Introduction to Biomechanics Review of Mathematics and Mechanics Properties of Biological Materials Methodology in Biomechanical Studies Clinical Biomechanics Sports

Biomechanics Occupational Biomechanics

2003 Huei-Ming Chai at School of Physical Therapy, National Taiwan University, Taipei All Right Reserved

Introduction to Biomechanics
Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to 1. 2. 3. 4. describe the definition of Biomechanics understand the development of Biomechanics identify the scope of biomechanical studies and their applicaton explain the common used physical quantities and their symbols

About Biomechanics Definition of Biomechanics Development of Biomechanics Scopes of Biomechanics Physical Quantity

1. Chaffin & Andersson, 1999: Chap 1 2. Luttgens, K. & Hamilton, N., 2002 Chap 1

About Biomechanics

Who should take this class?

physical therapist/ occupational therapist orthopedic/ occupational medicine/ rehabilitation medicine physician or nurse industrial/ production/ manufacturing/ process engineer ergonomist/ biomechanist/ kinesiologist coach/ athlete/ sports manager industrial hygienist/ safety manager/ labor relations manager forensic medicine physician, staff, spy..... entertainment specialist/ actor or actress dancer/ painter

Applications of Biomechanics

Physical Therapy Occupational Therapy Medicine o Orthopedics o Sports medicine o Rehabilitation medicine o Occupational medicine o Forensic medicine Engineering o Ergonomics (Industrial medicine) o bioengineering Kinesiology (Movement science) Arts o performance arts o fine arts o entertainment arts

Definition of Biomechanics
Board Definition of Biomechanics
the application of the principle of the physics and mechanical engineering sciences to the problem in the context of the living systems, which is a multidisciplinary study including

Physical properties of biological materials Biological signals and their measurements Biomechanical modeling and simulation Applications of biomechanics

Limited Definition of Biomechanics

the science that examines forces acting upon and within a biological structure and effects produced by such forces (Hay, 1973)

forces external and internal forces effects 1. movements of segments of interest 2. deformation of biological materials 3. biological changes in the tissues

Knowledge Needed in Biomechanical Studies

Mathematics Physics Mechanics o statics o dynamics o fluid mechanics Biology and Medicine Neurophysiology Behavior science

Development of Biomechanics
*** Please read Chaffin's book chapter 1 ***

Galioleo Galilei William Harvey Stephen Hales YC Fung WT Dempster Don B Chaffin David Winter Frankel and Nordin

Scopes of Musculoskeletal Biomechanical Research

Research directions of musculoskeletal biomechanical research

structure and/or physical properties of muscle, tendon, ligament, capsule, cartilage, and bone effect of load and underload of speciifc strutures

factors influencing performance

Subjects for human biomechanical studies

elderly vs. young kids vs adults women vs. men disable vs. able people athelets vs. sedentary people workers vs. non-workers

Methodology in Biomechanical Studies

anthropometric method performance limit evaluation kinesiology method o kinematic method o kinetic method biomechanical modelling method task analysis method

Physical Quantities

When you can measure what you are speaking out and express it in numbers, you know something about it!! -- Lord Kelvin Physical Quantity the quantity that can be used in the mathematical equations of science and technology Physical quantity is objective and measurable.

Dimension System
Seven Fundamental Quantities
Length (L) Mass (m) Time (T) Electric Current Temperature Luminous Intensity Amount of Substance Unit Name meter kilogram second ampere degree of Klevin candela mole Unit Symbol m kg s A cd mol

Derived Quantities

displacement (d) velocity (v) = dx/dt acceleration (a) = dv/dt angular velocity () =d/dt force (F) = ma moment of force (M): torque = Fd work (W) = Fd power (P) = W/t energy (E)=mc2 momentum=mv area (A) volume (V) density (D)=m/V pressure (P)=F/A

Dimensionless Quantities

percentage percentile

the 5th percentile the 25th percentile = 1st quartetile the 50th percentile = 2nd quartertile (median) the 75th percentile = 3rd quartetile the 95th percentile the 99th percentile the 100th percentile = 4th quartetile

Unit Conversion
System of Unit

metric system

CGS system MKS system

SI system (Systeme International d'Unites; the International System of Units) for details: http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/index.html English System

Unit of Mass
1 foot (lb) = 0.454 kg 1 kg = 2.205 lb 1 ounce = 28.350 g = 1/16 lb

Unit of Mass
1 foot (ft) = 0.305 m 1 m = 3.281 ft 1 inch = 25.4 mm = 1/12 ft

Standard Prefix
Name Symbol Value yotta Y 1024 tera T 1012 giga G 109 Name Symbol Value deci d 10-1 centi c 10-2 milli m 10-3 micro 10-6 naro n 10-9 pico p 10-12 yocto y 10-24 mega M 106 kilo k 103 hecto h 102 deka da 101

Review of Mathematics and Mechanics

Plane Geometry Plane Trigonometry Vector Basic Statics

Basic Dynamics

Plane Geometry

angles, sides, and area of a triangle

where

angles, sides, and area of a polygon radius, diameter, circumference, and area of a circle arc length and area of a sector of a circle

Plane Trigonometry

define an angle between 2 lines units used to measure angles o degree (deg) o radius (rad) = 57.9 orthogonal projections of a line segment onto two perpendicular axes defintion of sine (sin) definition of cosine (cos) definition of tangent (tan) inverse trigonometric relationship o if sin = a then = sin-1 a o if cos = a then = cos-1 a o if tan = a then = tan-1 a law of sine:

law of cosine: solution of an arbitrary triangle knowing 3 sides to determine the angles knowing 2 sides and 1 angle to find the rest of the angles and sides knowing 2 angles and 1 side to find the rest of the angles and sides area of an arbitrary triangle

o o
where

Vector

scalar vs. vector scalar quantities quantities with magnitude only, e.g. speed of 5 m/s vector quantities quantities with magnitude and direction, e.g. velocity of 5 m/s to right vector addition or subtraction vector decomposition expressed by unit vectors

Review of Basic Statics

External Forces Internal Forces Mechanical Advantage Centroid Equilibrium of the Force System Free Body Diagram Force Couple

External Forces

Types of external forces

gravitational force ground reaction force friction force air or water resistance

Gravitational force (Force of Gravity)

g= 9.81 m/s2 W = mg 1 kg = 9.81 N

Ground reaction forces

force exerted on a body by the ground Fx Fy Fz Mx My Mz

Friction force

resistance of two moving objects Fs = ms N where ms = coefficient of static friction Fk = mk N where mk = coefficient of kinetic friction

Air or Water resistance

Fa = Av2c

Internal Forces
1. muscle force 2. forces from tendon, ligament, and other connective tissues

Mechanical Advantage (MA) of the Lever

Definition

the ratio between the length of the force arm and the length of weight arm

Types of Lever
1. first-class lever 2. second-class lever: force advantage 3. third-class lever: advantage for speed or distance; most in open-kinematic chain motion

Centroid
Definition

the point that defines the geometric center of an object If the material composing a body is homogeneous, the weight can be neglected.

Equilibrium of the Force System

Definition

a condition in which an object is at rest if originally at rest, or has a constant velocity if originally in motion

Newtons Laws of Motion

Only used for a particle with a mass and negligible size moving in a nonaccelerating reference frame first law (law of inertia) o A particle originally at rest, or moving in a straight line with a constant velocity, will remain in this state provided the particle is not subjected to an unbalanced force. o If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, then the particle is in equilibrium. ie. If FR = 0 then v= constant second law (law of acceleration)

A particle acted upon by an unbalanced force experiences an acceleration that has the same direction as the force and a magnitude that is directly proportional to the force o F= k (dmv/dt) = ma third law (law of action and reaction) o the mutual forces of action and reaction between two particles are equal, opposite, and colinear o Faction= -Freaction
o

Equation of equilibrium

requires both a balance of forces, to prevent the body from translating with accelerated motion, AND a balance of moments, to prevent the body from rotating FR = 0 and MR = 0

Free Body Diagram (FBD)

Definition

a sketch of the outlined shape of the body which represents it as being isolated from its surroundings and all forces and couple moments that the surroundings exert on the body

Procedure for drawing a free body diagram

1. imagine the body to be isolated from its surroundings and sketch its outlined shape

2. identify all the external forces and couple moments that act on the body, including applied loads, reaction occurring at the supports or at points of contact with other bodies, and the weight of the body 3. label all forces and couple moments with proper magnitudes and directions

Force Couple

two parallel forces that have the same magnitude, opposite directions, and are separated by a perpendicular distance FR = 0 but

The only effect of a couple is to produce a rotation or a tendency of rotation in a specific direction A couple moment is a free factor which act at any point since the couple moment depends only on the position vector directed between the forces and not the position vectors directed from the point O to the force

Review of Basic Dynamics

Dynamics is the study of the motion of bodies and the unbalanced forces that produce motion

Law of acceleration Mechanical analysis methods used in dynamics Law of acceleration

Newton's 2nd Law (Law of Acceleration) A particle acting upon by an unbalanced force experiences an acceleration that has the same direction as the force and a magnitude that is directly proportional to the force F = m a for a single particle only valid on an inertial frame of reference

Mechanical analysis methods used in dynamics

direct dynamics (forward dynamics)mechanical analysis of a system that determines movement from forces

F known acceleration displacement e.g. using force plate to record forces inverse dynamicsmechanical analysis of a system that determines forces from movement displacement acceleration F e.g. using video-based motion analysis relationship between forces and movement o A defined set of forces results in a specific movement. o A specific movement can be the result of an infinite number of combinations of individual forces acting on a system

Biomechanics of Bone
Basic Concepts About Bone Mechanical Properties of the Bone Factors Affecting Bone Strength and Stiffness Failure of the Bone

1. Nordin & Frankel, 2001: Chapter 2 2. Chaffin & Andersson, 1999

Basic Concepts About Bone

Functions of the Skeletal System

mechanical functions o to protect internal organs o to provide rigid kinematic links o to provide attachments sites for muscles o to facilitate muscle action and bone movement physiological functions o to produce blood cells (hematopioesis) o to maintain calcium metabolism (mineral hemeostasis)

Long Bone

structure based on position o diaphysis o epiphysis

metaphysis

structures based on porosity o cortical bone compact bone, cortex 5-30% of porosity o cancellous bone spongy bone 30-90% of porosity

Bone Modeling and Remodeling

bone modeling the process by which bone mass increased to alter the size, shape, and structure of the bone bone remodeling the process by which bone mass adapts, by change its size, shape, and structure, to the mechanical demands placed upon it Wolff's Law o static stress model o Bone is deposited where needed and resorbed where not needed. o current concept Bone modeling and remodeling occurs in response to the mechanical demands placed upon it.

Mechanical Properties of the Bone

Bone Strength

ultimate stress the bone can sustain before failure o failure point in the stress-strain curve ultimate strain the bone can sustain before failure energy the bone can store before failure o size of the area under the entire curve

Bone Stiffness

the slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic region metal >> glass > bone

Anisotropic Behavior of the Bone

anisotropy the property of a material which exhibits different mechanical properties when loaded in different direction Stiffness with respect to tension is maximal for axial loads and minimal for perpendicular loads. for ultimate stress of cortical bone: compression > tension > shear

Factors Affecting Bone Strength and Stiffness Gravity

positive correlation between body weight and bone mass decreased bone mass in the weight bearing joints of astronauts

Muscle Activity

contraction of muscle alters the stress distribution in the bone

contraction of the gluteus medius muscle produces great compressive stress on the superior cortex of the neck of the femur, neutralizing the tensile stress and thereby allowing the femoral neck sustain more load

Strain Rate Dependency

The stiffness of a bone changes with the rate of loading

when loads are applied at higher rate within the physiological limit, the bone o becomes stiffer o sustains a higher load to failure o stores more energy before failure when a bone fractures, the stored energy is released. o single bone crack for a low-energy fracture

o o

comminuted fracture of bone for a higher-energy fracture severe destruction of bone before failure

Fatigue of Bone Under Repetitive Loading

Stress fracture may occur when a load of lower magnitude is applied repetitively. o march fracture
o

spondylolithesis

Bone Geometry

Immobilization

Degeneration

Artificial Defects

stress raiser defect length < bone diameter

o o

the stresses concentrate around the defect the weakening effect is marked under torsion loading

example compression hip screw only the shear stresses at the periphery of the bone resist the torsion the shear stresses at the interior of the bone run in the same direction of the torsion.

open section defect defect length > bone diameter

o o

example bone graft

Failure of the Bone

Failure of bone may occur when the applied stresses exceed the ultimate strength limit, which may result from excessive stresses, or weak material, or both.

Possible causes of bone failure

o o o o

excessive acting forces unfavorable acting moments small bone dimension excessive repetition of load application

Biomechanics of Collagenous Tissues

Basic Concepts About Collagenous Tissues Mechanical Properties of the Collagen Fiber Factors Affecting Strength of Collagenous Tissues

1. Nordin & Frankel, 2001: Chapter 3 & 4 2. Chaffin & Andersson, 1999

Basic Concepts About Collagenous Tissues

Classification of Collagenous Tissues

dense connective tissue o ligament tensile stress o tendon tensile stress loose connective tissues o capsule tensile stress o skin tensile stress cartilage o articular cartilage compressive/ shear stress o fibrocartilage compressive/ shear stress

Components of Collagenous Tissues

cell fibrobalst or chondrocyte extracellular matrix o fiber collagen fiber for strength elastin fiber for flexibility retin fiber for mass o ground substance

Mechanical Properties of the Collagen Fibers

Structure

the most abundant protein in the body to resist tensile stress tropocollagen 3 procollagen polypeptide chains ( chains) coiled about each other into a right-handed triple helixes

Types
Type I found in bone, tendon, ligament, and skin Type II found in articular cartilage, nasal septum, and sternal cartilage

Tensile Strength

Compressive Strength
only able to resist low compression loads buckle under compression load slenderness ratio ratio of length to thickness

Creep Phenomenon
progressive deformation of a viscoelastic structure with time as the amount of load remains constant

Load Relaxation Phenomenon

progressive decrease in load with time as the deformation of the structure remains constant

Hysteresis ()
Energy stored in a viscoelastic material when a load is given and then relaxed.

aged heel pad poor ability to absorb the shock

Factors Affecting Strength of Collagenous Tissues

Gravity

positive correlation between body weight and bone mass decreased bone mass in the weight bearing joints of astronauts

Muscle Activity

contraction of muscle alters the stress distribution in the bone

contraction of the gluteus medius muscle produces great compressive stress on the superior cortex of the neck of the femur, neutralizing the tensile stress and thereby allowing the femoral neck sustain more load

Strain Rate Dependency

The stiffness of a bone changes with the rate of loading

when loads are applied at higher rate within the physiological limit, the bone o becomes stiffer o sustains a higher load to failure o stores more energy before failure when a bone fractures, the stored energy is released. o single bone crack for a low-energy fracture o comminuted fracture of bone for a higher-energy fracture o severe destruction of bone before failure

Fatigue of Bone Under Repetitive Loading

Stress fracture may occur when a load of lower magnitude is applied repeatitively. o march fracture
o

spondylolithesis

Bone Geometry

Immobilization

Degeneration

Artificial Defects

stress raiserdefect length < bone diameter

o o o

the stresses concentrate around the defect the weakening effect is marked under torsion loading examplecompression hip screw only the shear stresses at the peripheryof the bone resist the torsion the shear stresses at the interior of the bone run in the same direction of the torsion.

open sectiondefect defect length > bone diameter

o o

examplebone graft

Biomechanics of Skeletal Muscle

Basic Concepts About Skeletal Muscle Mechanical Properties of the Skeletal Muscle Factors Affecting Muscle Strength
Objectives: After studying this topic, the student will be able to 1. explain the relationships of fiber types and fiber architecture to muscle function 2. describe the effects of the length-tension and force-velocity relationships 3. identify the factors affecting the mechanical properties of the skeletal muscles

1. Hall, 2003: Chapter 6, pp.145-182 2. Nordin & Frankel, 2001: Chapter 6 3. Chaffin & Andersson, 1999

Basic Concepts About Skeletal Muscle

Functions of the Skeletal Muscle To create motion by producing force To provide strength

Basic Behaviors of the Skeletal Muscle extensibility the ability to be stretched or to increase in length elasticity the ability to return to the original length after a stretch irritability the ability to respond to a a stimulus ability to develop tension the ability to decrease in length Increase in tension does not imply decrease in muscle length.

Mechanical Model of a Muscle contractile component muscle fiber series elastic component (SEC) tendon parallel elastic component (PEC) muscle membrane

Structural Organizaiton of Skeletal Muscle muscle fiber motor unit fiber types fiber architecture parallel fiber arrangement parallel to the longitudinal axis of the muscle, e.g. sartorius, masseter, biceps brachii, etc. pennate fiber arrangement at an angle to the longitudinal axis of the muscle, e.g. rectus femoris, deltoid, etc. the greater the angle of pennation, the smaller the amount of effective force transmitted to the tendon the angle of the pennation increases as tension progressively increases in the muscle fibers

Mechanical Properties of the Skeletal Muscle

Length-Tension Relationship
The tension that a muscle generates varies with its length found when a muscle under isometric contraction and for maximum activation of the muscle In a single muscle fiber, peak force is noted at normal resting length. a bell-shaped length-tension curve

In a muscle, force generation capacity increases when the muscle is slightly stretched because of the effect of both active and passive components.

Force-Velocity Relationship Muscle force decreases as the velocity of contraction increases (Hill, 1938) only true for concentric contraction Muscle force decreases with increased velocity of contraction during concentric contraction whereas it increases with increased velocity of contraction during eccentric contraction.

Eccentric strength of a muscle can exceed isometric strength by a factor of 1.5 to 2.0, but this is true only under electric stimulation of the motor neuron. does NOT indicate that the muscle cannot generate strong force at a fast speed maximum strength can be generated either by recruitment of more motor unit or by increase in muscle length

Stretch-Shortening Cycle (SSC) When a muscle is stretched just prior to contraction, the resulting contraction is more forceful than in the absence of the pre-stretch.

 possible contributors to forceful tension development elastic recoil effect of the series elastic component of the actively stretched muscle stretch reflex of the forced lengthening muscle example: wind-up during baseball pitching

Factors Affecting Muscle Strength

Body Temperature
Muscle function is most efficient at 38.5C (101F). elevated muscle temperature shift in force-velocity curve increased maximum isometric tension nerve conduction velocity frequency of stimulation muscle force enzyme activity efficiency of muscle contraction elasticity of collagen extensibility of muscle muscle force increased maximum velocity of muscle shortening requiring less motor unit to sustain a given load body temperature too high heat exhaustion or heat stroke

Muscle Hypertrophy
by physical training cross-sectional area of muscle fibers number of muscle fibers change in proportion of muscle fiber types by electric stimulation

Muscle Atrophy
cross-sectional area of fibers number of muscle fibers aerobic capacity by changing the proportion of muscle fiber types sedentary people# of type I fibers athletes fiber type affected by that sport

Methodology in Biomechanical Studies

Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to 1. identify the commonly used biomechanical instruments 2. describe the parameters used in biomechanical studies 3. compare the differences among different instruments that have the same function

Kinematic Analysis Rigid Body Kinematics Measurement of Kinematic Variables Processing of Raw Kinematic Data Derived Kinematic Variables

Anthropometric Measurement Application of Anthropometry in Biomechanics Measurement of Body Segment Length Measurement of Body Segment Mass Measurement of Center of Mass Measurement of Moment of Inertia

Kinetic Analysis Force and Strength Basic Kinetics Mechanical Loads on the Human Body Instruments for Measuring Kinetic Variables Derived Kinetic Variables

Relationship between force and body External force acting on the body Internal force generated by the body
Stress and strain

Kinematic Analysis
Rigid Body Kinematics Measurement of Kinematic Variables Processing of Raw Kinematic Data Derived Kinematic Variables

1. Hall, 2003Chapter 2, 10 (pp.318-329), and 11 2. Chaffin & Andersson, 1999 Chapter 5-2

Rigid Body Kinematics

Application of Rigid Body Kinematics
rigid body kinematics the study of motion of a rigid body without concerning its causes (e.g. forces) using 2D or 3D marker positions to determine limb segment position and orientation assumption body segment acts like a rigid body examples reach forward movement can be regarded as a 3-segment movement

contributors Marrey

 Eadweard Muybridge a British landscape photographer

Reviews of Kinematics Terminology

types of motion linear vs. angular motion reference system relative vs. absolute reference system plane of motion3 cardinal plane axis of motion3 axes

Kinematic Variables
Variable name position displacement velocity acceleration linear r (x, y, z) s = r v = dr /dt a = dv /dt angular

= =d /dt =d /dt

Source of Errors in Application of Rigid Body Kinematics

not always represent true skeletal locations relative errors the relative movement of two markers with respect to each other resources skin movement and movement of underlying bony structure error reduction invasive marker placement mathematical algorithms: smoothing techniques marker attachment system absolute errors: the movement of one specific marker with respect to specific bony landmarks of a segment errors from inadequate placement of markers

Measurement of Kinematic Variables

Direct Measurement Techniques
universal goniometer a protractor with two long arms source of errors the location of the goniometer, the palpation of landmarks, and the estimation during reading electric goniometer (elgon) first developed by Karpovich in the late 1950's a goniometer with an electrical potentiometer at its axis continuous graphic recording of relative joint angle

 advantages inexpensive immediate output disadvantages relative data time consuming to fit and align too many straps and cables if a large number are fitted most joints do not move as a hinge cost for recorder or analog-to-digital converter inclinometer a gravity-based goniometer source of errors the location of the inclinometer the different shape of muscles accelerometer a continuous recording of segment acceleration advantages inexpensive immediate output disadvantages relative data cost for recorder or analog-to-digital converter too many straps and cables if a large number are fitted sensitive to shock and easily broken noises increase during rapid movement or movement involving impact system combining photocells, light beams, and timer two or more records of time when each photocell is intercepted by the light beam and then the motion velocity can be calculated as the distance between two photocells divided by the recorded time.

Optoelectric Image Measurement Techniques

types of techniques classified by markers used LED (light-emitting diode) reflective markers classified by sampling frequency 60 Hz 120 Hz 240 Hz advantages both absolute and relative reference system data unlimited markers minimal movement encumbrance able to be re-played frame by frame saving storage disadvantages expensive need well-trained persons time consuming laboratory used only considerations the clarity of the captured image the number of cameras used more than 2 cameras is needed for a 3D image the placement of cameras

Other Image Measurement Techniques

cinematography 8/ 16 mm movie camera television + videography 50/ 60Hz video camera advantages widespread availability, durability, and easy in use multiple exposure

 ultrasound-based image system Zebris magnetic-based image system

Processing of Raw Kinematic Data

Time-Domain Analysis
the signals are expressed as a time-dependent waveform an alternating signal is one that is continuously changing with time

Frequency-Domain Analysis
the signals are expressed as a frequency-dependent waveform, which can be the sum of a number of sine and cosine wave V(t) = VDC + V1sin( 0t + 1) + V2sin(2 0t + 2) + + Vnsin(n 0t + n) where 0 = 2 f0 n = the phase angle of the nth harmonic

 Fourier series the sum of the proper amplitudes of the harmonics Harmonic analysis (Fourier Transformation) the mathematic process to transform given time-varying data to their frequency components

Digitization
Why needs digitalization? Continuous signal measurement is the most desirable because no data are lost. However, computer-based systems require periodic measurements since by their nature, computers can only accept discrete numbers at discrete intervals of time analog to digital converter

 Analog signals are continuous in time and amplitude. Digital signals are discrete in time and amplitude.

Sampling Theorem the process signal must be sampled at a frequency at least twice as high as the highest frequency present in the signal itself If the signal is sampled at a too-low frequency, the aliasing error are obtained.

Smoothing and Filtering

Most of the signals from daily human movements are contained in the lower 12-14 harmonics. Source of noises electronic noise in optoelectric devices spatial precision of the TV scan or film digitization system error in film digitizing residual analysis

Derived Kinematic Variables Displacement

the change of position that an object moves from one place to another a vector quantity that represents the straight-line distance and direction from point A to point B displacement vs. distance distance magnitude of displacement, why? distance may be equal or greater than the magnitude of displacement

Velocity
change in position divided by change in time the first derivative of linear displacement

 assumptions the raw displacement data have been smoothed by digital filtering the line joining xi+1 to xi-1 has the same slope as the line drown tangent to the curve at xi velocity vs. speed

Acceleration
the rate of change in velocity i.e. the change in velocity in a given time interval the second derivative of linear displacement

or assumptions the raw displacement data have been smoothed by digital filtering the line joining xi+1 to xi-1 has the same slope as the line drown tangent to the curve at xi

Angle
a vector quantity that is composed of two sides which intersect at a vertex segment angle (absolute angle) the angle of one body segment which is measured in a counter-clockwise direction starting with the horizontal plane equal to 0

the absolute angle in space

 joint angle (relative angle) the angle between longitudinal axes of two adjacent segments joint angle at the anatomical position is defined as zero

How to calculate angular velocity or angular acceleration?? What is the relationship between linear and angular kinematic variables?

Measurement of Anthropometric Data

Application of Anthropometry in Biomechanics Measurement of Body Segment Length Measurement of Body Segment Mass Measurement of Center of Mass Measurement of Moment of Inertia

1. Hall, 2003Chapter 3 2. Chaffin & Andersson, 1999 Chapter 3 & 4

Application of Anthropometry in Biomechanics

Definition of Anthropometry
the study investigating the physical dimensions or other properties of the human body to determine the differences in the individuals and groups the science that deals with the measure of size, mass, shape, and inertia properties of the human body (Chaffin & Andersson, 1999)

Examples in Movement Science

length of body segment joint center of rotation angle of pull of tendons length and cross-sectional area of muscles

Knowledge Needed in Anthropometry

mathematics physics biomechanics biostatistics

Materials Used in Anthropometric Research

living body cadaver fresh or frozen

Measurement of One Body Segment

Length of Body Segment Link
In motion analysis, the human body is considered to be a system of mechanical links, with each link of known physical size and form determination of link the line draw along the longitudinal axis of the segment determination of center of rotation the intersection of two segment links during motion link length = the distance between two centers of rotation error <5%

Estimation of Link Length Using Bony Landmark

Dempster, 1955 identification of bony landmark located near the joint center of rotation link length = the distance between two bony landmarks R2 >0.9 link vs. segment link-to-length ratio (%) humerus 89.0% radius 107.0% hand 20.6% femur 91.4% tibia 110.0% foot 30.6%

Expressed Segment Length as a Percentage of Body Height

Drillis and Contini, 1966: grouped link % of BH total arm 44% single link % of BH upper arm 18.6% forearm 14.6% hand 10.8% thigh 28.5% low leg 24.6% foot 3.9% Note: real foot length=15.2%

total leg at stance

53.0%

Measurement of Body Segment Mass

definition of mass
a physical quantity of matter composing a body symbol m unit kg(kilogram) in SI unit Can you distinguish mass from weight?

measurement of segment weight

If the location of the center of mass of the segment is known, then the weight of each segment can easily be calculated. Please see the next section Averaged density of the whole body d = 0.69 + 0.9 (h / w1/3) Segment density immersion techniques the density of distal segment is greater than that of proximal density Segment mass expressed by the percentage of the total mass

grouped segment head and neck torso

% of total body individual segment weight head 8.4% neck 50.0% thorax lumbar

% of grouped segment 73.8% 26.2% 43.8% 29.4%

total arm

5.1%

total leg

15.7%

pelvis upper forearm hand thigh shank foot

26.8% 54.9% 33.3% 11.8% 63.7% 27.4% 8.9%

Measurement of Center of Mass

Definition of Center of Mass (COM)
the point where the entire weight of the body is concentrated the point in a body about which all the parts exactly balance each other NoteCan you distinguish the center of mass from the center of gravity (COG) or from the center of pressure (COP)?

Suspension Technique
A body segment is suspended in a frame from only one point and then the point where the gravity effect is equaled is the location of the center of mass

Moment Subtraction Method

developed by Williams & Lissner, 1977 example I to measure the location of COM of a segment composed of the low leg and foot given segment weight W 1. have the subject lie prone on a scale

2. measure the length from head to scale, L 3. measure the weight on the scale S 4. then have the subject bend one leg 5. measure the length from head to knee, X' 6. read the value on the scale, S' 7. the location of the COM of the low leg and foot is equal to (X-X') from the knee joint

example II to measure the mass of the segment composed of the low leg and foot given location of the COM of the segment composed of the low leg and foot the mass of the low leg and foot is

Segmental Zone Approach

developed by Miller & Nelson, 1976 Please check Chaffin's book for details

Ratios of Location of COM to Segment Length

Different values have been reported form different studies due to variations in the definition of segment length and different measurement techniques. Please check Chaffin's book for details segment % from proximal end upper arm 43.6% forearm 43.0%% hand 49.4% thigh 43.3%% shank 43.3% foot 42.9%%

Measurement of Moment of Inertia

Definition of Moment of inertia
a physical quantity that an object resists to change or to action or where mi = mass of the ith segment ri = perpendicular distance that the mass is located from a given axis of rotation of the ith segment moment of inertia acting around the axis of a joint

 moment of inertia acting around the axis of a joint

Kinetic Analysis of Human Motion

Basic Kinetics Loads Acting on the Human Body Instruments for Measuring Kinetic Variables Derived Kinetic Variables

1. Hall, 2003Chapter 3, 12, and 14 2. Chaffin & Andersson, 1999 pp. 101-124, 146-158, 167-170

Basic Kinetics
Force
an action that changes the state of rest or motion to which it is applied

 The action of a force results in acceleration of a body F = ma SI unit Newton (N) 1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/s2) external force vs. internal force strength maximum force that a body can generate or be loaded Body an object that may be real or imaginary but represents a definite quantity of matter (mass), with certain dimensions, occupying a definite position in space rigid body vs. deformable body Effect of forces on a body in dynamic sense linear motion (translation) in the direction of net force rotary motion (rotation) in the direction of net moment in static sense static equilibrium if the body is rigid or if the stress is low or if the duration is short deformation (shape changes) if the body is deformable long-term effect on human body biological changes growth injuries degeneration Stress and Strain stress the intensity of force per unit area normal stress the intensity of internal force acting perpendicular to a plane =F/A shear stress the intensity of internal force acting tangent to a plane =F/A SI unit = N / m2 = Pa (Pascal)

 strain the degree of deformation per unit area normal strain the ratio of the change in length to the original length = L / L tensile strain is positive while compressive strain is negative shear strain the intensity of internal force acting tangent to a plane =d/h SI unit noraml strain = % shear strain = rad stress-strain curve elasticity the ability of a body to resume its original size and shape on removal of the applied loads elastic (Young's) modulus E = / modulus of rigidity (shear modulus) G = / plasticity yield point failure point

strength maximum force that a body can generate or be loaded e.g. muscle strength or strength of a material

Loads Acting on Human Body

Types of External Loads tensile stress the force applied perpendicular to the body and take it apart the body tends to be elongated in the direction of the applied forces one kind of normal force

 compressive stress the force applied perpendicular to the body and put it together the body tends to be shrink in the direction of the applied forces one kind of normal force shear stress the force acting in directions tangent to the area resisting the force also named as tangential force

bending stress failure under bending stress three point bending: failure at the point of the middle force four point bending: failure at the weakest point

 torsion stress

combined stress

Factors Affecting the Extent of Deformation

mechanical properties size of the body shape of the body temperature humidity magnitude, direction, and duration of applied forces

Instruments for Measuring Kinetic Variable

Instruments for Measuring Muscle Forces electromyography (EMG) the technique of recording electric activity produced by the muscle muscle activity the change in electric current or voltage as tension is developed by a muscle EMG signals changes in electrical potential across the muscle finer membrane resting potential of a muscle fiber = -90mV action potential of a muscle fiber = 30-40 mV< motor unit action potential (MUAP): EMG signal from the depolarization of a motor unit< to use electrodes recording the level of muscle activity at a given time interval types of electrode surface electrode

 wire electrode (indwelling electrode) needle electrode parameters activity pattern integrated EMG pecentage of maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) relationship between EMG and force not a linear relationship EMG records the recruitment of motor unit dynamometer localized static strength measurement systems hand-held dynamometer electronic strain gauge disadvantages only measuring peak force seated strength tester

localized dynamic strength measurement systems Cybex isokinetic system dynamometer Kin-Com isokinetic system load cells

whole body static strength measurement system position of load cell can be adjusted to different heights position of load cell can be adjusted to different directions load cell can be attached with different handles whole body dynamic strength measurement system isokinetic lift strength tester using simple electromechanical measuring system for performing a lifting task components of the system i. electronic load cell and velocity transducer connected to a

readout device ii. constant-velocity motor with adjustable speed control

isoinertial strength test (Liftest test) lifting loads with different weights until ones psychophysiological limit is reached used for personnel selection in US military department Factors Affecting Muscle strength gender static strength: female = 65-85% of male knee isokinetic strength: 70-75% of male age greatest around late 20s at age of 40, 5% loss of young at ahe of 60, 20% loss of young anthropometric variables body height lean body weight cross-sectional area of muscle pain physical training

Instrument for Measuring External loads

force transducer a force measuring device that gives an electric signal proportional to the applied force types of transducer capacitive sensor conductor sensor strain gauze piezoelectic sensor capacitive sensor consisting of e electrically conducting plates that lie parallel to each other, separated by a distance that is small compared to the linear dimensions of the plates

 the space between the plates is filled with dielectric (non-conducting electrical material) A change in force produces a change in the thickness of the dielectric material which is inversely proportional to a current which can be measured F 1/Q where F= force, Q= total charge of on each plate

conductor sensor consisting of 2 layers of conductive material and a conductive material in between the space between the plates is filled with conducting material An increase in force produces a decrease in electric resistance between 2 plates

strain gauze made in electric types electrical resistant transducer: wire piezoresistive transducer: silicon piezoelectic sensor non-conducting crystal that exhibits the property of generating an electrical charge when subjected to mechanical strain, e.g. quartz

 compressive forces produce a change in the electric charges on the surfaces where the force has been applied. shear forces produce a change in the electric charges on the surfaces perpendicular to the applied forces advantage: wide range in measurement of force selection of force transducer capacitive or conductor sensors for measuring forces on soft or uneven surfaces or pressure distribution less accurate (20% of error) strain gauze or piezoelectic sensor for measuring forces on rigid body more accurate (5% of error) Instrument for Measuring Ground Reaction Forces force platform system a ground reaction force measuring system that records forces in vertical, lateral, and anteroposterior directions with respect to the plate itself types of force plate four-corner type a rectangular flat plate with 4-triaxial force transducers mounted at each corner central support type one centrally instrumented pillar which supports an upper flat plate pressure plate system a pressure map system that provides graphical or digital map of pressure across the plantar surface of the feet types of pressure plate system mattress type shoe-insert type

Derived Kinetic Variables

Resultant Force

 the net force resulting from the summation of several acting forces on a body FR = Fi SI unit Newton (N) 1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/s2) Pressure the force over a given area P=F/A SI unit Pascal (Pa) 1 Pa = (1 N) / (1 m2) Moment of Force (Torque) the effect of a rotary force acting on a body the product of force and the perpendicular distance from the point of force action to the axis of rotation M = Fd or T = Fd

SI unit Newton-Meter (N-m) 1 N-m = (1 N) (1 m) Momentum quantity of motion the product of the mass and its velocity of a rigid body in motion L = mv SI unit kilogram-second (kg-s) 1 kg-s = (1 kg) (1 s) principle of conservation of momentum in the absence of external forces, the total momentum of a given system remains constant m1v1 = m2v2

 When a collision occurs between two objects, there is a tendency for both objects to continue moving in the direction of motion originally possessed by the object with the greater momentum. The magnitude of the final velocity is v = (m1v1 + m2v2) / (m1 + m2) Impulse a large force applied to a rigid body through a small period of time the product of impulse force and the time over which the forces acts impulse = F t SI unit Newton-second (N-s) 1 N-s = (1 N) (1 s) relationship between impulse and momentum impulse = F t = m a t = m (vi+1 - vi) = m vi+1 - m vi = L Work product of the force along the direction of displacement and the displacement of a rigid body in motion W=Fd SI unit joule (J) 1 J = (1 N) (1 m) Power the work done per unit of time the product of the mass and its velocity of a rigid body in motion P = W / t = F d / t = F v SI unit watts (W) - 1 W = (1 N)(1 m) / (1 s) = (1 J)/ (1 s)

Clinical Biomechanics
Stance and Stability

 COM, COG, and COP Stability and Equilibrium Stability at Quiet Stance Externally-Perturbed Stance Self-Perturbed Stance Walking Locomotion Gait Parameters During Level Walking Kinematics of Level Walking Kinetics of Level Walking Sit to Stand Wheelchair Propelling

Stance and Stability

COM, COG, and COP Stability and Equilibrium Stability at Quiet Stance Stability at Externally-Perturbed Stance Stability at Self-Perturbed Stance
1. Hamilton, N., & Luttgens, K. 2002. Kinesiology, Scientific Basis of Human Motion, 10thed. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Chapter 14, pp. 371-394 and Chapter 15, pp. 399-411 2. Chaffin & Andersson, 1999 Chapter 17 3. Hall, 2003Chapter 13 Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to identify the center of mass, center of gravity, and center of pressure of human body and distinguish their differences describe the methods to measure limit of stability and the factors that affect stability and equilibrium explain the changes in center of mass and center of pressure at quiet stance and during different perturbed tasks

COM, COG, and COP

Posture and Balance

 posture a term to describe the orientation of any body segment relative to the gravitational vector balance a term to describe the dynamics of body posture to prevent falling Definition of Center of Mass (COM) the point where all the mass of a body is concentrated the point about which a body would balance without a tendency to rotate All the linear forces acting on the body is balanced, i.e. F = 0 All the rotary forces acting on the body is balanced, i.e. M = 0 Location of Center of Mass its precise location depending on individual's anatomical structure habitual standing posture current position external support NOTE Location of COM remains fixed as long as the body does NOT change the shape location in human body generally accepted that it is located at ~57% of standing height in males ~ 55% of standing height in females varies with body build, posture, age, and gender infant > child > adult (in % of body height from the floor) methods to estimate the COM of an object suspension method to suspend an irregular-shaped object by a string and let it hang until it ceases to move

segment modeling method weighed average of every segment of the entire body kinetic method double integration of shear forces from the force platform

 clinical method measurement of the PSIS (posterior superior iliac spine) level in the sagittal plane methods to locate the COM of one segment

COM parameters absolute position of the COM in the AP and ML positions excursion of the COM linear acceleration of the COM equals to the difference between the COP and COM COP - dCOM = ka where k = constant a = linear acceleration of the COM since (GRF) (COP) - (BW) (dCOM) = I and so

Center of Pressure (COP)

 the point where the resultant of all ground reaction forces act COP parameters absolute position of the COP in the AP and ML directions excursion of the COP safety margin measurement of the position of the COP single-force-platform method

 two-force-platform method measurement the COP with one foot standing on one force plate and the other foot on the second force plate

Definition of Centroid and COG

centroid the point that defines the geometric center of a body If the material composing a body is homogeneous, the weight can be neglected, i.e. centroid = COM Note: human body is not homogeneous center of gravity (COG) the vertical projection of the center of mass to the ground

Stability and Equilibrium

Classification of Equilibrium
stable equilibrium occurs when an object is placed in such a position that any disturbance effort would raise its COM tend to fall back its original position e.g. BOS or COM unstable equilibrium occurs when an object is placed in such a position that any disturbance effort would lower its COM tend to fall into a more stable position neutral equilibrium occurs when an object is placed in such a position that any disturbance effort would not change the level of its COM tend to fall into a more stable position

Factors Affecting Stability size and shape of base of support (BOS) wide-base stance tandem stance: standing with one foot ahead the other

 stance with crutches

Pai et al., 1997 effects of velocity and position of COM on bas of support height of COM relationship of COG to BOS mass of body friction segmental alignment sensory input visual vestibular system proprioception other somatosensory system psychological or mental status muscle activities postural muscle the muscle that acts to prevent collapse of the skeleton slow twitch fatigue resistant phasic muscle fast muscle physiological and pathological factors

Tasks Used to Study the Stability of Erect Posture quiet stance to maintain static stability externally-perturbed stance to regain dynamic stability

 self-perturbed stance to maintain dynamic stability

Stability at Quiet Stance

Postural Sway
the body sways back and forth like an inverted pendulum, pivoting about the ankle, at quiet stance AP sway (anteroposterior sway) sway in the sagittal plane ~ 5-7 mm at quiet stance in young adults ML sway (mediolateral sway) sway in the frontal plane ~ 3-4 mm during quiet stance in young adults inverted pendulum model the trunk sways around the ankle joint like an inverted pendulum (GRF) (dCOP) = (BW) (dCOG) + I assumptions

1. 2.

BW = GRF body sway around ankle only

3. ankle acts as a hinge joint relationship of COG and COP during quiet stance In the case if the COP ahead the COG (see the sketch below), a counter-clockwise moment (I) is present at the ankle joint, resulting in backward rotation of the trunk and the balance is regained. In the case if the COP behind the COG, a clockwise moment is present at the ankle joint, resulting in forward rotation of the trunk and the balance may be lost and possibly fall forward.

postureal sway strategy the timing and amplitude of the coordinated motor patterns at many joints in order to adjust (reactive or proactive) posture and balance ankle strategy vs. hip strategy factors affecting postureal sway strategy age highly correlated to falls in the elderly fatigue injury

 bracing obesity stability of the external environment

Stability at Externally-Perturbed Stance

dynamic balance the ability that the body regains balance at the moment of giving any externally-perturbed situation methods of external perturbation changes in direction of perturbation by standing on a moving platform horizontal translation sagittal plane translation changes in surrounding environment horizontal translation on a moving platform Nashner (1977) first researcher to study the effect of a moving platform COM sways backwards when the platform moves backwards NOTE Actually, what he did is to measure the COP rather than the COM. bottom-up sequence of activities of the participating muscles

Stability at self-Perturbed Stance

dynamic balance- the ability that the body maintains balance during a functional task

 methods of self perturbation stance with external support, e.g. using crutches or using canes change in base of support, e.g. wide-base stance, tandem stance, or one-leg stance moving one of body parts, e.g. fast arm raise, reach, or leaning closing eyes relationship of COG and COP during forward reach movement

CNS regulates COG by controlling the net ankle moment that is expressed by COP (Fung and Winter, 1996)

Biomechanics of Walking
Locomotion Gait Parameters During Level Walking Kinematics of Level Walking Kinetics of Level Walking

1. Simoneau G.G., 2002. Kinesiology of Walkign. In: Neumann, D.A. (ed). Kinesiology of the Musculoskeletal System: Foundations for Physical Rehabilitation. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby. pp. 523-569. 2. Hamilton, N., & Luttgens, K., 2002. Kinesiology, Scientific Basis of Human Motion, 10thed. Madison, WI, Brown & Benchmark. Chapter 19, pp. 467-494. Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to

 identify different types of locomotion describe a typical gait cycle describe methods to measure the gait and the related parameters to understand ground reaction forces and how it works on the body during level walking explain the changes in kinematics and kinetics during level walking

Locomotion
Definition of Locomotion
the act or power of moving from place to place by means of ones own mechanisms or power the result of the action of the body levers propelling the body

Types of Locomotion
on foot: walking, running, ascending or descending ramp or stairs, or jumping on wheels: bicycling, roller skating, ice skating, or wheelchair propelling on hands and/or knees or hands and feet: walking on hands, creeping or crawling, crutch walking, stunts rotary locomotion: cartwheels, handsprings, or rolls

A Typical Gait Cycle

the duration that occurs from the time when the heel of one leg strikes the ground to the time at which the same leg contacts the ground again 2 phases stance phase (62%) swing phase (38%) A typical gait cycle lasts 1-2 sec, depending on speed.

Stance Phase (Support Phase) the duration when the foot in contact with the ground the duration from heel strike to toe off 3 subphases initial contact period from heel strike to foot flat

 midstance period from foot flat to heel off propulsive period from heel off to toe off

Swing Phase (Recovery Phase) the duration when the foot in the air the duration from toe off to heel strike 3 subphases acceleration midswing deceleration

Gait Parameters During Level Walking

Recording the Gait Cycle
pneumatic switch (Marey, 1873) 1st person to record the duration of sole contact electric switch (Scherb, 1927) using 3 separate switches interrupted-light photography (Murray et al., 1964) pressure transducer (Andriachi et al., 1977) motion analysis system

Time Variables
stance time single support time double support time duration about 22% of the gait cycle totally decrease when the speed of walking increases increase in the elderly or patients with balanced disorders swing time stride or step time

Distance Variables
stride length decrease in the elderly and increase as the speed of walking increases step length wide of base degree of toe-out

Velocity Variables
cadence steps per minute comfortable speed 80-110 steps/min slow speed <70 steps/min fast speed >120 steps/min walking speed distance/unit of time increase with increased cadence and stride length simultaneously decrease with decreased angle of toe out and increased limb length or weight increased speed results in decrease in duration of all the component phases walking velocity Other Kinematic Variables displacement of center of mass angle change of each joint linear acceleration angular acceleration

Kinematics of Level Walking

Displacement of Body COM Walking is a translatory motion of the body that is accomplished by the alternating rotary motions of both lower extremities

 COM moves forward COM beyond anterior edge of BOS the other foot moves forward to BOS Vertical Displacement of Body COM path a sinosoid curve amplitude ~2" highest point: immediately after COM passes over the WB leg lowest point: at the termination of the swing phase of the other leg

Lateral Displacement of Body COM path a sinosoid curve amplitude ~2" to keep the COM over the weight-bearing foot

Kinetics of Level Walking

Forces That Control Walking gravity (body weight) air resistance internal muscle forces ground reaction forces normal component vertical forces shear component anterior-posterior and medial-lateral friction forces

Ground Reaction Forces definition the forces applied to the body by the ground, as opposed to those applied to the ground, when an individual takes a step

in Cartesian ayatem Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz vertical component

double peaks

1st peak at heel strike the action of body momentum 2nd peak at push-off contraction of calf muscle

o o

peak value = 120% BW lower than BW during midstance as a result of balancing the upward momentum of the COM

anterior-posterior component
o

the magnitude and direction of the anterior-posterior shear force depends on the position of the COM relative to the location of the foot

in the posterior direction at heel strike for slowing the forward progression of the body in the anterior direction at toe off for propelling the body forward the larger the step length, the greater the shear forces because of the greater angle of between the lower extremity and the floor

o o

peak value = 20% BW sufficient friction force between foot and ground is necessary for preventing slipping down

the propulsive force of one limb is applied simultaneously to the braking force of the other limb when the weight is transferred from one limb to the other

medial-lateral
o

the magnitude of the medial-lateral shear force depends on the position of the COM relative to the foot

in the lateral direction at heel strike in the medial direction at the rest of stance phase the larger the step width, the greater the shear forces because of the greater angle of between the lower extremity and the floor

o o

peak value = ~5% BW wide variety depending on different foot types

Trajectory of Center of Pressure At heel strike, the COP is located lateral to the midpoint of the heel At midestance, the COP moves more laterally From heel off to toe off, the COP moves medially from the metatarsal heads to the bog toe

Joint Moment
At heel strike, the line of action of the ground reaction forces passes posterior to the ankle joint, posterior to the knee joint, and anterior to the hip joint, leading to promote ankle plantarflexion, knee flexion, and hip flexion. To prevent collapse of the lower extremity, these external moments are counterbalanced by internal joint reaction moments that are created by ankle dorsiflexors, the knee extensors, and the hip extensors. net moment the summation of the external and internal moments do NOT indicate the direction of motion e.g. cocontraction of agonisits and antagonists e.g. quadriceps avoidance

Joint Power
definition

 the rate of work performed by controlling muscles the product of the net joint moment and the joint angular velocity significance indicating the net rate of generating or absorbing energy by all muscles and other connective tissues crossing the joint positive value indicates power generation, reflecting a concentric contraction negative value indicates power absorption, reflecting an eccentric contraction

Ankle Kinetics
definition the rate of work performed by controlling muscles the product of the net joint moment and the joint angular velocity significance indicating the net rate of generating or absorbing energy by all muscles and other connective tissues crossing the joint positive value indicates power generation, reflecting a concentric contraction negative value indicates power absorption, reflecting an eccentric contraction

Biomechanics of Running
Characteristics of Running Cycle Biomechanical Analysis of Running Special Considerations in Sprinting Special Considerations in Jogging

1. Hamilton, N., & Luttgens, K. 2002. Kinesiology, Scientific Basis of Human Motion, 10thed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Chapter 19, pp. 480-484. 2. Adelaar, R.S. 1986. The practical biomechanics of running. American Journal of Sports Medicine 14:497-500.

3. Cavanagh P.R. 1987. The biomechanics of the lower extremity action in distance running. Foot and Ankle 7:197-217. Characteristics of Running Cycle Running Cycle contact phase (support phase; drive phase) one foot is in contact with the ground, i.e., from foot strike to toe-off foot strike midsupport take off

swing phase the lower extremity is swinging through the air, i.e., from toeoff to foot strike follow through forward swing foot descent

Characteristics of Running stride length and frequency tend to increase with increased running speed stride length depends on leg length, range of motion of hip, and strength of leg extensors stride frequency depends on speed of muscle contraction and the skill of running for speeds over 7 m/s, a increment in stride length is small but the stride frequency is significantly greater Both feet tend to fall on the same line along the path of progression.

 With increasing running speed, duration of contact period decreases but that of swing phase increases. As the foot strikes on the ground, the foot is in front of the COM of the body but the distance from foot contact to the COG is shorter in running as compared to walking. This distance becomes shorter with the increase of the speed.

In barefoot running, the degree and duration of maximum foot pronation are increased as compared to that in running with shoes and/or foot orthoses. Comparisons of Running with Walking to distinguish walking from running a double swing phase during running while a double support phase during walking the body is totally airborne for a period of time during running whereas at least one part of the body (usually indicating foot) contact the ground for the whole gait cycle during walking comparisons of kinematic and kinetic parameters of running with those of walking running walking entire cycle swing phase longer stance phase longer duration of stance phase shorter longer Double support period absent present duration of swing phase longer shorter floating period present absent stride length longer shorter stride freqency higher lower position of body COM lower higher vertical oscillation of body less more COM

linear and angular velocity of faster lower extremity required ROM greater muscle activities greater leg drive during swing phase muscular foot progression line 1 line along midline of body Ground reaction force 2.5~3 times body weight

slower less less momentum (pendulum) 2 parallel lines ~90% of body weight

Biomechanical Analysis of Running

Foot Strike
patterns of foot strike heel strike better for long-distance running because the heel pad has a better ability to absorb high impact force midfoot strike or whole-foot strike forefoot strike only can be used in sprinting metatarsalgia or stress fracture of the central metatarsal bones commonly occurs in the jogger with forefoot strike because of repetitive large loads onto the central metatarsal heads

At the moment of foot strike, the foot is slight supinated with the tibia in some external rotation. The most important event during foot strike is to absorb the initial impact of the foot striking the ground through rapid extension of the hip

 flexion of the knee internal rotation of the tibia pronation of the subtalar joint shoes and/or orthoses initial impact (impulse) impulse = F t initial ground reaction force = 2.5~3 times body weight, depending on the running speed heel pad has better ability to absorb initial impact than other adipose tissues in human body improvement in materials of shoes (e.g. air-cushioned shoes) or ground surface (e.g. PU or wooden surface) may decrease the initial impact effect of lateral flare common used in jogging shoes because the heel flare increases base of support of the heel, resulting in decreased impact force per unit area at the moment of initial contact Heel flare shifts the initial contact point laterally, which increases length of the moment arm (lever arm) and then increase amount of ankle moment. This increase in ankle moment facilitates rapid pronation of the subtalar joint at the moment of landing, decrease the possibility of lateral ankle sprain

Takeoff the greater the power of the leg drive, the greater the acceleration of the runner (F = ma) to make the foot act as a rigid lever to propel the body forward through supination of the subtalar joint locking of the midtarsal joint

 dorsiflexion (extension) of the MP joint of the big toe impulse = F t = m a t = m v = momentum since running is a forward motion of the entire body, the horizontal component of the momentum is much more important than the vertical component momentum a product of mass and velocity momentum = mv impulse-momentum relationship any changes in momentum equals to the impulse that produced it concentric contraction of the gastrocnemius muscle the moment arm of the Achilles tendon increases during takeoff

 moment of inertia is greatest at take-off during the entire running cycle the larger distance the body will move during swing phase depends on less angle of takeoff higher speed of body projection at takeoff less difference in the height of COM at the moment of takeoff and landing Swing Phase reduce the moment of inertia by lifting the knee and the hip close to the body increase ROM of the lower extremity to bring the mass of the swing leg close to the hip and increase the angular velocity of the swinging leg moment of inertia definition the property of an object that causes it to remain in its state of either rest or motion (Hamilton & Luttgens, 2002) I = I0 + Ar2 where I0 = I about centroid axis A = area r = distance moment of intertia about centroid axis at different fixed-shape objects circular area: I0 = (1/4) r2 rectangular areaI0 = (1/12) b h3 Traingular area I0 = (1/36) bh3 example determine moment of inertia around centroid axis of a Tshaped beam I = I0 + Ar2 = [(1/12)(2)(10)3(2)(10)(8.555)2] + [(1/12)(8)(3)3(8)(3)(4.451.5)2] =645.6

According to Newton's first law of motion, force is needed to change the velocity (amplitude and direction) of an object.

 moment of inertia is greatest at take-off and least after acceleration has ceased clearance of the foot from the ground is completed by ankle dorsiflexion knee flexion hip flexion distance of a body moving in the air depends on the angle of take-off i.e. ths distance of the body COG ahead of takeoff point the speed of the body projection at take-off the height of the COM at take-off and landing muscle activities of the lower extremity during swing phase joint motion Flexion first 2/3 flexion last 1/3 extension dorsiflexion force for movement muscle first 2/3 momentum last 1/3 muscle muscle muscle used iliopsoas + rectus femoris (concentric) first 2/3 -last 1/3 hamstrings (eccentric) tibialis anterior + toe extensors (concentric)

hip knee ankle

Special Considerations in Sprinting

Definition
running distance < 400 m stance phase of sprinting is only 22% of the running cycle

Efficiency of Running -- to get maximum horizontal velocity without falling

increase in stride length speed = stirde length stride frequency stride length is dependent on leg length, angle of hip raising, and strength of the leg extensors stride frequency is dependent on speed of muscle contraction and the skill of runner decrease in vertical displacement of the COM Given the same ground reaction force, the smaller the vertical component of the leg drive, the the greater the horizontal component of running velocity foot strike close to center of gravity

 better to use midfoot or forefoot strike in order to have line of gravity passing through the ankle joint If the foot strikes ahead the line of gravity, the ground reaction force creates a upward and backward moment that will retard forward motion. Therefore, as the running speed increases, the distance between the contact point of foot strike and the center of gravity decreases in order to reduce the stance and facilitate propulsion.

If the foot strikes behind the line of gravity, the ground reaction force create a upward and forward moment that will make the body fall forward decease in lateral movements motions occurring in the entire lower extremity should be in the sagittal plane the arm movement is used to counterbalance rotation of the pelvis only shortening of swing leg the shortening of swing leg shortens the moment arm to decreases moment of inertia and increase forward velocity the higher the knee lifts, the greater the velocity is created. decrease internal resistance from the viscosity of the soft tissues warm-up and stretching exercises can reduce the viscosity of the soft tissues of the participating limbs Sprint Start crouching start () the greater the power of the leg drive, the greater the acceleration of the runner (F = ma) assistance of starting block () make it possible that trunk inclines forward without overstretching the Achilles tendon provides a tilting surface against which the foot pushes horizontally while using total hip, knee, and ankle extension

 the horizontal push-off force (impulse) results in an increased horizontal velocity (momentum)

Efficiency of Running
decrease in vertical displacement of the COM foot strike close to line of gravity decease in lateral movements shortening of swing leg increase in stride length

Shortening of Swing Leg Increase in Stride Length

During the acceleration phase of the race, the trunk is more erect so that the length of the stride increase dependent on the angle that the hip joint raises

Biomechanics of Jogging
Definition
running > 1500 m classification of long-distance runners (Brody, 1980) jogger run 3-20 miles per week at a rate of 9-12 minutes per mile sports runner run 20-40 miles per week and participate in "fun runs" or races of 3-6 miles long-distance runner run 40-70 miles a week at a pace of 7-8 minutes per mile and may compete in 10,000 m races or marathons

 elite marathoner run 70-200 miles a week with a pace of 5-7 minutes per mile

Characteristics of Jogging
stance phase decreases to 31% should prevent repetitive impact stresses heel strike or midfoot strike medial and lateral flares better material for heel pad

Throwing and Striking

Sequential Movements of the Body Segments Biomechanics of Throwing Biomechanics of Striking

1. Hamilton, N., & Luttgens, K. 2002. Kinesiology, Scientific Basis of Human Motion, 10thed. Chapter 18, pp. 450-466. Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to identify the sequential movement and give examples classify sports activities involving sequential movements according to the nature of force application identify the mechanical factors that affecting to throwing, striking, or kicking Sequential

Movements of the Body Segments

Definition of Sequential Movement the movement that involves a sequential action of a chain of body segments, leading to a high-velocity motion of external objects (Hamilton & Luttgens, 2002, p.451) results in the production of a summated velocity at the end of the chain of segment used the path of the external object motion is curvilinear in nature examples a pitcher throws a baseball a young adult spikes a volleyball a batter hits a baseball

 an elderly drives a golf ball a tennis player serves a tennis Modification of Sequential Movement objectives of sequential movements skill speed accuracy distance components that are used to modify movement according to different objectives numbers of body segment used range of motion (ROM) used lever length used Classification by Nature of Force Application momentary contact force imparted to an object through temporally contact with that object by a moving part of the body segment or by implement held or attached on the body segment the object may be either stationary or moving examples on moving object baseball striking, soccer heading or kicking, volleyball set, or tennis driving on stationary object golf projection force imparted to an object through the end of a chain of body segments in order to develop kinetic energy, followed by a high-velocity motion of that object the object may be held in one hand or hands examples for distance shot put, javelin, or volleyball serving for accuracy baseball pitching or dart throw continuous application force imparted to an object with the force continuously applying to that object examples against large resistance pushing a desk or lifting weight maintain a position while waiting for a release archery

Biomechanics of Baseball Throwing

Patterns of Throwing
overarm (overhead) sidearm underarm

Kinematics of Overarm Throwing

windup (cocking) phase shoulder horizontal abduction and fully external rotation (closed-packed position) trunk left rotation

prone to have shoulder impingement syndrome acceleration phase shoulder internal rotation deceleration phase

 checked by shoulder external rotators follow-through phase trunk rotation

Kinematics of Sidearm Throwing preparation phase shoulder horizontal abduction only trunk right rotation acceleration phase shoulder horizontal adduction deceleration phase checked by deltoid posterior follow-through phase opposite hip internal rotation Kinematics of Underarm Throwing preparation phase shoulder extension elbow extension acceleration phase shoulder flexion (arm flexion) deceleration phase checked by shoulder extensors

 follow-through phase trunk rotation Mechanical Factors of Throwing ballistic movement of one segment imparting force must overcome the inertial of an object mass of object internal resistance friction between object and supporting surface resistance to surrounding medium force needed dependent on speed of object distance of throwing accuracy of target related to direction of the object after its release direction of the object after release dependent on direction of the object at the moment of release path tangential to the arc of motion

gravity air or water resistance spin of the object timing pattern of movement part The slowest or heaviest part must start to move first, and the quickest and lightestone last to facilitate use of stretch reflex

Biomechanics of Striking
Forehand Drive in Tennis

 action the player takes the racket to hit the ball and send it into the opponent's court type of movement ballistic movement participating lever racket, racket-side arm, and trunk location fulcrum the hip joint at non-racket side skill requirement high speed and moderate accuracy motion description back swing phase the player pivots his body to have the non-racket side face forward the racket is taken back at the shoulder level the body weight is over the foot of the racket side the head of the racket is kept above the wrist forward swing phase the player lowers down his body by flexing the knee to have the racket below the intended contact point the trunk rotates forward to shift the weight to the foot of the non-racket side the racket is perpendicular to the ground at the moment of impact follow-through phase the body continues forward the racket arm swings across the body and up toward the chin the effect of body spinning mechanical factors contributing the impact to the ball the greater impart force will impart more momentum to the ball, leading to speed up the ball on its return flight increase the lever-arm length by using a long-arm racket, keeping the arm straight firmness of grip depends on muscle strength of wrist and finger flexors the angle of the racket face at ball hitting because the angle of rebound is highly correlated to the angle of incidence actually, the ball is not a rigid body so that the angle of rebound is slightly less than the angle of incidence

Occupational Biomechanics
the study of the physical interaction of workers with their tools, machines, and materials so as to enhance the workers performance while minimizing the risk of musculoskeletal disorders (Chaffin, 1994)

 applications to improve working performance and efficiency to prevent occupational injuries to make industrial robots for high-risk or high-structured or repetitive works

Pushing and Pulling

Push-and-Pull Motions Force Impart Biomechanics of Pushing a Cart NIOSH Manual Materials Handling Limits Multi-Segment Biomechanical Model Biomechanics of Symmetrical Load Lifting Sitting Posture Anthropometric Dimensions of Seated Workers Seated Work Place and Layout Video Display Terminal Users

Load Lifting

Seated Work

Application of Biostatistics Design of Hand Tools Vibration Environment

Pushing and Pulling

Push-and-Pull Motions Force Imparting Biomechanics of Pushing a Cart

1. Hamilton, N., & Luttgens, K. 2002. Kinesiology, Scientific Basis of Human Motion, 10thed. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Chapter 17, pp. 435-449. 2. Chaffin, D.B, & Andersson G.B.J., 1999. Occupational Biomechanics, 2nd ed. Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to

1. define push and pull patterns of motion 2. identify the the activities that involves push and pull patterns and give examples 3. analyze mechanical factors that affecting to push-and-pull activities

Push-and-Pull Motions

Definition
broad definition a segment motion that involves moving an object, either directly by part of the body or by means of implement, in pushing and pulling pattern (Hamilton & Luttgens 2002, p.436) a pitcher throws a baseball a tennis player serves a tennis a worker lifts a box from the floor onto an overhead rack an archer shoots an arrow from a bow limited definition a segmental motion that all forces are continuously applied onto an external object (continuous application pattern of sequential movement) an individual pushes a desk across the room a traveler pulls his suitcase

Joint Action Patterns

simultaneous and opposite movement pattern in the upper extremity flexion in elbow with extension in shoulder

 extension in elbow with flexion in shoulder

simultaneous movement pattern in the lower extremity simultaneous extension in the hip, knee, and ankle joints simultaneous flexion in the hip, knee, and ankle joints

at the distal end of the movement chain, a rectilinear path of motion is present. All forces produced by segmental motion are applied directly to the object and applied in the direction of motion. (Hamilton & Luttgens 2002, p.436) results maximum forces and/or maximum accuracy but no tangential forces

 trade-off in velocity and accuracy

Force Imparting

Mechanical Factors to be Considered

source of force by hand by foot by head by trunk by implement force magnitude of force direction of force point of force application stability of the body at the moment of giving motion the interaction between the body and the surface that supports it characteristics of the moving object

Magnitude of Force
The force to move an object must be greater enough to overcome the resultant of the following forces internal resistance (moment of inertia)

 friction between the object and the supporting surface resistance of the surrounding medium, such as air or water For maximum force production, the maximum number of segments should be used through the largest safe range of motion. For maximum force accuracy, the minimum number of segments should be used through the smallest possible range of motion.

Direction of Force
The direction the object moves is determined by the direction of the resultant of all forces imparting on it For maximum force production, the segments involved should be aligned with the intended direction. If the object is subject to move along a preset path (e.g. a sliding door), any component of force not in this direction will be wasted and may act to increase resistance. If that force is greater enough, then some destructions will occur.

Point of Force Application

Force applied in line with the COM of an object will result in linear motion of that object, provided the object is freely movable; otherwise, it will result in rotary motion.
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Biomechanics of Pushing a Cart

Economy of Effort
use lower extremities ( friction)

 force applied in line with the objects COM and in desired direction

Load Lifting
NIOSH Manual Materials Handling Limits Multi-Segment Biomechanical Model Biomechanics of Symmetrical Load Lifting

1. Chaffin, D.B, & Andersson G.B.J., 1999. Occupational Biomechanics, 2nd ed. Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to 1. understand the NIOSH standards 2. identify the the activities that involves lifting patterns 3. analyze mechanical factors that affecting to lifting activities NIOSH Manual Materials Handling Limits About NIOSH full name National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health reported statistics of overexertion injuries ~ 1/4 of all reported occupational injuries is overexertion injuries < 1/3 of the patients with low back pain returned to their previous work

 ~ 2/3 of overexertion injury claims involves lifting loads and ~ 1/5 involves pushing or pulling loads Manual Material Handling (MMH) types of manual materials handling lifting to move a load from a lower place to a higher place press down to press a load in a downward direction pushing/ pulling to move a material with continuous force application carrying to move a material horizontally from one place to another holding to hold a material without any motion characteristics of major components affecting manual materials handling system (Herrin et al., 1974) worker physical measures, sensory processing capacities, motor capacities, psychomotor (interface for mental and motor processing), personality, training/ experience, health status, and leisure time activities material/ container characteristics load weight, pushing/pulling force requirements, and mass moment of inertia dimensions size of unit workload, e.g. height, width, breadth, and form distribution of load location of COM of the unit workload respect to the worker couplings simple devices used to aid in grasping and manually manipulating the unit load, e.g. texture, handle size, shape, and location stability of load consistency of COM location, especially for handling liquids or bulk material task/ workplace workplace geometry, time dimension of the task (frequency, duration, and pace), complexity of the load, and environmental factors work practices operating practices under the control of the individual worker, work organization, and administration of operating practices 1981 NIOSH Lifting Guide for evaluation and control of symmetric, sagittal plane lifting includes both biomechanical spinal compression force limits and psychological limits in order to predict incidence and severity of overexertion injuries factors would lead to a hazardous lift weight of object lift (L) location of object COM horizontally from the ankle (H) location of object's COM at the beginning of lift (V) vertical traveling distance of hands from origin to destination of object (D)

frequency of lifting duration of the period which lifting takes place

Lifting Hazard Levels Action Limit (AL) epidemiological data indicates that some workers would be at increased risk of injury on jobs exceeding the AL biomechanical studies indicates that L5/S1 disc compression forces can be tolerated by most people, but not all, at about 3400 N level, which would be created by conditions at AL physiological studies indicates that the average metabolic energy requirement would be 3.5 kcal/min for jobs performed at the AL Psychological studies indicates that > 75% of women and 99% of men could lift the load at the AL Maximum Permissible Limit (MPL) = 3AL epidemiological data indicates that musculoskeletal injury rates and severity reates are significantly higher for most workers placed on jobs exceeding the MPL biomechanical studies indicates that L5/S1 disc compression forces cannot be tolerated over the 6400 N level in most people, which would be created by conditions at AL physiological studies indicates that the average metabolic energy requirement would exceed 5.0 kcal/min for most workers frequently lifting loads at the MPL Psychological studies indicates that only <1% of women and ~25% of men could lift the load above the MPL categories of lifting hazard level above MPL unacceptable between AL and MPL unacceptable without administrative or engineering controls below AL appropriate for most workers Multi-Segment Biomechanical Model

Biomechanical Model
definition model is a representation of a system, based on some simplifications and assumptions, to make it easily understand (Chaffin & Andersson, 1999) purposes of biomechanical modeling to understand easily about a complex system e.g. beam model of the plantar fascia

 to explore each component of a complex system and their interactions to simulate some conditions that are rare, dangerous (e.g. ultimate strength of biological tissues), hard to be measured (e.g. intradiscal pressure), or time- and/or cost-consuming tasks (e.g. zero-g conditions) to predict some outcomes or potential hazards without real practice, e.g. prediction of maximum allowable load Single Body Segment Static Model The force to move an object must be greater enough to overcome the resultant of the following forces internal resistance (moment of inertia) friction between the object and the supporting surface resistance of the surrounding medium, such as air or water Example An anthropometrically averaged-sized worker holds a evendistributed load in both hands, with forearm in the horizontal position, at waist height in front of his body. Question What rotation moments and forces are acting on his elbow? Model used static model since the task is only holding Answer Single Segment Dynamic Model As a body segment is rotated about a joint center, inertial forces act at the COM of the segment o tangential force force tangent to the arc of motion

contrifugal force force along the radius of the arc of motion to pull away from the center

of rotation

o o

centripetal force the reaction force of centrifugal force to hold the structures together moment at the joint is equal to the sum of the moment from the weight of the segment

(the static gravity effect), the instantaneous acceleration effect due to the tangential force, and the rotation acceleration effect due to the mass distribution

Biomechanics of Load Lifting

Joint Reaction Forces and Moments -- Static Model

load lifting can be simplified and regarded as a 5-link static model if the velocity is minimum.

For each joint, the resultant force and moment should be equal to zero. force component weight of each limb, load, and reaction force of the adjacent joint

moment component the moment produced by the weight of each segment, the moment produced by the load, and the moment produced by the reaction force of adjacent joint

 what would happen about the reaction forces and moments if the posture is changed? when the lifting is completed with both knees keeping straight when the lifting is completed with both elbows keeping straight Reaction forces are only affected by the load. for each joint, reaction force Rloaded = Rload=0 + load Reaction moments are largely affected by both the load and lifting postures, e.g. arm reaching out trunk leaning forward knee bending for each joint, reaction moment Mloaded = Mload=0 + (load)(disanceload-tojoint) exercise please try to set up a 3D model for lifting

Dynamic Lifting Strength

highly correlated to the posture as the lifting task is performed major errors in earlier lifting research using static strength to measure the capacity for a dynamic task basic assumption to move a maximum load in a very slow speed can be regarded as a static task may be under-predicted by as much as 54% because the effect of acceleration is not considered using vertical lift type of test instead of actual lift pathway in reality, when a load is lifted, the path of motion is a combination of vertical lift and toward body pulling

Multi-Segment Dynamic Model of Load Lifting

highly correlated to the acceleration of lifting first peak at first 200-400 ms 2nd peak for accuracy

larger moment are present at th hip joint as compared to the moments at upper extremity

Low Back Biomechanical Model

use the load moment at lumbosacral disc (L5/S1) as the basis for settig limits for lifting and carrying loads since 85-95% of disc herniation occurs at the L5/S1 and L4/L5 levels Morris, Lucas, and Bressler (1961) using static sagittal-plane model extensor errector spinae exerting force at 5 cm posterior to the center of L5/S1 IVD (intervertebral disc) abdominal pressure in front of the L5/S1 IVD resulting on large disc compression force that was confirmed by Machemson and Elfstrom (1970) Chaffin 1975 using add hip-sacral link and lumbar-thoracic link to refine the above model length of the hip-sacral link is approximately 20% of that of the shoulder-hip link pelvic angle from the horizontal is approximately 45 deg. estimation of compression force estimation of force of erector spinae at the L5/S1 level

 estimation of abdominal muscle force Fabd = PabdAdiagram

where average Adiagram = 465 cm2 estimation of moment at the L5/S1 level

Asymmetrical Lifting
isometric lifting strength decreases 20% for the task requiring left/ right trunk rotation and decreases 26% for the task requiring trunk backward rotation

Seated Work
Sitting Posture Anthropometric Dimensions of Seated Workers

Seated Work Place and Layout Video Display Terminal Users

1. Chaffin, D.B, & Andersson G.B.J., 1999. Occupational Biomechanics, 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp.355-392. Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to 1. 2. 3. 4. understand the biomechanics of sitting posture identify the anthropometric measurements for the seated workers understand the guideline for seated work place design and layout understand the common problems and solutions for VDT users

Sitting Posture

Definition a body position in which the weight of the body is transferred to a supporting area, mainly by the ischial tuberosities of the pelvis and their surrounding tissues (Schoberth, 1962) body weight transferring through

 the ischial tuberosity to the seat and then to the floor the foot directly to the floor the forearm to the armrest and then to the floor the back and pelvis to backrest and then to the floor comparisons of sitting posture with standing posture Sitting posture provides stability required on tasks with high visual and motor control. Sitting posture is less energy consuming than standing posture. Sitting posture places less stresses on lower extremities than standing posture. Sitting posture lowers hydrostatic pressure on lower extremity circulation. The pelvis rotates backward and the lumbar spine flattens when standing to sitting. Although seated work provides some advantages for the workers, it is obvious that the work place should be assessed carefully so as not to introduce musculoskeletal problems. Types of Sitting Posture

middle sitting COM of the upper body directly above ischial tuberosity floor support ~25% subtypes relaxed middle sitting with the lumbar spine straight or slight kyphosis supported middle sitting with the lumbar spine straight or slight lordosis forward sitting (forward leaning sitting) COM of the upper body in front of ischial tuberosity

 floor support >25% subtypes forward rotation of the pelvis with the lumbar spine straight or slight kyphosis little rotation of the pelvis but with large kyphosis of the lumbar spine sitting on a chair with a forward sloping seat with the lumbar spine slight lordosis backward sitting (backward leaning sitting) COM of the upper body behind ischial tuberosity floor support <25% subtypes backward sitting without lumbar support backward rotation of the pelvis and kyphosis of the lumbar spine backward sitting with a lumbar roll support backward rotation of the pelvis and lordosis of the lumbar spine Standard Sitting Posture chin in neck flexion 5-10 keep lumbar lordosis hip 85-100 tibia perpendicular to the floor foot flat on the floor

Sitting on a High Chair

 should have a foot support without foot support, the weight of leg will form a moment at the hip joint to create anterior tilt of the pelvis, and then increase lumbar lordosis that might result in low back pain

Semi-Sitting Posture good for active worker e.g. grocery check-out person to encourage mobility to allow rapid changes between sitting and standing to preserve lumbar lordosis inclination of the seat starts just in front of the ischial tuberosity to have full support of the trunk and the thigh Anthropometric Dimensions of Seated Workers

Vertical Anthropometric Measurements

All of the anthropometric measurements are based on the position when an individual sits with the popliteal fold 3-5 cm above the seat, with knee flexion of 90, and with the foot flat on the floor. sitting height the vertical distance from the floor to the posterior aspect of the mid-point of the thigh shoulder height the vertical distance from the sitting height to the superior aspect of the acromion elbow height the vertical distance from the sitting height to the tip of the olecranon with the elbow being flexed to 90 and the upper arm being vertical thigh height the vertical distance from the floor to the highest point of the thigh patellar height the vertical distance from the floor to the superior aspect of the patella orbital height the vertical distance from the floor to the orbit

Sagittal Anthropometric Measurements

abdominal depth the sagittal distance from the posterior aspect of the buttocks to the anterior aspect of the abdomen external sitting depth the sagittal distance from the posterior aspect of the buttocks to anterior aspect of the patella internal sitting depth the sagittal distance from the posterior aspect of the buttocks to the posterior aspect of the popliteal fold

Transverse Anthropometric Measurements shoulder width the transverse distance between the tips of both acromion processes buttocks width the maximum transverse distance at the buttocks external elbow width the transverse distance between the tips of both olecrani when the arms are placed at shoulder abduction of 90

Seated Work Place and Layout

Dimensions of the Seat seat height = sitting height 3-5 cm below the knee fold when the low leg is vertical; otherwise it will cause compression of the posterior aspect of the thighs 3-5 cm above popliteal level if the chair is tiltable or the seat slope is forward

(Bendix, 1987) seat width chair seat slope backward slope of 5 adjustable seat slope better used in the office forward slope of 20 shape of the seat Front part of seat should be contoured so that the edges of the seat should not be detectable during seated work. friction properties softness pressure should be avoided on the posterior aspect of lower thigh adjustability climatic comfort Dimension of the Backrest

seat depth (length) 10 cm less than the internal sitting depth in order to facilitate rising from the

Either with backrest or with lumbar support will decrease the pressure under the ischial tuberosity Backrest should not restrict trunk or arm movements backrest top height = backrest bottom height + backrest height backrest bottom height backrest center height backrest height backrest width

 backrest horizontal radius concave from side to side to conform the body contour backrest vertical radius convex from the top to the bottom to conform to the lumbar lordosis backrest-seat angle pivoting and recline possibility softness adjustability adjustable in the vertical and/ or horizontal planes climatic comfort Dimension of the Armrest Armrest can reduce the loading on the spine and facilitate the rising from the chair armrest length armrest width armrest height = elbow height shoulders shrug if the armrests are too high trunk slumps or leans to one side if the armrests are too low armrest-to-armrest width distance from armrest front to seat front

Dimension of the Chair Base number of feet base diameter use of caster or wheel Dimension of the Workbench Not necessarily the same for all types of work

 factors affecting workbench dimensions size of the workpiece motions required by the task performer overall work layout workbench top height 3-4cm above the elbow level (Bendix, 1987) Key board height = workbench top height if the computer is used workbench bottom height greater than the thigh height in order to ensure sufficient space for the thigh workbench surface size large enough to accommodate work objects but not too far to reach friction high enough to prevent sliding of work inclination of workbench surface The influence on lumbar posture from inclined table surfaces was actually greater than the influence of the seat slope. (Bendix, 1987) for reading a slope of 45 for writing: a flat desk field of vision VDT must be placed to prevent forward head or trunk flexion of the user focal distance: 20-40 cm Video Display Terminal Users Definition maintaining the same posture > 2 hours for one specific computer work repeated using the same key(s) or mouse NOTE In most developed countries, approximately of labors is sedentary workers (Reinecke et al. 1992) Cumulative Traumatic Syndromes in VDT Users Hultgren & Knave1st, 1974 1streporter about soft tissue problems among VDT users Muscle fatigue, soreness, stiffness, cramps, numbness, and/or pain were frequently found in VDT users associated with the frequency of key strikes

 More than half of computer users have reported local pain. (1991 US statistics) location of pain neck and shoulder pain: 67% low back pain: 40% wrist pain: 29% resulting in increase in medical expenditure Increase in work compensation decrease in productivity possible causes physiological factors Endurance time decreases significantly when the posture required more than 30% of the strength of back muscles (Jorgensen, 1970)

intradiscal pressure changed during various sitting postures

If the trunk leans forward, the moment loaded on the lumbar disc increased as the sine of . For example, if the trunk leans

forward at an angle of 30, then the moment is Wd(sine30), i.e., 0.5 Wd.

flextion of the neck depends on the visual demand and the height of work surface. environmental or task factors malposture or maintaining the same posture for a long period of time improper workplace repetitive motions

 psychological factor work stress time stress social factors prevention of cumulative traumatic syndromes to decrease the sustained duration muscle cannot sustain contractions over ~15-20% of their maximum strength without fatigue to decrease the frequency to increase muscle strength in the posture where the task requires Biomechanical Considerations in VDT Workplace Design chair chair with armrest

seat slope

chair base

 better to have 5foot support radius = 3035cm use of casters or wheels

computer desk to provide sufficient space for the legs i.e. work bench bottom height thigh height If the desk is too low, an individual tends to lean forward and lower and protract the shoulder joints. If the desk is too high, an individual tends to elevate and shrug the shoulder joint which is susceptible to muscle fatigue. keyboard keyboard height (from middle row to floor): 70-85 cm keyboard distance (from middle row to table edge): 10-26 cm in the position to have minimum wrist extension, flexion, and ulnar deviation screen screen height (from center of screen to floor): 90-115 cm screen inclination: 88-105 screen distance (screen to table edge): 50-75 cm body posture visual distance (from eyes to center of screen) viewing angle (from eyes to center of screen) < 20 trunk-seat angle most people uses the backward leaning posture that causes in a decrease in lumbar lordosis and is susceptable to herniation of the intervertebral disc. elbow angle ~ 90 shoulder flexion angle as small as possible

Application of Biostatistics
Hazard Levels Normal Distribution Inferneces from Sampling Distribution

1. Chaffin, D.B, & Andersson G.B.J., 1999. Occupational Biomechanics, 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp.355-392. Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to 1. 2. 3. 4. understand the biomechanics of sitting posture identify the anthropometric measurements for the seated workers understand the guideline for seated work place design and layout understand the common problems and solutions for VDT users

Hazard Levels Action Limit (AL) epidemiological data indicates that some workers would be at increased risk of injury on jobs exceeding the AL biomechanical studies indicates that L5/S1 disc compression forces can be tolerated by most people, but not all, at about 3400 N level, which would be created by conditions at AL physiological studies indicates that the average metabolic energy requirement would be 3.5 kcal/min for jobs performed at the AL Psychological studies indicates that > 75% of women and 99% of men could lift the load at the AL Maximum Permissible Limit (MPL) = 3AL epidemiological data indicates that musculoskeletal injury rates and severity reates are significantly higher for most workers placed on jobs exceeding the MPL biomechanical studies indicates that L5/S1 disc compression forces cannot be tolerated over the 6400 N level in most people, which would be created by conditions at AL physiological studies indicates that the average metabolic energy requirement would exceed 5.0 kcal/min for most workers frequently lifting loads at the MPL Psychological studies indicates that only <1% of women and ~25% of men could lift the load above the MPL

 categories of lifting hazard level above MPL unacceptable between AL and MPL unacceptable without administrative or engineering controls below AL appropriate for most workers Normal Distribution

Definition
normal distribution (Gaussian distribution) a distribution followed the curve of

a symmetrical bell-shaped curve with the mean value of and the standard deviation of standardized normal distribution given = 0 and =1

68.3% of population fall within 1 standard deviation from the mean 95.0% of population fall within 1.96 standard deviation from the mean 95.4% of population fall within 2 standard deviations from the mean 99.0% of population fall within 2.58 standard deviation from the mean 99.7% of population fall within 3 standard deviations from the mean

Central Tendency mean () the average value of all observations in a population

for example a population of 18 observations as follows observation value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 6.8 5.3 6.1 4.3 5.0 7.1 5.5 3.8 4.6 6.0 7.2 6.4 6.0 5.5 5.8 8.8 4.5 5.9

the mean = (6.8 + 5.3 + 6.1 + ... + 5.9)/ 18 = 104.6 / 18 = 5.81 median (Md) the middle observation in the above example, the values in rank-order are observation 8 4 17 9 5 2 7 14 15 18 10 13 3 12 1 6 11 16 value 3.8 4.3 4.5 4.6 5.0 5.3 5.5 5.5 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.0 6.1 6.4 6.8 7.1 7.2 8.8 the median = 0.5 (5.8 + 5.9) = 5.85 mode the value that occurs most frequently in the above example, mode are 5.5 and 6.0. Variability range = maximum - minimum variance ()

standard deviation ()

Percentiles definition a number that indicates the percentage of a distribution that is equal to or below that number method to rank all observations in an ascending order, divide them into 100 subgroups, and then assign one subgroup as a percentile mean =50th percentile for a normal distribution In occupational Biomechanics, we usually report

1st percentile = - 2.326 5th percentile = - 1.645 25th percentile = - 0.67 50th percentile = 75th percentile = + 0.67 95th percentile = + 1.645 99th percentile = + 2.326

Influence from Sampling Distribution Central Limit Theorem sampling distribution select many samples from the target population, compute the mean in each sample, and then the distribution of all these means is the sampling distribution the mean of the sampling distribution of means is equal to the population mean the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of means is called as standard error of the mean (SEM)

If the population distribution is normal, then the sampling distribution is normal, too.