Chap 6

Optical Imaging Chapter 6 Interferometry
Gabriel Popescu University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Beckman Institute Quantitative Light Imaging Laboratory http://light.ece.uiuc.edu
Principles of Optical Imaging Electrical and Computer Engineering, UIUC
ECE 460 Optical Imaging
6.1 Superposition of Fields

Interference is the phenomenon by which electromagnetic fields interact with one another. Interferometry has various applications from the movement of charge to spectroscopy and material characterization. Interference is the result of the superposition principle
E[ r , t ] = E j [ r , t ]
j
(6.1)
Intensity is the measurable quantity
I [r , t ] = E[r , t ]
Where
Chapter 6: Interferometry
(6.2)
stands for time (or ensemble) average

2
6.1 Superposition of Fields

Consider 2 fields E1 and E2 2 2 I [r , t ] = E1 + E2 + E1 E2* + E1* E2 Notes:
the dot product E1 E2* Polarization is critical Parallel polarization offers the most interference
(6.3)
E1 E2 = E1 E2 cos
Assume parallel polarization
E1 E2
=> I = I1 + I 2 + 2 E1 E2 cos[[r , ]]
(6.4)
is generally a random variable For uncorrelated (incoherent) fields cos[ ] 0 => simplest case is a monochromatic field because it is fully coherent.
3
6.2 Monochromatic Fields

I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos[0 + ]
T = Time difference
(6.5)
I
T
(6.6)
= The phase shift 0 = Frequency

I max I min Fringe contrast (visibility): = I max + I min
I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 1 I1 I 2 2 I1 I 2 (1) 2 I1 I 2 => = = (1: 0) 2( I1 + I 2 ) I1 + I 2
I1 = I 2 => = 1
Chapter 6: Interferometry 4

For I1 = I 2 = I :
I
4I
(6.7)
I = 2 I (1 + cos[0 ])
2I
Practical Advantages of Interference: a) Interference term is 2 I1 I 2 cos[ ] so if I1 is too small to be measured directly then I 2 can act as an amplifier. I1 I 2 gives a higher sensitivity

Practical Advantages of Interference: b) Interference I1 I 2 => if I1 is divided by 100, interference is divided by 10 => high dynamic range c) Imagine we frequency shift E1 by
= 1 2 =>
I1 I 2 cos[1t 2t ] cos[ t ]
=> can tune to high frequency ( > 1 kHz) => Low Noise
6.3 Wavefront-Division Interferometry

Interference is obtained between different portions of the same wavefront (next: amplitude-division)
Young Interferometer
The oldest interferometer
x K y
d 2 d 2
Small Slits
d d 1 -functions: [ y ]; [y+ ]; 2 2

The field at the plane x=0
d d E = E1 + E2 = E0 ( [ y ] + [y+ ]) 2 2
Assume the observation plane is in the for zone => Fraunhoffer diffraction (Fourier)
d 2 d 2
(6.8)
E[q y ] = [ E[ y ]] = E0 [e
ig y
+e
ig y
y Remember q y = (chapter 3) z
d ] = E0 2 cos[q y ] 2
(6.9)
Fringes cos[ d y]
2 z
(6.10)

Similarity relationship again:
I
d1
y
I
and d 2
Note: using Fourier it is easy to generalize to arbitrary slit/particle shape; similar to scattering from ensemble of particles (chapter 5, pp 12) => use convolution to express the arbitrary shape.

We can use convolution to express arbitrary shape:
a
y
d 2 d 2
=
d 2 d 2
S1
Other Wavefront-Division Interferometers a) Fresnel Mirrors Image S thru M1 and M2

M1
S2
M2
virtual sources S1 and S2 S1 and S2 act as Youngs pinholes same equations S1 and S2 are derived from the same sources and therefore coherent
10

b) Lloyds Mirror
S
S and S
M
Young
11

c) Thin films:
S P
Films of oil break the white light into colors due to interference and phase = f ( )
d) Newtons rings:
k h
Circular fringes = rings
Localized on the surface of lens
12
6.4 Amplitude-Division Interferometry

Interference is obtained by replicating the wavefront=>less amplitude in each beam. The Michelson Interferometer: M L1
S BS
L2
electron
Very sensitive to path length differences between arms Eg. It has been used to measure pressure in rarefied gases(place cell on one arm-> produce

BS- beam splitter assume thin for now! LetL1 , L2 be the lengths of the 2 areas => The intensity at the detector:
Note: L = L2 L1 = C (t 2 t1 ) = C = time delay cos( )
I( L)=I1 +I 2 +2 I1 I 2 cos(2 L )
(6.11)
Well come back to Michelson with low-coherence light, temporal coherence, OCT, etc
14

Other amplitude-division interferometry a) Plane parallel plate reflection.
S S
point sourceinter-fringe = f (n, d ) metrology

d n S
b) Plane parallel plate- transmission. Note: With plane wave incident, fringes are localized at infinity => Need lens
L P

c) Fizeau Interferometer:
R M Fringes Reference surface
Used to test mirrors and other surfaces.
d) Mach-Zender Interferometer Very Common Shear interferometry Tilt one mirror Fringes analysis of surfaces
Sample
6.5 Multiple Beam Interference

Reflection
Lens
Transmission
F sin I( r ) 2 ; = I (i ) 1 + F sin 2 2 I (t ) = I (i ) I ( r ) 4R F= Finess coeff. 2 (1 R)
Fabny-Penot interferometry 2
(6.12)
= 2k0 d n cos one pass phase shift

17
6.5 Multiple Beam Interference

Transmitted Intensity
I( r ) I (i )
R1
R2
2k
2k + 2
R1 , R2 reflectivities R increases narrower lines i.e. More reflection orders participate in interference
In practice, Fabny-Perot gave accurate information about spectral lines(also called etalon)
D
Rayleigh Criterion:
1
1 2
S
is fixed etalon
2 lines are separated if: FWHM
18
6.6 Interference with Partially Coherent Light

So far, we assumed monochromatic light = fully coherent. What happens when an arbitrary, broad-band, extended source is used for interference? a) michelson interferometry
M1
I (L)
S BS
L
The contrast of the fringe is decreasing i.e. limited temporal coherence.

6.6 Interference with Partially Coherent Light

b) Young Interferometer :
OA
Ac
k
I1 + I 2
d
i.e. Limited Spatial Coherence
20
6.7 Temporal Coherence

Coherence defines the degree of correlation between fields: Typical correlation at one point in space (typical coherence) Temporal correlation between fields at two points (spatial coherence) Given the field at one point E (r , t ) , the mutual coherence function is:
( ) =< E (t ) E *(t + ) >t
(6.13)
E (t ) E *(t + )dt = autocorrelation function
21

Note: (0) = E (t ) 2
(6.14)
= I irradiance
So = E E Appl y again the correlation theorem (Eq 2.30)
[] = E ( ) E *( ) = E ( ) = S ( ) = Spectrum FTIR
(6.15)
So, the autocorrelation function ( ) relates to the optical spectrum of the field:
( ) = S ( ) e iw d
0
Wiener-Kintchin theorem.
(6.16)
22

! Compare 6.16 with 5.28 ! It applies even when E(t) does not have a Fourier Transform Typically, spectrum is centered on0 Assume spectrum is S ( 0 ) ; apply shift theorem (Eq 2.31)
( ) = ( ) ei0 ,
(6.17a) (6.17b)
where ( ) =
S (u ) eiu du; u = 0
Complex degree of coherence ( ) ( ) = (6.18)

(0)
( ) (0;1)
(6.19)
23

Measuring the temporal coherence: Michelson interferometer
Etotal = E1 + E2 M2 E1 Irradiance: 2 I =< E1 (t ) + E2 (t + ) > (6.20) E2 Assume: E1 = E2 I = I1 + I '2' + E1 (t ) E2 *(t + ) + E *1 (t ) E2 (t + ) (6.21) = 2 I1 + 2 Re[( )]
M1
I1,2 can be measured separately

by moving M 2
Re[( )]
access to Re() directly,

S
0
24

The degree of coherence
( )
S ( )
Spectral width
c = coherence time
width of ( ) ( ) = [ S ( )] c = constant
0 = c T = c
2
(6.22)
Interference occurs only if Broad spectrum( = 100nm) => short

; = (
2 c
) = 2 c
Coherence Length: (6.23) lc = C c Rule of thumb: 0 2 lc = (6.24)

=
L = lc
=>
lc ( 2 3 m)
25
6.8 Optical Domain Refrectometry

Low-Coherence interferometry ( inter. With broad band light). Sources: SLD, LED, white light, femtosecond laser, etc. consider a transparent, layered structure under investigation.
M
1 2 3 4 a a a
d >> lc
26
6.8 Optical Domain Refrectometry

Scanning M, we retrieve
R
L1
L2
L3
L4 L
The interface are resolved Reflectivity give info about refractive index L1,2,3,4 determine position of interfaces.
ODR: Successful for quantifying lasers in waveguides, fiber optics, etc. 1987-HP- fiber optic reflectometer.
27
6.9 Optical Coherence Tomography(OCT)

Optical technique capable of rendering 3D images from think biological samples. Penetrates 1-2 mm deep in tissue. => Typically implemented in optical fiber configuration. 1991, Fujimotos S 2x2 group, MIT M
D Coupler Scan beam x-y Scan M -> z
Tissue = continuous superposition of interfaces. Scanning M, a depth-resolved reflectivity signal is retrieved => can resolve regions inside tissue(e.g. Tumors).

If mirror is swept at constant speed v: z=vt Phase delay: = 2kz = 2kvt (2 means back and forth) (6.25) Frequency shift: = = 2kvt Dopler Shift The detector is recording a high-frequency signal Low-noise Dynamic range can easily reach 10 orders of magnitude! i.e. can record reflectivities from 1 to 1/10 billion!(100 dB) Various Technological Improvements: Spectral domain OCT: instead of scanning M, measure S( ) ( ) Galvo-scanning group delay- fast

Various Technological Improvements: Spectral encoding- instead of scanning on x, illuminate with (x) Spectroscopic OCT- trade z-resolution for S ( ) information Since 1991, ~1,000 OCT papers published. Currently applied in: Oftalmology, Dermathology, cardio, etc Recently combined with SHG, molecular imaging
30
6.10 Dispersion Effects on Temporal Coherence

What happens if on one area of the Michelson interferometer, there is extra material (eg. Glass)?
M1 d S M2
31

How does broad band fields propagate through dispersive materials (such as glass)? Think pulses!
n( )
k
n( )
Above resonance
S ( )
Incident spectrum Below resonance
The phase delay through a transparent material:
( ) = k ( ) d = k0 d n( )
Taylor expansion of n( ) around the central frequency:

S ( )
(6.26)
0
32

dn 1 2n n( ) = n(0 ) + ( 0 ) + ( 0 ) 2 + ..... d 0 2 2
n(0 ) => 0 = n(0 ) k0 d =

dk 1 d 2k ( ) = 0 + d ( 0 ) + d ( 0 ) 2 .... d 2 d 2 Definitions: dk (6.27) = v = group velocity
d
= 2 = group velocity dispersion (GVD) Different colors have different group velocities
d 2k d 2

E.g. Pulse:
blue red
vblue < vred

parabolic phase:
(6.28)
Riding with pulse (v=0) 1 ( ) 2 2 So 2 Cross-Spectral density:
( ) S ( )
W ( ) = E1 ( ) E2 *( )
Then, the cross-correlation function is
(6.29)
12 ( ) = W ( )e i d
0
(6.30)
34
12 ( ) = W ( )e i d is the generalization of (6.31) i.e 0 generalized Wiener-Kinntilin Theorem.
For the unbalanced Michealson, the cross-spectral density is
W ( ) = E1 ( ) E2* ( ) = E1 E2* e
The cross-correlation function:
1 i 2 2 2
= S ( )e
1 i 2 2 2
(6.32)
12 ( ) = [W ( )] = [ S ( )e
1 i 2 2
1 i 2 2 2
(6.33)
Remember convolution theorem:

( ) = [ S ( )] v [e
] = 0 ( ) v h( )
(6.34)
35

h( ) = [e ] Useful Fourier Transform relationship for Gauss functions:
e
b 2 F
1 i 2 2
1 2b
t2 e 4b
(6.35)
h ( ) =
( )
a ls o p a ra b o lic
( )
lc
36

( )
The coherence time is increased Frequency is chirped So, in OCT, is important to balance the interferometer=> minimum coherence length lc gives the depth resolution

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Optical Imaging Chapter 6 Interferometry

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.1 Superposition of Fields

Intensity is the measurable quantity

stands for time (or ensemble) average

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.1 Superposition of Fields

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.2 Monochromatic Fields

= The phase shift 0 = Frequency

I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 1 I1 I 2 2 I1 I 2 (1) 2 I1 I 2 => = = (1: 0) 2( I1 + I 2 ) I1 + I 2

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.2 Monochromatic Fields

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.2 Monochromatic Fields

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.3 Wavefront-Division Interferometry

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.3 Wavefront-Division Interferometry

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.3 Wavefront-Division Interferometry

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.3 Wavefront-Division Interferometry

Other Wavefront-Division Interferometers a) Fresnel Mirrors Image S thru M1 and M2

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.3 Wavefront-Division Interferometry

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.3 Wavefront-Division Interferometry

Circular fringes = rings

Localized on the surface of lens

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.4 Amplitude-Division Interferometry

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.4 Amplitude-Division Interferometry

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.4 Amplitude-Division Interferometry

point sourceinter-fringe = f (n, d ) metrology

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.4 Amplitude-Division Interferometry

Used to test mirrors and other surfaces.

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.5 Multiple Beam Interference

F sin I( r ) 2 ; = I (i ) 1 + F sin 2 2 I (t ) = I (i ) I ( r ) 4R F= Finess coeff. 2 (1 R)

= 2k0 d n cos one pass phase shift

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.5 Multiple Beam Interference

2 lines are separated if: FWHM

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.6 Interference with Partially Coherent Light

The contrast of the fringe is decreasing i.e. limited temporal coherence.

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.6 Interference with Partially Coherent Light

i.e. Limited Spatial Coherence

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.7 Temporal Coherence

( ) =< E (t ) E *(t + ) >t

E (t ) E *(t + )dt = autocorrelation function

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.7 Temporal Coherence

ECE 460 Optical Imaging

6.7 Temporal Coherence

Complex degree of coherence ( ) ( ) = (6.18)