.
4.2.1.2 Power budget analysis
In Table 4-1, an example oI UMTS power budget is presented Ior symmetric speech
service and Ior asymmetric data service. The power budget takes into account the base
station equipment and the base station antenna line conIiguration, and it is calculated
in the conIiguration planning phase. In this example, the maximum allowable
propagation loss is calculated Ior speech service oI 50 load in both directions, and
separately Ior data services when a 64 kbps bit rate oI 30 load is used in uplink, and
a 384 kbps bit rate oI 75 load is used in downlink.
Table 4-1. An example oI UMTS power budget Ior speech and data services.
Parameter Speech Data
Downlink Uplink Downlink Uplink Units
Bit rate 12.2 12.2 384 64 kbps
Load 50 50 75 30

Thermal noise density -173.93 -173.93 -173.93 -173.93 dBm/Hz
Receiver noise Iigure 8 4 8 4 dB
Noise power at receiver -100.13 -104.13 -100.13 -104.13 dBm
InterIerence margin 3.01 3.01 6.02 1.55 dB
Total noise power at receiver -97.12 -101.12 -94.11 -102.58 dBm
Processing gain 24.98 24.98 10 17.78 dB
Required E
b
/N
0
7 5 1.5 2.5 dB
Receiver sensitivity -115.10 -121.10 -102.61 -117.86 dBm

RX antenna gain 0 18 0 18 dBi
Cable loss / body loss 2 5 2 5 dB
SoIt handover diversity gain 3 2 3 2 dB
Power control headroom 0 3 0 3 dB
Required signal level -116.10 -133.10 -103.61 -129.86 dBm

TX power per connection 33 21 37 21 dBm
Cable loss / body loss 5 2 5 2 dB
TX antenna gain 18 0 18 0 dBi
Peak EIRP 46 19 50 19 dBm

Allowed propagation loss 162.10 152.10 153.61 148.86 dBm

Noise power at the receiver is the sum oI the thermal noise N
0
and the receiver noise
Iigure NF in decibels.

NF B T NF N N
N
+ = + =
0 0

(4-1)
In Equation (4-1) k is Boltzmann constant, T
0
absolute temperature (290 K) and B
N

noise bandwidth (3.84 MHz assumed). The total noise power at receiver is observed
by adding interIerence margin, which is calculated using load, as in Equation (4-3).
Processing gain is the ratio oI the system chip rate (3.84 Mcps) and user bit rate. The
Iinal sensitivity oI the receiver is observed by adding the required bit energy-to-noise
ratio (E
b
/N
0
).
Receiver (RX) end parameters have to be deIined in order to calculate minimum
reception level oI the receiver. Mobile antenna gain is typically assumed to be 0 dB,
and typical sector antenna gains at the base station vary Irom 12 to 21 dBi |31|. Cable
loss is the loss between antenna and hardware unit. In the mobile, it is typically
assumed to be 0 dB. At the base station end, cable loss depends heavily on the cable
type, length and Irequency. II the cable losses are high, low noise ampliIiers (LNA,
also called mast head ampliIier MHA) can be utilised Ior compensation oI cable losses
|6|.
Since soIt or soIter handover gives macro diversity gain against Iast Iading and
reduces required slow Iading margin, it has to be taken in account in power budget.
Soft handover diversitv gain is diIIerent in uplink and downlink, and moreover, it
depends on the mobile speed, used combining method and channel conditions. |12|
II the mobile is located at the cell edge, it transmits using almost Iull power, and
thereIore, it is not able to Iollow the Iading conditions oI the channel. This has been
taken into account in the uplink power budget as power control headroom.
In the transmitter (TX) end, critical parameters are antenna gains and cable/body
losses. Equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP) inIorms the maximum signal
output power Irom the transmitting antenna. Hence, maximum allowable propagation
loss is calculated as a sum oI EIRP and required signal level.
According to power budget calculations in Table 4-1, allowed propagation loss is
higher in downlink Ior speech service and Ior data service. Thus, in both cases, uplink
would limit the coverage. In a hybrid traIIic scenario, speech and data services have to
be handled together in order to Iind the maximum allowable path loss Ior both
directions separately. The cell range deviation oI previous example can be determined,
e.g., by using Okumura-Hata propagation model with typical urban values. Base
station and mobile station antennas are set to 25 m and 1.5 m, respectively. With an
area correction Iactor oI -3 dB Ior an urban area, and a slow Iading margin oI 10 dB
and Irequency oI 2140 MHz, the cell range oI speech service would be 1.84 km in
downlink and 0.97 km in uplink. The corresponding cell range in downlink and uplink
Ior data service would equal to 1.07 km and 0.79 km.
The previous example illustrates how diIIerent services and their quality targets,
together with diIIerent load targets, aIIect the cell range in UMTS network. In
practical UMTS radio network planning high indoor coverage probabilities are
required; hence cell outdoor coverage areas are excessively overlapping. For accurate
initial coverage estimations, more exact and detailed analysis oI coverage probabilities
would be needed.

4.2.2Initial topologv planning capacitv
In TDMA/FDMA networks, Erlang traIIic model |33| has been used Ior capacity
dimensioning. The Erlang model is based on Erlang Iormulas that include the average
duration oI a call and the average time oI arrival oI a call. The introduction oI
completely diIIerent air interIace access method and packet switched services has
changed the principles oI capacity planning in UMTS networks. In contrast to Iixed
bit rate circuit switched (CS) connections used in, e.g., GSM networks, packet
switched (PS) services using variable bit rates, make the capacity dimensioning and
analysis even more complex. Because UMTS networks include dynamically variable
bit rates using CS and PS data connections, Erlang Iormulas can not be used as such
Ior capacity dimensioning needs.
4.2.2.1 UMTS network capacity in Erlangs
The capacity oI the radio network can be blocking limited or interference limited |34|.
In the TDMA/FDMA networks, the capacity oI a cell is determined according to a
number oI transceivers (TRX) utilised at the base station site. Knowing the number oI
TRXs, the channel structure (traIIic and signalling) can be determined and, moreover,
the amount oI traIIic served by the base station deIined by using Erlang-B Iormula.
ThereIore, the capacity oI TDMA/FDMA network is typically blocking limited, which
indicates that available traIIic channels are running out, rather than the interIerence
situation being the cause oI blocking. In contrast to TDMA/FDMA networks, the
capacity oI UMTS network is interIerence limited (soIt blocked). In soIt blocked
networks, a rise in interIerence in a cell causes the blocked calls rather than a lack oI
available traIIic channels. The term outage` is used to indicate blocking in UMTS
networks.
The capacity oI UMTS network is known to be interIerence limited. II the maximum
capacity is limited by the amount oI interIerence in the air interIace, it is by deIinition
a soIt capacity, since there is no single Iixed value Ior maximum capacity |18|. For a
soIt capacity limited system, the traIIic requirement can not be directly calculated
Irom Erlang-B Iormula, since it would give too pessimistic results. It overestimates
the capacity need, since each service is handled separately in the system calculations.
On the other hand, iI the system is code limited, the capacity can be estimated by
using Erlang-B model |35|. In code limited situation, the noise rise in the network is
not causing outage or blocking, because the communication between links is limited
by the number oI available codes. Hence, in code limited situation, the behaviour oI
UMTS network is like TDMA/FDMA networks, and thereIore Erlang-B Iormulas can
be utilised.
In |36|, it has been presented a method Ior evaluating the number oI traIIic channels
needed to handle the traIIic with respect to the blocking rate in a multi service context
in UMTS networks. VeriIication oI the capacity need oI a cell is implemented by
using combined Erlang-B/C model, which combines joint blocking probability
calculations oI diIIerent services. The results show that the multi service method
avoids over-dimensioning the radio resources oI the network and yields a more
accurate business plan.

4.2.2.2 Load equation approach
The load equation is commonly used to make a semi analytical estimation oI the
average capacity oI a WCDMA cell, without going into system level capacity
simulations |18|. There are a number oI elements that inIluence on the UMTS network
load, which deIine the maximum number oI users per cell. Moreover, the number oI
users and their bit rates inIluence on the total throughput oI a cell. Also the activity
Iactor in speech and data services aIIects the load. However, probably the most
important contributor to the load is the E
b
/N
0
requirement, which depends at least on
the service type, the data rate oI the service, the propagation conditions, and the
receiver perIormance. II a very good quality (i.e., high E
b
/N
0
requirement) connection
is desired, more bits are needed Ior the error correction in order to guarantee the
quality oI the connection. Thus, when more bits are used Ior the error correction, the
air interIace load and the capacity Ior the traIIic channels are decreased.
The own-cell and other-cell interIerence inIluences on load oI a cell. II the total
received noise is high, also high transmit powers are needed in order to guarantee the
communication. Hence, it may happen that the transmit power runs out. The noise
received Irom other cells depends also on environment. In urban areas the cells are
isolated better than cells in rural areas. However, the radio network plan has probably
the most signiIicant inIluence on the interIerence. An accurate radio network plan
guarantees low interIerence levels and enables good quality and appropriate capacity.
4.2.2.3 Uplink load equation
Depending on the maximum allowed load in a cell, the number oI users can be
calculated by using the load equation and assuming that the load oI each individual
user can be estimated. In the uplink, the load can be expressed using Equation (4-2)
|37|:
( )
( )
=
+

+
=
N
i f
f f f o b
UL
i
R N E
W
1
1
1
.
(4-2)
In Equation (4-2) N is the number oI active users in the cell and W is the system bit
rate (chip rate), which in UMTS equals to 3.84 Mcps. R
f
is a bit rate oI fth user and
(E
b
/N
0
)
f
is bit energy to noise requirement Ior fth user. The activity Iactor c
f
oI fth user
indicates the activity oI speech when discontinuous transmission (DTX) is used. For
speech service, DTX is typically assumed to be Irom 0.4 to 0.7, and 1.0 Ior data
services. Other-to-own-cell interIerence i inIorms the ratio oI other-cell and own-cell
interIerence. The pole capacity is achieved when p
UL
approaches 1, but in practice the
maximum allowed load must be kept clearly below 1, to ensure stability oI the
network |38|.
Uplink load Iactor deIines the amount oI uplink interIerence margin (IM
UL
) in power
budget in order to take into account the eIIect oI cell breathing, and it is calculated
like in Equation (4-3):
( )
UL UL
IM = 1 log 10
10
.
(4-3)

InterIerence margin (also called noise rise) inIorms how much noise has to be added
to noise Iloor oI the receiver to Iacilitate the exact amount oI interIerence. InterIerence
margin takes into account the own-cell as well as other-cell interIerence. When the
load Iactor approaches unity (i.e., 100 load), the interIerence margin approaches
inIinity as seen Irom Figure 4-3.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Load [%]
I
n
t
e
r
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

m
a
r
g
i
n

[
d
B
]

Figure 4-3. InterIerence margin as a Iunction oI load.
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Throughput [kbit/s]
I
n
t
e
r
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

m
a
r
g
i
n

[
d
B
]
i=1.1
i=0.9
i=0.7

Figure 4-4. InterIerence margin as Iunction oI average throughput under
diIIerent interIerence situations.

Assuming only voice users oI a 12.2 kbit/s bit rate, E
b
/N
0
requirement
5 dB, and voice activity Iactor 0.6, the resulting interIerence margin is plotted in
Figure 4-4 as a Iunction oI cell throughput values using three diIIerent other-to-own-
cell interIerence ratios: 1.1, 0.9 and 0.7. In this particular case, uplink load oI 50
(interIerence margin oI 3 dB) equals to cell throughput values oI approximately 495
kbit/s, 550 kbit/s and 610 kbit/s, and uplink load oI 75 (interIerence margin 6 dB) to
738 kbit/s, 815 kbit/s and 910 kbit/s, corresponding to interIerence values 1.1, 0.9 and
0.7, respectively. Figure 4-4 clearly indicates the importance oI controlling the other-
to-own-cell interIerence.
4.2.2.4 Downlink load equation
In UMTS networks, downlink behaves a bit diIIerently as uplink because multiple
connections share the same base station transmit power. Moreover, each mobile at
diIIerent location experiences diIIerent interIerence level (a diIIerent i Ior mobiles at
diIIerent locations). In downlink, the load equation is expressed as in Equation (4-4)
|18|:
( )
( ) [ ]
f f
N
f
f
f b
f DL
i
R W
N E
+ =
=
1
1
0
.
(4-4)
The downlink load equation is similar to uplink load equation, except that it includes
orthogonality Iactor o
f
oI fth user (o
f
0.1). The value oI orthogonality Iactor
depends on the orthogonality oI the codes. Without multi path propagation, codes
would be Iully orthogonal (o
f
1), but multi path propagation destroys orthogonality,
causes interIerence rise and Iinally increases the downlink load.
The downlink load Iactor deIines also the base station transmit power as shown in
Equation (4-5) |37|:
( )
DL
N
f f
f o b
f
BS
R W
N E
L N
P
=
1
1
0
,
(4-5)
where L is the average path loss between base station and mobile station and N
0
is the
noise spectral density. When the downlink load Iactor saturates, system approaches its
pole capacity, and the required transmit power approaches inIinity. In practice, the
base station transmit power is limited by the speciIications, and thus the base station
transmit power may limit the downlink capacity or coverage in high loaded networks.
From Equations (4-2) and (4-4) it can be seen that by decreasing the other-to-own-cell
interIerence, the load oI the network can be signiIicantly decreased. Lower load in
uplink decreases the uplink noise rise, and lower load in downlink reduces the average
required base station transmit power.
4.2.3Coverage-capacitv scenario
IdentiIying the limiting direction, uplink or downlink, is vital in order to balance the
power budget, and that way ensure balanced communication. The network

perIormance can be either coverage or capacity limited in uplink or downlink
direction. Typically, uplink is limiting when a network is not highly loaded. When the
load increases, downlink starts to limit more and more due to the base station transmit
power is divided between multiple users. Figure 4-5 depicts a typical coverage-
capacity scenario.
|
d
B
|
Capacity
P
a
t
h

l
o
s
s
Downlink
Uplink
|kbit/s|

Figure 4-5. Uplink and downlink path losses as a Iunction oI capacity.
The coverage is uplink limited due to smaller transmit power oI the mobile. The
coverage is limiting Iactor when the load oI the network remains lower than expected
in cell range calculations in the dimensioning phase. Uplink coverage limited situation
is likely to occur in rural areas where the users are spread to a considerable large area,
and the cells are planned have to relatively low load. Correspondingly, downlink
coverage limited situation could occur in urban area with asymmetric data traIIic
when high indoor coverage probabilities are required.
Capacity limited situation can also occur in both directions. Uplink capacity limited
situation occurs when the system load exceeds the given load threshold. Downlink
capacity limited scenario arises when base stations transmit power is running out.
Capacity limited scenarios are likely to occur when the network is planned Ior too low
load scenarios. Hence, sudden traIIic congestion in low loaded cell could easily create
capacity limited situation. Moreover, capacity could be limited in downlink direction
in dense urban areas, where there is highly asymmetric traIIic demand and more
uplink load is allowed. |12|
4.2.4Detailed topologv planning
Since the behaviour oI UMTS network is dynamic, the veriIication oI the network
perIormance has to be done utilising link- or system-level simulations. In the detailed
topology planning phase, the network parameters and conIigurations oI the initial
topology and conIiguration planning phase, are moved into a radio network planning
(RNP) tool or simulator. Sophisticated RNP tool Ior UMTS radio network planning
has to have at least the Iollowing properties:

User interIace Ior controlling the data
Possibility to utilise digital maps
Site and antenna conIiguration editors
Propagation model editor
Coverage predictions
TraIIic modelling
Capacity and perIormance simulator
Digital map is one oI the very important elements required in a RNP tool. Modelling
geographically the planning area is vital, since coverage predictions and traIIic
distributions are made according to the map. Possibility to change the site locations
and conIigurations together with antenna conIiguration is important Ior changing the
network topology. Since also traIIic distribution is very important, and has a strong
eIIect on topology planning |39|, the importance oI traIIic models has to be
emphasized. The more accurate traIIic models, the more precisely the load oI the
network can be modelled.
Coverage predictions and capacity simulations are perIormed by utilising a RNP tool.
The simulation results include a coverage and capacity analysis oI a certain planning
area when certain base station site conIigurations are used. New simulations are
required when any topology related technical network element is modiIied, because
interIerence levels between neighbour cells have to be recalculated. In order to
achieve the maximum coverage and capacity, base station site conIigurations (number
oI sectors, sector orientations, site distance) have to be optimised Ior diIIerent site
locations and antenna conIigurations (antenna height, beam width and tilting).
4.3Technical elements in topology planning
Technical elements like base station site location, sector orientation, sectoring and
antenna configuration (illustrated in Figure 4-6) aIIect the topology oI UMTS
network. This section introduces and discusses more detailed on these technical
elements.
Antenna
height
BS antenna
conIiguration
Site separation, sector
orientation
Sectorisation
scheme
BS antenna
conIiguration

Figure 4-6. Network elements that inIluence on the topology planning.

4.3.1Site locations and sector orientations
Site locations and sector orientation (also called antenna direction) are key elements oI
the topology planning phase, and they have a great impact on the UMTS system
perIormance.
4.3.1.1 UMTS site locations
In UMTS network planning, the site density Ior a planning area is deIined by the
amount oI traIIic (customers) together with traIIic requirements (deIined services),
distribution. AIter identiIying the maximum cell range Ior the most sensitive service
(usually high speed data service), the search Ior the candidate site location can start.
A hexagonal grid planning would be the most eIIicient strategy to deploy a macro
cellular network iI traIIic distribution and environment were homogeneous (uniIorm).
UnIortunately, traIIic congestions are created both by the environment and building
distributions, and moreover the environment is not typically Iavourable Ior hexagonal
grid planning. Typically, topography or morphology oI the terrain creates restrictions
Ior the ideal site locations. In urban environments where base stations are oIten
located on the top oI buildings, the physical space required Ior hardware oI planned
site solution may not be enough. In some places the authority constraint or
government regulations may prevent an operator Irom deploying a base station to an
optimal place Irom their network perIormance point oI view. Also economical reasons
could cause operator`s willingness to select another place Ior the site location. Hence,
a maximum deviation in site locations should be deIined that avoids signiIicant
reduction in network coverage and system capacity perIormance.
In Figure 4-7 an impact oI non-hexagonal base station location is illustrated. As a
consequence oI new base station locations, interIerence level between BS2 and BS3 is
rising; meaning reduction in capacity. Simultaneously, the distance between the base
stations BS1 and BS2 is increasing; reducing interIerence in that direction. Hence,
mobiles located in the area between BS1 and BS2 may have coverage problems.
ThereIore, the eIIect oI deviation oI the site locations is mainly related to the average
distance between base stations, as well on the amount oI deviation.
BS3
BS2
BS1

Figure 4-7. Impact oI non-hexagonal site locations.

Previous analysis was made assuming homogenous traIIic distribution. In non-
homogenous traIIic distribution, iI the new (randomised) base station location would
be Iarther away Irom a traIIic hot-spot such as business building, network
perIormance would be deteriorated.
The displacement oI base station locations Irom ideal hexagonal grid has been Iound
to have negligible impact on carrier-to-interIerence (C/I) values in cellular systems in
homogenous environment and traIIic distribution |40| - |43|. These reIerences cover
the system perIormance Ior narrowband as well as wideband cellular systems. The
results are oI great importance due to the Iact that small deviations do not aIIect
cellular system perIormance. On the contrary, in |44|, which concentrated especially
to UMTS system, the base station location was concluded to have a notable impact on
downlink and uplink perIormance with a relatively large cell range.
4.3.1.2 Coverage overlapping
In urban areas, the coverage requirements Ior indoor users determine the site density
oI a planning area. II high indoor coverage probabilities (80-90) are required, the
average site density grows, automatically resulting large coverage overlapping areas.
In overlapping areas, the interIerence levels are higher, and hence more transmit
powers are needed Ior suIIicient communications. Coverage overlapping tends also
increase the number oI soIt handover connections. On the other hand, placing the base
stations Iar apart is not a solution either |45|. Having a too long site separation, yields
high transmit powers Ior the mobiles located at cell edges. Thus, coverage overlapping
is always needed, and the impact oI it on system capacity has to be understood when
site selections are done in topology planning phase.
4.3.1.3 Sector orientation
Sector orientation is one oI the key elements that deIine the coverage oI UMTS
network. Base station antenna directions have to be deIined in detailed topology
planning phase when deIining the Iinal network conIiguration. Sometimes base station
antennas are directed having equal spacing. In urban areas the base station antennas
are typically installed on the top oI buildings. However, due to obstacles close to the
base station site location, or due to the errors, e.g., in the base station antenna
implementation, antenna directions may change and aIIect the UMTS system
perIormance.
Figure 4-8 illustrates the eIIect oI base station antenna direction deviation on the
handover areas. II the directions oI the antennas belonging to the same site are
changed like at BS1, the result is increased number oI soIter handover (SIHO)
connections due to bigger sector overlapping. The number oI initial and additional
SIHO connections depends strongly on the horizontal beam width oI the base station
antenna. On the other hand, directing antennas oI diIIerent base stations towards each
other, could cause additional SHO connections due to increased coverage overlapping.

BS2
BS1
Increased number oI
SIHO connections
Increased number oI
SHO connections

Figure 4-8. Impact oI base station antenna direction deviation.
4.3.2Sectoring and antenna beam width
Sectoring is an eIIicient method to increase network coverage as well as capacity. The
eIIiciency oI sectoring depends heavily on the antenna beamwidth selection.
4.3.2.1 Sectoring
Sectoring means an increase oI the number oI sectors belonging to a site |12|, and it is
utilised Ior coverage and capacity extensions oI a cellular network. The number oI
antennas in the base station site equals the number oI sectors in the base station site, iI
diversity transmission or reception is not utilised. At sectorised base station site,
directional antennas are needed in order to transmit only to those directions where
signal is really intended. This reduces signiIicantly other-cell interIerence, and allows
a network to serve more mobiles. Due to reduced interIerence levels, sectoring oIIers
more capacity to the network also in UMTS networks. In order to achieve this extra
capacity, the antenna horizontal beam width selection is very crucial; to eIIectively
control the interIerence and soIt handover overhead |46|.
The number oI sectors belonging to a base station site depends on the environment
and purpose oI a base station. In the existing cellular networks, 3-sectored sites are
typically utilised. 1-sectored base station antennas are used in small micro cells or in
indoor cells. 2-sectored base stations could be used in sectored micro cell, or to
provide, e.g., roadside coverage. Standard macro cellular solution Ior low or average
loaded networks is a utilisation oI 3-sectored sites, and Ior high capacity needs, in
macro cellular environment, 6-sectored sites are required to provide better system
perIormance. 4- or 5-sectored sites are not commonly used but may be chosen to
support a speciIic traIIic scenario. |12|
In Figure 4-9, two 6-sectored sites are depicted having Iixed antenna directions oI 0,
60, 120, 180, 240 and 300. An arbitrary, narrow beam antenna radiation pattern is
drawn to illustrate the main and side lobes oI narrow beam sector antennas. In the
main beam direction, the coverage is good, and all the mobiles located in that
particular direction have good Iield strength. Furthermore, mobiles in adjacent sectors
are not interIered as much as would be wider antenna beam width case (MS at light

grey area). On the contrast, iI the mobile is not in handover with sector belonging to
cell site 2, the directional narrow beam antenna is raising the interIerence level oI the
cell. Conversely, in the dimensioning phase oI the network, using narrow beam
antennas (which has typically higher gain) allows greater distance between sites |47|.
Cell site 1
Cell site 2
MS

Figure 4-9. Six-sectored base stations using narrow beam antennas.
On the other hand, sectoring increases the number oI soIter handover connections in
the network iI wide beam width antennas are used, and thus decreases the capacity oI
the network. The handover connection and interIerence can be controlled with proper
antenna beam width selection.
4.3.2.2 Antenna beam width
Base station antenna has multiple characteristics, and in this thesis the most critical
ones are: antenna gain, hori:ontal and vertical radiation patterns and -3 dB (halI
power) beam widths.
Gain is typically inIormed as dBi (decibels respect to isotropic antenna). The gain
depends heavily on the radiation patterns oI antenna the narrower is the horizontal or
vertical radiation pattern, the higher is the antenna gain. Antenna radiation pattern is
three dimensional, and its radiation characteristics are deIined by the horizontal and
vertical radiations patterns. An example oI antenna radiation characteristics is shown
in Figure 4-10. Horizontal radiation pattern is pointing upwards, vertical to the right,
and the scale is in decibels. Horizontal and vertical halI power (-3dB) beam widths are
determined according the degree scale.
Other-cell interIerence is related to the base station antenna conIiguration as
horizontal beam width |48|. In Figure 4-11 (a), an arbitrary situation is depicted where
the mobile is camped on the cell oI antenna direction 90 oI the base station at centre.
Because oI wider antenna beam width, interIerence is leaking Irom adjacent cells,
rising the noise Iloor at the serving cell and Iorcing the serving base station to rise its
transmit power.

Horizontal Vertical

Figure 4-10. Antenna radiation patterns in horizontal and vertical plane.

(a)
(b)

Figure 4-11. EIIect oI antenna beam width in cellular network |48|.

The situation is improved by narrowing the base station antenna beam widths in
Figure 4-11 (b). Utilising narrower antenna beam width, other-cell interIerence is
decreased due to smaller other-cell interIerence, and due to the Iact that the base
station antenna main beam is directed more precisely towards the served mobiles.
However, narrowing antenna beam width too much, it is possible that coverage
thresholds can not be anymore exceeded.
Base station antenna horizontal beam width plays an important role in UMTS network
perIormance, and especially in higher order sectoring. In order to provide suIIicient
high capacity, both in 3-sectored and 6-sectored cell, the other-cell interIerence has to
be low, and this can be achieved by using narrow base station antennas |49|.
In Figure 4-12, a 3-sectored base station with imaginary antenna radiation patterns is
depicted. The darker areas in between the sectors are sector overlapping areas, and
hence possible soIter handover (SIHO) areas. Too large SIHO areas consumes limited
radio resources oI the base station. The overlap in the antenna radiation patterns, as
well as the inIluence oI environment on the shape oI the patterns, makes it diIIicult to
control the interIerence leakage into neighbour sectors and reduces capacity |46|.

Figure 4-12. A 3-sectored base station and illustration oI sector overlapping.
4.3.3Antenna configuration
Topology related antenna conIiguration, such as antenna height and down tilt, aIIect
the radio network perIormance. Average antenna heights are deIined already in
dimensioning phase, but they can be modiIied in topology planning phase, and
thereIore their eIIect has to be understood. Also antenna down tilt has an enormous
eIIect on the system perIormance, and optimum tilt angle (and method) guarantees
enhanced network perIormance.

4.3.3.1 Antenna height
Antenna height has an enormous eIIect on the UMTS radio network perIormance. A
network oI too low antenna position has poor coverage probabilities, and hence in
order to achieve good coverage, the site density has to be increased. On the contrary,
higher antenna positions oIIer good coverage properties with a cost oI additional
interIerence and reduced capacity. An average antenna height in diIIerent areas has to
be deIined already in dimensioning phase in order to deIine average cell ranges. In
topology planning phase antenna heights can be modiIied, but the impact oI these
changes on propagation and breakpoint distance has to be understood.
In macro cellular environment, the propagation occurs mainly above average rooI top
level. In Figure 4-13, two diIIerent antenna positions Ior macro cellular propagation
are depicted. The breakpoint distances (recall Equation (2-3)) correspond to 260 m
and 420 m, iI 25 m and 40 m base station antenna and 1.5 m mobile station antenna
heights, and 2100 MHz Irequency are assumed. The lower antenna height is close to
the average rooI top level, and the radio signal will experience a harsher environment
when a low antenna position is used |50|. The signal is propagating above the rooI
tops but aIter breakpoint distance, which is closer to the base station than with higher
antenna position, the propagation slope changes to correspond the environment. Thus,
in this particular example, the coverage area is not Iully exceeded. With higher
antenna position, the required coverage is achieved but the interIerence level beyond
the cell coverage area is higher.
Breakpoint distance

Figure 4-13. Macro cellular coverage oI two diIIerent antenna heights.
4.3.3.2 Antenna down tilt in UMTS
Base station antenna tilting can be carried out with two ways mechanically or
electrically. Mechanical tilt is achieved by physically tilting the antenna downwards
and electrical tilt using N-element phase array antenna |2|. Base station antenna
mechanical down tilt is employed in TDMA/FDMA networks to decrease the other-
cell interIerence. In addition to other-cell interIerence reduction, antenna down tilt
provides relieI to congestion in traIIic hot-spot |51|. Moreover, down tilt declines
macro-to-micro cell interIerence in uplink |52|. InterIerence can also be mitigated in
micro cells using down tilt |53|. In |54|, antenna down tilt has been concluded to

reduce interIerence in CDMA networks but also decreasing sectorisation eIIiciency in
uplink direction.
Mechanical antenna down tilt has been an eIIective way to reduce interIerence by
conIining the signal in its own coverage area |55|. In Figure 4-14, the principle oI
antenna mechanical tilt is illustrated, and how corresponding radiation pattern
behaves. When an antenna element is physically down tilted, only the main lobe is
down tilted and, e.g., back lobe is up tilted. The side lobes are only partly tilted, and
coverage, or on the contrary interIerence, is almost attained the same in the side lobe
direction. As a consequence oI a large mechanical down tilt angle, a notch can be
observed in the radiation pattern. The notch becomes larger when the tilt angle
increases |55|.

Figure 4-14. Illustration oI base station antenna mechanical down tilt and
radiation pattern.
In Figure 4-15, the eIIect oI base station antenna mechanical down tilt on signal
propagation is illustrated in a real propagation environment. Okumura-Hata
propagation model is used to predict the coverage. Dark blue reIers to very good
signal strength and light brown to the weakest signal strength. LeIt handed picture
represents coverage without down tilt and right handed picture with 6 mechanical
down tilt. The vertical beam width oI the antenna is 6. Figure 4-15 shows that the
signal strength in the direction oI back and side lobes remains approximately the same
when the antenna is down tilted. Correspondingly, the coverage in the main beam
direction starts to shrink; decreasing also the interIerence.

Figure 4-15. EIIect oI antenna mechanical down tilt in a real propagation
environment.

Figure 4-16 represents how main, side and back lobes oI electrically down tilted
antennas are behaving, and how the corresponding radiation pattern changes. In
electrical down tilt, also side and back lobes are tilted. Due to this, coverage as well as
interIerence conditions are totally diIIerent in electrical down tilt than in mechanical.
Thus, interIerence is smaller compared to similar mechanical down tilt scenario, but
also the coverage area shrinks rapidly aIter electrical down tilt angle is increased. The
electrical down tilt is carried out by adjusting the antenna elements, and hence it
slightly changes antenna radiation characteristics.

Figure 4-16. Illustration oI base station antenna electrical down tilt and
radiation pattern.
In Figure 4-17, an example oI base station antenna electrical down tilt is depicted. LeIt
handed picture represents coverage without down tilt and right handed picture 6
antenna down tilt. Vertical beam width oI base station antenna is 6. Figure 4-17
shows that the coverage towards the side and back lobe directions is also changing.
Hence, the coverage properties oI electrically tilted antennas can be considerably
poorer than the corresponding coverage oI mechanically tilted antennas.

Figure 4-17. EIIect oI antenna electrical down tilt in a real propagation
environment.
Base station optimum down tilt angle depends strongly on the base station site
conIiguration and location. Base station antenna height and vertical beam width are
critical parameters when an optimal down tilt angle is deIined. A large dominance

area (as in rural area) yields smaller down tilt angle in order to maintain coverage.
Basically, the rule applies that the smaller the cell size the larger the antenna down tilt
|56|. Correspondingly, in larger overlapping areas, as in urban environment, down tilt
angle Ior interIerence leakage reduction may be higher due to superior coverage.
The required down tilt angle depends also on the load oI the network |56|. In a highly
loaded cell, the cell range is eIIectively smaller than in a low loaded cell and thus the
required tilt angle would be smaller. The type oI tilting is Iurthermore an issue when
selecting the base station antenna down tilting scheme. In coverage limited
environment, the coverage is important, and mechanical down tilt could be more
useIul. Correspondingly, in capacity limited environment, minimisation oI the
interIerence is more vital, and hence electrical down tilt could provide better
perIormance. In reality, the base stations antennas are not installed at equal height or
do not have same cell range, or other characteristics, and thus the optimisation oI the
base stations antennas should be perIormed site by site |57|.

5 System Simulations
In the detailed topology planning phase, simulations are needed in order to veriIy the
UMTS network perIormance oI diIIerent scenarios. In this section, the used radio
network planning tool is shortly introduced. Moreover, the simulations results oI
diIIerent network scenarios using topology related technical elements (Section 4.3) are
shown. The network conIiguration oI diIIerent simulation scenarios and their
parameters together with simulation environment are introduced as well as the results.
5.1Planning tool and simulation parameters
5.1.1Nokia NetAct WCDMA Planner
Radio network planning tool used in the simulations was Nokia NetAct 4.0 WCDMA
Planner. It uses static simulation method and Monte Carlo simulations. Static
simulation is a method where the network perIormance is analysed over various time
instances (called snapshots). In these snapshots mobile is in statistically determined
places. The capability oI each mobile to make its connection to the network is
calculated through an iterative process. This iterative process initialises network and,
e.g., thermal noise levels at the base and mobile station using given simulations
parameters. Subsequently, the required transmission power in uplink and downlink
directions are calculated, and the results are appended in to the network perIormance
indicators.
Set up service
parameters
Set up terminal
types
Create terminal
density arrays
Start
Start Monte-Carlo simulation
Snapshot
SuIIicient
snapshots?
No
Yes
Analyse and display results

Figure 5-1. Monte Carlo simulation process |58|.
5 System Simulations 56

Monte-Carlo simulation approach attempts to create snapshots in time oI the network,
using statistical distributions and many iterations to account Ior the randomness oI the
propagation environment, and derive statistically valid measures oI the expected
network perIormance. Overview oI the simulation process is depicted in Figure 5-1.
5.1.2Simulation parameters
The resolution oI the digital map used in the simulations was 5 m x 5 m. It described
Tampere area, in Finland, and thus consisted oI typical suburban and light urban area.
The digital map included also buildings rasters.
Coverage predictions in all simulations were made using Okumura-Hata propagation
model. Morphological correction Iactors (area correction Iactor) and topographical
correction (modelling oI diIIraction) were included in most oI the simulation.
In Table 5-1, general simulation parameters are given. The maximum base station
transmit power was limited to 43 dBm. From that value, the powers oI common pilot
channel (CPICH) power, other common channels (CCCH) power and synchronisation
channel (SCH) were subtracted. The maximum power per one radio link, i.e., Ior one
mobile, was 33 dBm. BS noise Iigure and required E
b
/N
0
in UL Ior speech service
were 5 dB.
The maximum transmit power oI MS was 21 dBm, and the dynamic range, i.e., the
range oI transmit power, was set to 70 dB. Power control step size in every simulation
Ior mobiles was 0.5 dB. Required E
c
/I
0
inIorms the minimum reception level oI
common pilot channel signal, and in the simulations it was Iixed to -17 dB. MS noise
Iigure and required E
b
/N
0
in DL Ior speech service were 9 dB and 8 dB, respectively.
Table 5-1. General simulation parameters.
Parameter Jalue
BS maximum power |dBm| 43
CPICH |dBm| 33
CCCH |dBm| 33
SCH |dBm| 33
Maximum power per connection |dBm| 33
BS noise Iigure |dB| 5
UL required E
b
/N
0
|dB| 5

MS maximum power |dBm| 21
MS dynamic range |dB| 70
Power control step size |dB| 0.5
Required E
c
/I
0
|dB| -18
MS noise Iigure |dB| 9
DL required E
b
/N
0
|dB| 8

Standard deviation oI slow Iading |dB| 10
UL noise rise |dB| 6
DL orthogonality 0.6
HO window |dB| 4

Standard deviation oI slow Iading was set to 10 dB. UL noise rise (i.e., the
interIerence margin) was limited to 6 dB. DL orthogonality was set to 0.6. Handover

window, i.e., the maximum allowed power diIIerence between the pilots signals oI
two base stations (or sectors) in the active set, Ior soIt and soIter handovers was 4 dB.
The network perIormance oI diIIerent network scenarios is given by means oI service
probability, soIt handover (SHO) and soIter handover (SIHO) probabilities, average
sector throughput, UL noise rise, load and other-to-own-cell interIerence (i) and DL
average transmit power per sector. Service probability is deIined as a ratio between
mean number oI served mobiles and mean number oI attempted mobiles in the
network. In the Monte Carlo simulation, a mobile is served iI communication link can
be established both in UL and DL directions. Handover probabilities are calculated as
a ratio oI mobiles in handovers and mean number oI served mobiles in the network.
Average sector throughput is announced as in kbit/s. Sector throughput values are the
same in UL and DL, since same service bit rate is used. DL transmit power is average
value oI the total transmit power oI all the sectors.
5.2Site locations and sector orientation
Network layout and parameters together with results oI site location deviation, sector
orientation and coverage overlapping are presented.
5.2.1Site location deviation simulations
In the system simulations, 17 base stations were arranged in a hexagonal grid. Base
stations were conIigured with three sectors; each having a 65 horizontal beam width
antenna. Base station and mobile station antenna heights were 25 m and 1.5 m,
respectively. Antenna directions were 0, 120 and 240; those were kept Iixed aIter
moving the base station into its new location. Okumura-Hata propagation model was
utilised at carrier Irequency oI 2140 MHz. The propagation model was adjusted with
average -6.7 dB area correction Iactor together with some topographical corrections.
Propagation slope was set to 35 dB/dec corresponding to typical suburban or light
urban environment. Only speech users (12.2 kbit/s) loaded the network, and traIIic
distribution (homogenous or non-homogenous, indoor or outdoor users) was deIined
Ior each simulation separately.
A random error was given Ior each base station location by vector, thus describing its
new location in an irregular grid. The maximum deviation Irom original location was
one-quarter oI the site separation. Two diIIerent site separations were used - 1.5 km
and 3.0 km. AIter giving the error, the average departure was 180 m and 356 m Irom
the hexagonal locations corresponding to 1.5 km and 3.0 km site separations.
Altogether Iive diIIerent base station displacement cases (irregular grid) were
simulated to show the impact oI site location selection. The simulation area together
with sites oI the reIerence case (hexagonal) and other base station locations are
illustrated in the Figure 5-2.

Figure 5-2. Hexagonal grid locations and other base stations.
Three diIIerent traIIic distributions were used; homogenous without indoor users,
homogenous including indoor users and practical non-homogenous where 70 oI
mobiles were located indoor and 30 outdoor. For indoor user, the standard deviation
oI slow Iading was 15 dB, and moreover a 15 dB indoor loss was added to power
budget.
The results oI 1.5 km site separation without indoor users are presented in Table 5-2.
The three columns oI the reIerence grid and average oI Iive diIIerent irregular grid
simulations represent uniIorm traIIic distributions oI 1000, 2000 and 3000 speech
users, i.e., they represent diIIerent network loads.
Table 5-2. Simulation results oI irregular grid, outdoor users only and 1.5 km site separation.
Parameter Reference grid Irregular grid (average)
Number oI users 1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000
Service probability || 99.6 98.1 72.5 99.5 98.2 72.9
SHO probability || 24.1 24.9 31.3 24.4 25.0 31.4
SIHO probability || 3.7 3.9 5.5 3.8 3.9 5.5
Throughput |kbit/s/sector| 159 315 381 160 318 383
UL noise rise |dB| 1.09 2.53 2.89 1.09 2.55 2.94
UL load || 21.9 43.2 48.1 21.9 43.4 48.6
UL i 0.77 0.79 0.81 0.78 0.80 0.82
DL power |dBm| 32.7 37.2 40.1 32.8 37.3 40.2

According to the simulation results, a small deviation in hexagonal structure does not
aIIect the system perIormance in practical urban network (1.5 km site separation).
SHO and SIHO probabilities remain practically the same as in the reIerence network.

Moreover, the diIIerence between other network parameters is very small. This
simulation result clearly indicates that the hexagonal structure is not necessarily
optimal solution Ior the network when terrain topography and morphological
inIormation have been taken into account.
In the subsequent simulations, indoor users were included. Still, the diIIerence
between hexagonal grid scenario and irregular grid scenario is marginal as seen Irom
the results oI Table 5-3.
Table 5-3. Simulation results oI irregular grid, indoor users and 1.5km site separation.
Number oI users 1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000
SHO probability || 23.9 24.4 30.9 24.2 24.6 30.9
UL noise rise |dB| 1.07 2.49 2.92 1.07 2.50 2.98
UL load || 21.5 42.6 48.4 21.6 42.8 49.0
UL i 0.76 0.77 0.79 0.76 0.78 0.80
DL power |dBm| 32.7 37.2 40.1 32.8 37.2 40.1

In order to simulate the eIIect oI practical non-homogenous traIIic distribution, indoor
users were weighted 70 and outdoor users 30. The simulation results oI this non-
homogenous traIIic are only slightly changing as shown in Table 5-4. Nevertheless,
the diIIerence between reIerence and irregular grid is unremarkable. However, the
network is already heavily uplink coverage limited because oI indoor users (hot-
spots), and the service probability remains below 95; although only 1000 users were
included. This result show that the site separation is too large Ior practical planning,
since the uplink direction is heavily limiting.
Table 5-4. Simulation results oI irregular grid, non-homogenous traIIic distribution and 1.5km site
separation.
Number oI users 1000 1000
Service probability || 94.0 94.1
SHO probability || 23.7 23.9
SIHO probability || 3.4 3.5
Throughput |kbit/s/sector| 149 149
UL noise rise |dB| 0.99 0.98
UL load || 19.2 19.9
UL i 0.71 0.72
DL power |dBm| 32.6 32.6

The relation between site location and site distance was analysed by increasing the site
separation into 3.0 km The eIIect oI randomness in site locations has an eIIect as seen
Irom Table 5-5. The service probability oI irregular grid network is now 2 lower
compared to reIerence network simulations. The uplink load has remained lower due
to the decreased service probability in irregular grid networks, as in previous
simulations. In the downlink direction, the average transmit power is approximately
the same.


Table 5-5. Simulation results oI irregular grid, outdoor users only and 3.0 km site separation.
Number oI users 2000 2000
Throughput |kbit/s/sector| 289 285
UL load || 37.6 37.1
UL i 0.58 0.60

CPICH coverage analysis is also important in topology planning Ior ensuring proper
Iunctioning oI soIt handovers. Table 5-6 compares indoor and outdoor pilot coverage
probabilities oI previous network conIigurations. In 1.5 km site separation, indoor
coverage probability is nearly 90 in all cases and outdoor coverage probability close
to 100. However, in 3.0 km site separation, the indoor service probability is closer
50.
Table 5-6. Indoor and outdoor coverage probabilities in 1.5 km and 3.0 km site separations.
Site separation 1.5 km 3.0 km

Indoor Outdoor Indoor Outdoor
ReIerence grid 87.9 99.9 54.9 96.6
Displacement 1 90.2 99.9 50.6 96.6
Displacement 2 86.4 99.6 51.6 95.5
Displacement 3 87.9 99.6 52.7 96.9
Displacement 4 84.0 98.9 53.6 95.9
Displacement 5 87.5 99.9 52.5 95.9

The base station location deviation has been compared to regular hexagonal grid
structure. A small deviation was Iound to have negligible impact on the UMTS system
perIormance when high indoor coverage thresholds are demanded (1.5 km site
separation). Moreover, the robustness Ior the base station location deviation remained
even iI diIIerent traIIic models were utilised. However, iI high indoor coverage
probabilities are not required, i.e., the cells are not overlapping signiIicantly, a
deviation in base station location becomes more and more crucial, and moreover it
aIIects the UMTS system perIormance (3.0 km site separation). Hence, in urban
environment, base station site conIiguration should be optimised rather than base
station site location, because oIten the set oI candidate site locations could be very
limited |59|.
5.2.2Sector orientation simulations
This section shows the simulation results oI sector orientation deviation under the
same traIIic distribution scenarios used in Section 5.2.1. Illustrative picture oI the base
station antenna direction deviation is depicted in Figure 5-3. Network conIiguration
(1.5 km site separation) and simulation parameters were the same as in previous
simulations. Two separate antenna direction deviations were simulated. Direction
were chosen according to normal distribution with diIIerent weights. In the Iirst
simulations, the average direction deviation became 9.1 and in the second 18.2.

In Table 5-7, the simulation results oI 9.1 average sector orientation deviation are
shown. A small, random deviation in base station antenna direction does not seem to
aIIect outstandingly on the UMTS system perIormance. The service probability is
nearly the same with all loads, and SIHO probability has increased a rather small
amount. Altogether, when taking into account only outdoor users, the impact seems to
be diminutive. However, the eIIect oI antenna direction deviation seems to be slightly
more signiIicant than the base station location deviation (reIerring to Table 5-2).
Table 5-7. Results oI 9.1 antenna direction deviation without indoor users.
Parameter Reference grid Direction deviation
(average)
Number oI users 1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000
SHO probability || 24.1 24.9 31.3 24.2 25.1 31.4
UL noise rise |dB| 1.09 2.53 2.89 1.09 2.54 2.87
UL load || 21.9 43.2 48.1 21.9 43.3 47.8
UL i 0.77 0.79 0.81 0.78 0.80 0.82
DL power |dBm| 32.7 37.2 40.1 32.8 37.3 40.2

Figure 5-3. Simulation area and base station antenna direction deviation.
Table 5-8 introduces the results when indoor users were included. The system
perIormance, in sense oI service probability, has deteriorated a bit, but adding indoor
users in the simulations does not aIIect the diIIerences between reIerence case and
antenna direction deviation cases.

Table 5-8. Results oI 9.1 antenna direction deviation with indoor users.
Parameter Reference grid Directions deviation (average)
Number oI users 1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000
SHO probability || 23.9 24.4 30.9 24.0 24.8 31.0
UL noise rise |dB| 1.07 2.49 2.92 1.07 2.79 2.91
UL load || 21.5 42.6 48.4 21.6 42.7 48.2
UL i 0.76 0.77 0.79 0.76 0.78 0.80
DL power |dBm| 32.7 37.1 40.1 32.8 37.2 40.1

In Table 5-9, the results oI the simulations using non-homogenous traIIic distribution
oI speech users are shown. Once more, the system perIormance is deteriorating more
compared to previous simulations using homogenous traIIic distribution. However,
small antenna direction deviation has not eIIect on the UMTS system perIormance.
On the contrary, the diIIerence, e.g., in SIHO probabilities is less when non-
homogenous traIIic distribution is used.
Table 5-9. Results oI 9.1 antenna direction deviation with non-homogenous traIIic distribution.
Parameter Reference grid Direction deviation (average)
Number oI users 1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000
SHO connections || 23.7 24.6 29.2 23.9 24.6 29.3
SIHO connections || 3.4 3.6 4.8 3.6 3.8 5.1
UL noise rise |dB| 0.99 2.23 2.71 0.99 2.23 2.70
UL load || 19.2 38.8 45.5 19.9 38.8 45.4
UL i 0.71 0.73 0.74 0.72 0.74 0.74
DL power |dBm| 32.6 36.7 39.3 32.6 36.7 39.3

Up to now, simulations using 9.1 average antenna direction deviation has been
carried out. In the Iollowing simulations, deviation has been doubled so that average is
now 18.2. Table 5-10 introduces the results without indoor users. Larger deviation in
antenna direction is begin to aIIect more signiIicantly the SIHO probability, and thus
reIlects to the system perIormance. Additional SIHO connections due to larger
direction deviation cause additional interIerence and transmission power rise, and
hence degrades the service probability. But Ior system-level point oI view, the eIIect
oI randomness in antenna direction is still rather unremarkable.
Table 5-10. Results oI 18.2 antenna direction deviation without indoor users.
Parameter Reference case Direction deviation (average)
Number oI users 1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000
SHO connections || 24.1 24.9 31.3 24.1 25.0 31.3
UL noise rise |dB| 1.09 2.53 2.89 1.10 2.57 2.83
UL load || 21.9 43.2 48.1 22.1 43.6 47.2
UL i 0.77 0.79 0.81 0.79 0.81 0.83
DL power |dBm| 32.7 37.2 40.1 32.8 37.3 40.2

Table 5-11 shows the results with indoor users. Adding indoor users does not have
remarkable impact as in smaller direction deviation simulations. The system
perIormance deteriorates a bit aIter indoor users have been introduced, but changes
between reIerence case and antenna direction deviation cases are comparatively the
same.
Table 5-11. Results oI 18.2 antenna direction deviation with indoor users.
Parameter Reference grid Direction deviation (average)
Number oI users 1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000
SHO connections || 23.9 24.4 30.9 23.9 24.5 30.9
UL noise rise |dB| 1.07 2.49 2.92 1.08 2.52 2.86
UL load || 21.5 42.6 48.4 21.7 43.0 47.7
UL i 0.76 0.77 0.79 0.78 0.80 0.82
DL power |dBm| 32.7 37.1 40.1 32.8 37.2 40.1

The simulation results oI this section show that UMTS network perIormance is robust
Ior random antenna direction deviation under diIIerent traIIic scenarios. The eIIect oI
antenna direction deviation was Iound to have almost negligible impact oI the UMTS
network perIormance in 3-sectored case oI 65 horizontal beam width antennas.
However, these antennas are quite suitable Ior 3-sectored sites, and thus the antenna
direction deviation could be more crucial, iI wider antenna beam width or higher order
sectoring is utilised.
5.2.3Coverage overlapping simulations
The simulation area in coverage overlapping simulations consisted oI 10 base stations
in hexagonal grid. Base stations were conIigured with six sectors each having a 33
horizontal beam width antenna. Base station and mobile station antenna heights were
25 m and 1.5 m, respectively, and directions 0, 60,120,180, 240 and 300.
Okumura-Hata propagation model was utilized at carrier Irequency oI 2140 MHz.
Propagation slope was set to correspond to typical suburban or light urban
environment (35 dB/dec). Only speech users (8 kbit/s) loaded the network and traIIic
distribution was homogenous. Handover window was 3 dB, standard deviation oI
slow Iading 8 dB, and maximum BS power per one link 40 dBm. The rest oI the
simulation parameters were the same as in Table 5-1.
Table 5-12. Simulation results oI coverage overlapping.
Parameter 1.0 km 1.5 km 2.0 km
Number oI users 5800 5800 5800
Service probability || 84.5 83.0 86.9
SHO probability || 6.5 7.4 6.5
SIHO probability || 2.4 3.3 3.4
Throughput |kbit/s/sector| 424 424 441
UL noise rise |dB| 4.88 4.49 4.73
UL load || 66.3 62.7 65.2
UL i 0.56 0.50 0.49
DL power |dBm| 41.8 41.4 41.5


The simulation results oI site separations oI 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 km are shown in Table
5-12. The network was initially heavily loaded, and hence the service probability in all
cases remained below 90. Moreover, the SHO probability is quite low due to high
interIerence level in the network.
The service probability and the average sector throughput are the highest in 2.0 km
site separation. The service probability in 1.0 km and 1.5 km site separations is lower
due to the increased coverage overlapping, and hence raised interIerence level.
Interestingly, the service probability is higher in 1.0 km than in 1.5 km case. This was
caused by the Iact that in the 1.5 km site separation environment was not so
Iavourable as in 1.0 km site separation. Because oI decreased service probability, also
the uplink load and downlink transmit powers were slightly smaller. The results oI the
study show that due to the larger coverage overlapping, interIerence in the network is
rising, thus causing slightly higher uplink load, and moreover higher transmit powers
in downlink.
The behaviour oI coverage overlapping towards interIerence and system perIormance
depends on the environment and planning thresholds. In urban environment, where
large overlapping is required due to indoor coverage thresholds, other-cell-to-own-cell
interIerence seems to be quite constant iI antenna conIiguration is not changed.
5.3Sectoring and antenna beam width
In this section, the results oI sectoring and antenna beam width simulations are shown.
The simulation parameters were the same as in coverage overlapping study in Section
5.2.3. Site separation was 2.0 km and base station were 3- and 6-sectored. In 3-
sectored sites, the selected horizontal beam widths were 65 and 90, and in 6-
sectored sites 33, 65 and 90. Horizontal radiation patterns oI these antennas are
depicted in Figure 5-4.
40 30 20 10 0
30
210
60
240
90
270
120
300
150
330
180 0
40 30 20 10 0
30
210
60
240
90
270
120
300
150
330
180 0
40 30 20 10 0
30
210
60
240
90
270
120
300
150
330
180 0

Figure 5-4. Horizontal radiation patterns oI antennas (33, 65, 90) used in
simulations.
The results oI 3-sectored site oI 90 antennas and 6-sectored site oI 90 antennas are
given in Table 5-13. The two columns oI the same sectoring case correspond to lower
and higher traIIic densities.


Table 5-13. Results oI sectoring study oI 90 antennas.
Parameter 3-sector 90 6-sector 90
User density |mobiles/km
2
| 50 70 50 70
Service probability || 83.1 76.3 84.5 84.4
SHO probability || 13.9 9.1 11.9 11.9
SIHO probability || 7.7 6.3 19.3 19.6
Throughput |kbit/s/site| 823 1006 901 1261
UL noise rise |dB| 3.25 4.68 1.48 2.27
UL load || 52.0 65.6 28.6 40.3
UL i 0.53 0.51 0.68 0.69
DL power |dBm| 39.3 41.5 34.5 37.7

First oI all, the service probability is observed to be quite low Ior both cases. This was
caused by the power control error introduced in the simulation parameters. In the
lower load simulation the service probability oI 3-sectored network is slightly lower
than in 6-sectored network. AIter increasing the load, the perIormance oI the 3-
sectored network deteriorates but has no inIluence on the service probability oI 6-
sectored network. The total number oI handover connections in lower load situation is
21.60 and 31.20, corresponding to 3-sectored and 6-sectored networks,
respectively. Sectoring increases the total number oI handover connections. Especially
in 6-sectored network, due to the huge sector overlapping, the number oI SIHO
connections is higher as the number oI SHO connections. When increasing the load,
the number oI handover connections in 3-sectored network decreases. This is caused
by the deteriorated E
C
/I
0
ratio due to raised interIerence level. In higher load network,
3-sectored conIiguration becomes very highly loaded in DL because its average
transmit power is almost hitting the maximum.
Table 5-14. Results oI sectoring study oI 65 antennas.
Parameter 3-sector 65 6-sector 65
SHO probability || 14.2 9.7 12.9 13.0
Throughput |kbit/s/site| 815 1010 889 1245
UL noise rise |dB| 3.18 4.60 1.45 2.22
UL load || 51.1 65.6 28.2 39.7
UL i 0.50 0.48 0.65 0.66
DL power |dBm| 38.9 41.2 34.2 37.3

Secondly, antennas oI 65 horizontal beam width were used, and the results are
presented in Table 5-14. Also in this case, the service probability is enhanced due to
sectoring. The number oI SHO connections drops a little bit Irom 14.20 to 12.90,
but the number oI SIHO connections increases Irom 6.20 to 16.60. The average
site throughput is increased Irom 815 kbit/s to 889 kbit/s due to additional SIHO
connections. The perIormance, both in downlink and uplink directions, is improved
aIter increasing the number oI sectors, in sense that less DL transmit power is used to
serve the same amount oI users, and less UL load is created. Also in these simulations
the DL oI 3-sectored network is the limiting direction.
The corresponding results Irom the simulations oI 33 antennas are shown in Table
5-15. The service probability is marginally decreased due to lack oI coverage, but the
overall perIormance is better compared to network oI 65/90 antennas in 6-sectored

sites. SHO probability is a bit increasing but SIHO probability is remarkably
decreased (reIerring to SIHO probabilities in Tables 5-13 and 5-14). Due to this, less
power is needed in DL and less load is created also in UL.
Table 5-15. Results oI sectoring study oI 33 degree antennas.
Parameter 6-sector 33
Throughput |kbit/s/site| 823 1153
UL load || 25.2 35.5
UL i 0.47 0.48

In Figure 5-5, downlink average site throughputs are plotted as a Iunction oI DL
average transmit power Ior 3- and 6-sectored site oI diIIerent antenna horizontal beam
widths. The lowest curves are 65 and 90 antennas in 3-sectored network. The DL
capacity perIormance using 65 antennas seems to be slightly better. The upper curves
are 6-sectored 33, 65 and 90 antennas. The capacity perIormance oI 65 and 90
antennas is quite equal as in 3.sectored network, but 33 antenna separates clearly.
The sectoring eIIiciency in network oI 65/90 antennas is nearly 75, when average
39 dBm transmit power is used. However, using 33 antennas in 6-sectored network
almost 100 sectoring eIIiciency can be achieved.
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
DL average transmit power |dBm|
T
h
r
o
u
g
h
p
u
t

|
k
b
i
t
/
s
/
s
i
t
e
|

.
3-sector /90
3-sector /65
6-sector /90
6-sector /65
6-sector /33

Figure 5-5. Capacity curves oI 3- and 6-sectored sites oI diIIerent beam
widths.
Sectoring is an important element oI topology planning because it has a strong impact
on system capacity. A proper number oI sectors have to be selected, and moreover
proper base station antenna beam widths have to be selected based on number oI
sectors. The selection oI antenna beam width becomes very crucial in higher order
sectoring. The consequence oI too wide beam antenna is increased SIHO connections,

but on the contrary, with too narrow beam antenna coverage is easily reduced and the
perIormance oI the network deteriorated.
5.4Antenna down tilt
In this section, base station antenna down tilt simulations are presented. The
simulation area consisted oI 19 6-sectored sites in hexagonal grid each conIigured
with 33 horizontal beam width antennas. The HO window was 3 dB and E
b
/N
o

requirements were 4 dB Ior uplink and 6 dB Ior downlink. Homogenous traIIic
distribution oI speech users (12.2 kbit/s) was used. Other simulation parameters were
the same as in Table 5-1.
An impact oI site separation, antenna height, base station antenna vertical beam width,
network load and tilting scheme (electrical / mechanical) was simulated. The eIIect oI
site separation (coverage overlapping) was simulated by using 1.5 km and 2.2 km site
separations. In order to deIine the eIIect oI base station antenna height, 25 m and 40 m
base station antenna heights were chosen. In mechanical down tilt simulations, two
diIIerent antennas were used one with 6 vertical beam width and gain oI 20.7 dBi,
and another with 12 vertical beam width and gain oI 17.9 dBi. The vertical radiation
patterns oI antennas used in mechanical down tilt simulations are depicted in Figure
5-6. Horizontal halI power beam with oI both antennas was 33.
In Figure 5-7, the vertical radiation patterns oI electrically tilted antennas are
presented. The gain oI this antenna was 19.7 dBi and horizontal beam width 33.
40 30 20 10 0
30
210
60
240
90
270
120
300
150
330
180 0
40 30 20 10 0
30
210
60
240
90
270
120
300
150
330
180 0

Figure 5-6. Vertical radiation patterns oI 6 and 12 antennas used in the
mechanical tilt simulations.

40 30 20 10 0
30
210
60
240
90
270
120
300
150
330
180 0
40 30 20 10 0
30
210
60
240
90
270
120
300
150
330
180 0
40 30 20 10 0
30
210
60
240
90
270
120
300
150
330
180 0
40 30 20 10 0
30
210
60
240
90
270
120
300
150
330
180 0

Figure 5-7. Vertical radiation patterns oI 0, 2, 4, and 6 electrically tilted
antennas.

At Iirst, the site separation was set to 2.2 km, base station antenna to 25 m and antenna
oI 6 vertical beam width was utilised. Table 5-16 represents the simulation results
based on mechanical down tilt.
Table 5-16. Results oI antenna mechanical tilt, 2.2 km site separation, 25 m antenna height, 6 antenna
vertical beam width and low load.
Parameter 0 2 4 6
SHO probability || 16.4 15.0 13.5 12.1
UL load || 36.0 35.3 35.0 35.2
UL i 0.48 0.46 0.45 0.46
Throughput |kbit/s/sector| 427 421 418 420
DL power |dBm| 35.8 35.4 35.1 35.3

The results are based on the same amount oI users over the simulation area. Due to
relatively low load, the service probability is nearly 100 in all cases. The number oI
SHO connections is decreasing due to increasing down tilt angle, since the relative
CPICH power at the cell border areas is decreasing. However, the number oI mobiles
in SIHO increases steadily when tilt angle is increased. This is caused by the Iact that
the antenna radiation pattern is eIIectively getting wider (see Figure 4-14), since only
main lobe is shrinking. The average throughput value is the smallest when the number
oI HO connections is also smallest. This occurs when down tilt angle corresponds to
4.
A Iixed number oI users creates changed loads in diIIerent tilt scenarios. Based on
multiple simulations oI diIIerent loads and diIIerent tilt angles, an optimum tilt angle
can be deIined Irom DL throughput point oI view.
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
0 2 4 6
Tilt angle |degree|
D
L

t
h
r
o
u
g
h
p
u
t

|
k
b
i
t
/
s
/
s
e
c
t
o
r
|

.
33 dBm
39 dBm

Figure 5-8. Antenna mechanical tilt angle as Iunction oI DL sector throughput,
2.2 km site separation, 25 m antenna height and 6 antenna beam width.
In Figure 5-8, DL average throughput per sector is plotted respect to tilt angle. Solid
line represents capacity values with 33 dBm average transmit power (low load) and
dashed line 39 dBm average transmit power (high load) in downlink direction. Tilting

is slightly aIIecting the DL throughput, and an optimum angle can be observed Irom
the Iigure (4). Percentual capacity increase between zero tilt and optimum tilt
situations is around 5. The load oI the network seems to have only a small impact on
the optimum tilt angle.
In the subsequent simulations, the site separation was diminished to 1.5 km in order to
have larger coverage overlapping. The results in Table 5-17 correspond to same
amount oI traIIic as in 2.2 km site separation. Due to low load, 100 service
probability can be achieved using any tilt angle. The number oI SHO connections is
decreasing, and number oI SIHO connections increasing as a Iunction oI tilt angle like
in previous scenario. In Figure 5-9 DL average sector throughputs are depicted as a
Iunction oI antenna tilt angle.
Parameter 0 2 4 6 8
Service probability || 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
SHO probability || 16.8 16.5 13.9 11.8 10.1
SIHO probability || 3.9 4.0 4.5 6.0 9.2
UL load || 35.8 35.7 35.0 34.8 35.6
UL i 0.46 0.45 0.42 0.41 0.44
Throughput |kbit/s/sector| 425.2 426.2 419.4 417.3 422.3
DL power |dBm| 35.6 35.5 35.0 34.8 35.2

300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
0 2 4 6 8
Tilt angle |degree|
D
L

t
h
r
o
u
g
h
p
u
t

|
k
b
i
t
/
s
/
s
e
c
t
o
r
|

.

33 dBm
39 dBm

Figure 5-9. Antenna mechanical tilt angle as Iunction oI DL sector throughput,
1.5 km site separation, 25 m antenna height and 6 antenna beam width.
Comparing to curves oI 2.2 km and 1.5 km, it can be observed a change in optimum
tilt angle. Moreover, tilting becomes more signiIicant, because capacity improvement
due to tilting is now approximately 10 compared to zero-tilt scenario. Again,
loading does not seem to have signiIicant eIIect on optimum tilt angle.
In order to see the eIIect oI higher antenna position, base station antennas were raised
to 40 m. Table 5-18 represents corresponding simulation results.

Parameter 0 2 4 6 8 10
SHO probability || 23.5 20.5 16.5 12.6 12.0 10.2
UL load || 38.6 37.1 35.6 34.5 34.3 35.3
UL i 0.58 0.51 0.44 0.40 0.40 0.43
Throughput |kbit/s/sector| 444.7 438.3 426.1 416.4 410.3 423.2
DL power |dBm| 37.5 36.5 35.5 34.7 33.5 34.0

The service probability decrease slightly with higher down tilt angles. This is caused
by the lack oI coverage; particularly at cell border areas. The curves in Figure 5-10
show that capacity oI the network, when the antennas are not tilted, is lower than in
previous scenarios (reIerring to Figures 5-8 and 5-9). While the zero-tilt throughput
values in previous simulations were around 550 kbit/s/sector, it has now decreased to
490 kbit/s/sector. This is caused by higher antenna positions, longer breakpoint
distance, and hence raised interIerence level. However, aIter tilting the antennas, the
capacity oI the network raises steeper than in with lower antenna positions, and
capacity is enhanced by 25. However, the capacity curves are also showing that too
large tilt reduces quickly the coverage, and hence aIIects the capacity oI the network.
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
0 2 4 6 8 10
Tilt angle |degree|
D
L

t
h
r
o
u
g
h
p
u
t

|
k
b
i
t
/
s
/
s
e
c
t
o
r
|

.
33 dBm
39 dBm

Figure 5-10. Antenna mechanical tilt angle as Iunction oI DL sector
throughput, 1.5 km site separation, 40 m antenna height and 6 antenna beam
width.
In the last part oI the mechanical antenna simulations, antennas oI 12 vertical beam
width were used in 1.5 km site separation and 40 m antenna height. As seen Irom the
results in Table 5-19, they Iit in with good match with previous simulations. When the
optimum tilt angle in previous simulations (narrower antenna beam width) was 8,
now it is roughly 14. Moreover, the perIormance oI the network begins to drop
steeper aIter tilting is used too much (Figure 5-11).

Parameter 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Service probability || 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 99.7 99.4
SHO probability || 19.1 17.8 16.7 15.5 14.3 13.2 12.1 11.7 10.3
SIHO probability || 2.8 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.9 4.8 5.6 6.7
UL load || 36.1 35.6 35.2 34.8 34.5 34.4 34.4 34.5 34.9
UL i 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38
Throughput |kbit/s/sector| 431.3 426.7 432.4 419.9 416.9 415.0 414.4 414.0 417.8
DL power |dBm| 35.9 35.5 35.3 35.0 34.7 34.6 34.6 34.4 34.7

300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Tilt angle |degree|
D
L

t
h
r
o
u
g
h
p
u
t

|
k
b
i
t
/
s
/
s
e
c
t
o
r
|

.
33 dBm
39 dBm

Figure 5-11. Antenna mechanical tilt angle as Iunction oI DL sector
throughput, 1.5 km site separation, 40 m antenna height and 12 antenna
vertical beam width.
A network equipped with electrically tilted antennas behaves diIIerently due to
diIIerent behaviour oI antenna radiation pattern. In Iollowing simulations, results oI
network utilising electrically down tilted antennas are presented in case oI 2.2 km site
separation and 25 m antenna height. The results in Table 5-20 and Figure 5-12 show
the perIormance oI electrically tilted antennas.
Table 5-20. Results oI antenna electrical tilt, 2.2 km site separation, 25 m antenna height, 6 antenna
vertical beam width and average load.
Parameter 0 2 4 6
SHO probability || 21.6 17.8 17.4 16.1
UL load || 47.5 44.8 44.4 39.1
Throughput |kbit/s| 389.8 390.7 391.4 356.0
DL power |dBm| 34.3 33.7 33.8 34.1


The capacity is rising quickly due to decreased interIerence but it also drops very
rapidly. This is caused by the degradation oI coverage due to the properties oI the
electrical tilt. The deteriorated coverage conditions can be seen as decreased service
probability and also as decreased sector throughput. The changes in SHO probability
are like in mechanical tilt. However, the number oI SIHO is nearly constant as seen
Irom the results.
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
0 2 4 6
Tit angle |degree|
D
L

t
h
r
o
u
g
h
p
u
t

|
k
b
i
t
/
s
/
s
e
c
t
o
r
|

.
33 dBm
39 dBm

Figure 5-12. Antenna electrical tilt angle as Iunction oI DL sector throughput,
1.5 km site separation, 25 m antenna height and 6 antenna vertical beam
width.
In the last simulations, the site separation was decreased to 1.5 km. Table 5-21 shows
that the coverage perIormance oI electrically down tilted antennas is improved, and
thus the service probability is nearly 100. The diIIerence in SHO probabilities is
also more obvious than with larger site separation. Sector throughput curves in Figure
5-13 show good agreement with results in table. Sector throughput is rising as a
Iunction oI tilt angle since the coverage is attained. Moreover, achieved capacity is
slightly better than with mechanically tilted antennas.
Table 5-21. Results oI the simulations oI electrically tilted antennas in 1.5 km site separation, 25 m
antenna height and 6 antenna vertical beam width.
Parameter 0 2 4 6
SHO probability || 24.1 19.4 17.3 15.0
UL load || 45.0 41.1 40.5 38.2
Throughput |kbit/s| 368.3 350.2 343.0 337.5
DL power |dBm| 34.1 33.5 33.2 32.9


300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
0 2 4 6
Tilt angle |degree|
D
L

t
h
r
o
u
g
h
p
u
t

|
k
b
i
t
/
s
/
s
e
c
t
o
r
|

.
33 dBm
39 dBm

Figure 5-13. Antenna electrical tilt angle as Iunction oI DL sector throughput,
1.5 km site separation, 25 m antenna height and 6 antenna vertical beam
width.

6 Discussion and Conclusions
The topology planning phase in the UMTS radio network planning process deIines the
Iinal network layout in sense oI base station site locations and conIigurations together
with antenna conIigurations. The purpose oI this thesis was to explore the eIIects oI
these technical elements on the UMTS network system perIormance using a radio
network planning tool.
The base station location deviation Irom hexagonal grid and base station antenna
direction was Iound to have negligible impact on the UMTS network perIormance
when higher indoor coverage probabilities were demanded. Moreover, the robustness
oI the network remained, even iI diIIerent traIIic models were utilised. However, iI
lower coverage probabilities are required, the network perIormance degradation due to
base station site location deviation is more obvious. Furthermore, antenna direction
deviations could have more crucial role, iI the base station antennas would have had
wider horizontal beamwidths. From practical planning point oI view, this means that
optimising the base station location, especially in urban areas, is not as critical issue as
optimising base station antenna conIiguration.
Coverage overlapping is always needed in order to achieve tight coverage thresholds
oI indoor users. To achieve suIIicient coverage, base stations have to be placed closer
to each other. In WCDMA-based UMTS networks, this increases the other-cell
interIerence, and does not allow as much capacity enhancements due to higher
loading. However, the eIIect oI increased coverage overlapping on network
perIormance was concluded to be quite small.
Sectoring clearly improves the capacity oI a UMTS network, and moreover, antenna
horizontal beamwidth plays an important role in sectoring. Using narrower antenna
beamwidths at the base station sites, the other-cell interIerence can be controlled, and
larger sectoring eIIiciency observed.
Base station antenna down tilt is an eIIicient way to control the other-cell interIerence.
Especially, electrical down tilt reduces eIIiciently the interIerence, but a too large
down tilt angle decreases the coverage as well, and hence deteriorates the network
perIormance. Furthermore, mechanical down tilt reduces the interIerence and allows
moderate capacity enhancements. From radio network planning point oI view, higher
antenna position and larger down tilt angle appears to give optimum solutions.
All the simulations presented in this thesis are highly dependable on the selected
simulation parameters, and hence the results and absolute values could be
considerably changed iI diIIerent parameters were utilised. Despite, the interrelated
results oI diIIerent simulation scenarios are believed to be quite close to the expected
UMTS network behaviour.

References

|1| William C. Y. Lee, Mobile Communications design Fundamentals, 2
nd
ed., John
Wiley & Sons, 1993.
|2| William C. Y. Lee, Mobile Communications Engineering, The McGraw-Hill
Companies, 2
nd
ed., 1998.
|3| Lars Ahlin, Jens Zander, Principles of Wireless Communication, 2
nd
ed.,
Studentlitteratur, 1998.
|4| D. Parson, The mobile radio propagation channel, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.
|5| Steele R, Lee C-C, Gould P, GSM, cdmaOne and 3G Svstems John Wiley &
Sons Ltd, Chichester, 2001.
|6| Jukka Lempiinen, Matti Manninen, Radio Interface Svstem Planning for
GSM/GRPS/UMTS, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001.
|7| F.M. LandstorIer, Wave Propagation models for the Planning of Mobile
Communication Networks, Proceedings oI the 29
th
European Microwave
ConIerence, Munich, Vol. 1, pp. 1-6, October 1999.
|8| Magdy F. Iskander, Zhengqing Yun, Propagation Prediction Models for the
Wireless Communication, IEEE Transactions on the Microwave Theory and
Techniques, vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 662 673, March 2002.
|9| M. Hata, Empirical Formula for Propagation Loss in Land Mobile radio
Services, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 29, no. 3, 1980.
|10| Y .Okumura et al., Field Strength and its Jariabilitv in JHF and UHF Land
Mobile Radio Service, Review oI the Electrical Communications Laboratory,
vol. 16, 1968.
|11| S. Glisic, B. Vucetic, Spread Spectrum CDMA Svstems for Wireless
Communications, Artech House, 1997.
|12| Jaana Laiho, Achim Wacker, Tomas Novosad, Radio Network Planning and
Optimisation for UTMS, John Wiley & Song Ltd, 2002.
|13| T. Ojanper, R. Prasad, Wideband CDMA for Third Generation Mobile
Communications, Artech House Publisher, London, 1998.
|14| Klein S. Gilhousen, Irwin M. Jacobs, Roberto Padovani, Andrew J. Viterbi,
Lindsay A. Weaver Jr., Charles E. Wheatley, On the Capacitv of a Cellular
CDMA Svstem, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 40, no. 2, pp.
303 312, May 1991.
76

|15| 3GPP web site, http://www.3GPP.org
|16| ITU web site, http://www.itu.int
|17| IMT-2000 web site, http://www.itu.int/imt
|18| Harri Holma, Antti Toskala, WCDMA for UMTS, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2001.
|19| ETSI web site, http://www.etsi.org
|20| Ramjee Prasad, Werner Mohr, Walter Konhuser, Third Generation Mobile
Communication Svstems, Artech House, 2000.
|21| Klein S. Gilhousen, Irwin M. Jacobs, Roberto Padovani, Andrew J. Viterbi,
Lindsay A. Weaver Jr., Charles E. Wheatley, On the Capacitv of a Cellular
CDMA Svstem, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 40, no. 2, pp.
303 312, May 1991.
|22| 3GPP, Technical SpeciIication, 25.214, Phvsical Laver Procedures (FDD),
Release 1999.
|23| Kari Sipil, Jaana Laiho-SteIIens, Achim Wacker, Mika Jsberg, Modelling the
Impact of the Fast Power Control on the WCDMA Uplink, Proceedings on the
Vehicular Technology ConIerence, VTC 1999, p. 1266-1270.
|24| M. P. J. Baker, T. J. Moulsley, Power Control in UMTS Release 99, The First
ConIerence on 3G Mobile Communication Technologies, pp. 36 40, 2000.
|25| Jaana Laiho-SteIIens, Mika Jsberg, Kari Sipil, Achim Wacker, Arto Kangas,
Comparison of three diversitv handover algorithms bv using measured
propagation data, IEEE Proceedings Vehicular Technology ConIerence, pp.
1370 1374, Spring 1999.
|26| Dirk Staehle, Kenji Leibnitz, Klaus Heck, Effects of Soft Handover on the UMTS
Downlink Performance, IEEE Proceedings Vehicular Technology ConIerence,
pp. 960 964, Fall 2002.
|27| Chin-Chun Lee, Raymond Steele, Effect of Soft an Softer Handoffs on CDMA
Svstem Capacitv, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 47, no. 3,
pp. 830 841, August 1998.
|28| 3GPP, Technical SpeciIication, 25.922, Radio resource management strategies,
Release 1999.
|29| J. Laiho, A. Wacker, Radio network planning process and methods for
WCDMA, Annals oI Telecommunications, vol. 56, no. 5-6, pp. 317-331,
May/June 2001.
|30| Thomas Neubauer, Ernst Bonek, Impact of the Jariation in the Background
Noise Floor on UMTS Svstem Capacitv, IEEE Proceedings oI Vehicular
Technology ConIerence, pp. 2435 2439, Spring 2001.
|31| 790 - 2500 MHz Base Station Antennas Ior Mobile Communications, Kathrein,
www.kathrein.de.
|32| P. R. Gould, Radio Planning of Third Generation Networks in Urban Areas,
Third International ConIerence on 3G Mobile Communication Technologies,
pp. 64 -68, 2002.
77

|33| W.C. Jakes, Jr., (ed.), Microwave Mobile Communications, Wiley-Interscience,
1974.
|34| Kalle Ruttik, Capacitv calculation for CDMA network planning, Licentiate`s
Thesis in Electrical and Communications Engineering, Helsinki University oI
Technology, Communications Laboratory, September 1999.
|35| Kimmo Hiltunen, Riccardo De Bernardi, WCDMA Downlink Capacitv
Estimation, IEEE Proceedings oI Vehicular Technology ConIerence, pp. 992
996, Spring 2000.
|36| Dina Adiego, Christophe Cordier, Multi-service Radio Dimensioning for UMTS
Circuit-Switched Services, IEEE Proceedings oI Vehicular Technology
ConIerence, pp. 2745 2749, Fall 2001.
|37| Jaana Laiho, Radio Network Planning and Optimisation for WCDMA, Thesis Ior
the Degree oI Doctor oI Science in Technology, Helsinki University oI
Technology, Radio Laboratory, July 2002.
|38| K. Sipil, Z. Honkasalo, J. Laiho-SteIIens, A. Wacker, Estimation of Capacitv
and Required Transmission Power of WCDMA Downlink Based on a Downlink
Pole Equation, IEEE Proceedings oI Vehicular Technology ConIerence, pp.
1002 1005, Spring 2000.
|39| Jaana Laiho-SteIIens, Achim Wacker, Kari Sipil, Kari Heiska, The impact of
the subscriber profile on WCDMA radio network performance, IEEE
Proceedings Vehicular Technology ConIerence, pp. 2490 2494, Fall 1999.
|40| Li-Chun Wang, Kapil Chawla, Larry J. Greenstein, Performance Studies of
Narrow-Beam Trisector Cellular Svstems, IEEE Proceedings oI Vehicular
|41| A.G. Spilling and A.R. Nix, Aspects of Self-Organisation in Cellular Networks,
The Ninth International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio
Communications, pp. 682 686, September 1998.
|42| Vladan M. Jovanovic, James Gazzola, Capacitv of Present Narrowband Cellular
Svstems. Interference-Limited or Blocking-Limited, IEEE Transactions on
Personal Communications, vol. 4, issue 6, pp. 42-51, December 1997.
|43| Timothy X. Brown, Cellular Performance Bounds via Shotgun Cellular Svstems,
IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 18, no. 11, pp. 2443-
2455, November 2000.
|44| Maciej J. Nawrocki, Tadeusz W. Wieckowski, Optimal Site and Antenna
Location for UMTS Output Results of 3G Network Simulation Software, 14
th

International ConIerence on Microwaves, Radar and Wireless Communications,
pp. 890 893, 2002.
|45| Satoshi Asari, Arun Jalan, Nirmal Velayudhan, Performance analvsis of the
forward link in a power controlled CDMA network, IEEE Proceedings Vehicular
|46| Achim Wacker, Jaana Laiho-SteIIens, Kari Sipil, Kari Heiska, The Impact of
the Base Station Sectorisation on WCDMA Radio Network Performance, IEEE
Proceedings oI Vehicular Technology ConIerence, pp. 2611-2615, Fall 1999.
78

|47| Tony W. Wong, Vasant K. Prabhu, Optimum Sectori:ation for CDMA 1900 Base
Stations, IEEE Proceedings Vehicular Technology ConIerence, pp. 1177 1181,
Spring 1997.
|48| Jarno Niemel, Jukka Lempiinen, Impact of the Base Station Antenna
Beamwidth on Capacitv in WCDMA Cellular Networks, IEEE Proceedings oI
Vehicular Technology ConIerence, pp. 80 84, Spring 2003.
|49| B. Christer V. Johansson, Sara SteIansson, Optimi:ing Antenna Parameters for
Sectori:ed W-CDMA Networks, IEEE Proceedings oI Vehicular Technology
ConIerence, pp. 1524-1531, Fall 2000.
|50| Edward Benner, Abu B. Sesay, Effects of Antenna Height, Antenna Gain, and
Pattern Downtilting for Cellular Mobile Radio, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular
Technology, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 217 224, May 1996.
|51| Jung-Shyr Wu, Jen-Kung Chung, Chang-Chung Wen, Hot-Spot Traffic relief
with a Tilted Antenna in CDMA Cellular Networks, IEEE Transactions on
Vehicular Technology, Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 1 9, February 1998.
|52| Dong Hee Kim, Dong Do Lee, Ho Joon Kim, Keum Chan Whang, Capacitv
Analvsis of Macro/Microcellular CDMA with Power Ratio Control and Tilted
Antenna, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 34
42, January 2000.
|53| Ho-Shin Cho, Young-Il Kim, Dan Keun Sung, Protection against Cochannel
Interference from Neighboring Cells Using Down-Tilting of Antenna Beams,
IEEE Proceedings Vehicular Technology ConIerence, pp. 1553 1557, Spring
2001.
|54| Scott C. Bundy, Antenna Downtilt Effects on CDMA Cell-Site Capacitv, Radio
and Wireless ConIerence, pp. 99-102, 1999.
|55| David J. Y. Lee, Ce Xu, Mechanical Antenna Downtilt and its Impact on Svstem
Design, IEEE Proceedings oI Vehicular Technology ConIerence, vol. 2, pp. 447-
451, 1997.
|56| I. Forkel, A. Kemper, R. Pabst, R. Hermans, The Effect of Electrical and
Mechanical Antenna Down-Tilting in UMTS Networks, IEE Proceedings oI 3G
Mobile Communication Technologies, pp. 86-90, 2002.
|57| Jaana Laiho-SteIIens, Achim Wacker, Pauli Aikio, The Impact of the Radio
Network Planning and Site Configuration on the WCDMA Network Capacitv and
Qualitv of Service, IEEE Proceedings Vehicular Technology ConIerence, pp.
1006 1010, Spring 2000.
|58| Nokia NetAct Planner, Monte Carlo Algorithm Description, Application Note.
|59| Edoardo Amaldi, Antonio Capone, Federico Mallucelli, Francesco Signori,
UMTS Radio Planning. Optimi:ing Base Station Configuration, Proceedings on
the Vehicular Technology ConIerence, pp. 768-772, VTC 2002.

Antenna Wcdma

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Deskripsi Asli:

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Antenna Wcdma

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Anda mungkin juga menyukai