1
]
1
,
_
x
S
(this represents damage!)
Flow efficiency(Eq. 4.7;
4.9)
Potential production
rate without skin
The potential flow rate is equal to the actual flow rate, 174 BOPD, divided by
the damage ratio
qt = (174)(0.467) = 372.4 BOPD
Productivity index(Eq.
4.5):
PI = 174/(3878-3086) = 0 22 BOPD/psi
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Radius of
investigation(Eq. 4.10)
The approximate radius into the reservoir that was investigated during the flow
period prior to shut-in is
ft
x
r
i
256
) 10 2 . 4 )( 5 . 2 )( 25 . 0 )( 948 (
) 33 . 15 )( 68 . 10 (
5 . 0
6
,
_
Our analysis, then, is derived from data obtained for an average radius of 256 ft into the reservoir
Table 1: Calculations for interpretation of well-test data shown in Figure 2 .
Modern Well-Test Interpretation Methods
Whereas the conventional interpretation methods depend on the direct solution of appropriate
equations, modern well lest interpretation is treated as a special pattern-recognition problem. In
pattern recognition, a known signal, I (the constant withdrawal of reservoir fluid), is applied to an
unknown system, S (the reservoir system), and the response, O (change in reservoir pressure), is
measured ( Figure 1 ).
Figure 1
This type of problem is referred to as an inverse problem and its solution involves finding a system
whose response to the same input signal is as close as possible to that of the actual system. The
purpose of well-test interpretation is to identify the reservoir system knowing only the input (flow
rate) and output (pressure response) signals and possibly some other reservoir characteristics.
Interpretation thus relies on models whose characteristics are assumed to represent the
characteristics of the actual reservoir. If the wrong model is selected, the parameters calculated
for the actual reservoir will not be correct. On the other hand, the solution of the inverse problem
is usually not unique: it is possible to find several reservoir configurations that would yield similar
responses to a given input signal. However, as the number and range of output signal
measurements increase, the number of alternative solutions is greatly reduced (Gringarten et al.,
1979).
Type Curves
The individual components of a reservoir model each may be characterized with the pressure-time
data collected during a well test. In order to develop a method of analyzing pressure-time data for
well tests that would be independent of the nature of the specific well or reservoir being tested,
the industry developed a series of type curves. Type curves are generally log-log plots of
dimensionless pressure, pD, versus dimensionless time, tD, terms. A dimensionless term has no
units, and, in this case, includes pressure or time as a variable. Also, the resulting correlation has
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broad rather than specific application. Investigators have proposed various forms for the
dimensionless pressure and time terms (Gringarten et al., 1979). One such set is given in Figure 2 .
Figure 2
Note that each term is dimensionless and includes variables that are specific to the wellbore and
reservoir system being tested.
Type curves characterize theoretical model behavior and not individual differences that may exist
from well to well. They also provide a global description of pressure response from very early time
to the last recorded time. The type curve, or curves, then, should extend to the full range of test
data. A set of type curves is available for each different reservoir model defined by the various
investigators. An example is shown in Figure 3 .
Figure 3
Here, a type curve is given for a wellbore/reservoir model showing wellbore storage, skin factor,
and a reservoir exhibiting infinite-acting, homogeneous flow behavior (Gringarten et al., 1979). CsD
is the dimensionless well-bore storage constant and Cs the well-bore storage constant. (In some
texts CD is the dimensionless wellbore storage constant and C the wellbore storage constant.) Note
that the presence of wellbore storage is exhibited on this plot by a straight line of unit slope at
early time. The onset of infinite-acting radial flow, which occurs at initiation of the straight line on
the Horner plot, indicating the end of well bore storage, is shown. The model description and
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definition of the dimensionless groups are also given. Note that the type curve has been obtained
by the mathematical simulation of appropriate equations representing the basic model and an
appropriate range of the variables found in the dimensionless group. It is valid for a drawdown test
and, in many cases, for a buildup test.
In 1983, Bourdet et al. introduced a set of type curves where the vertical axis is replaced with the
first derivative of pD with respect to ln (tD/CsD). Because the derivative of a function is more
sensitive to changes, the type curves based on the derivative of pressure magnify the
characteristics (i.e., flow regimes) of the pressure-based type curves. Hence, pressure-derivative
type curves are more accurate and reliable for interpretation purposes.
Figure 4 shows a derivative type curve for a homogeneous reservoir model.
Figure 4
As shown, the wellbore storage unit slope line remains unchanged. However, the infinite acting
portion of the type curves converge to a single horizontal line whose value is 0.5.
Type curves similar to Figure 4 have been developed for other reservoir models, such as dual-
porosity systems. All these type curves contain more discernible features than their counterpart
pressure-based type curves (Gringarten, 1979). Therefore, their use should be considered in
understanding any interpretation.
5. Well Test Planning and Execution
Planning and Conducting a Well Test
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A well test requires that we control flow rate (constant or shut-in) and measure pressure;
equipment must be available at the surface to control, separate, meter, and dispose of production.
Also, a test must be carefully planned to meet objectives specified for conducting the test.
Control of Flow Rate
The control of flow rate is usually achieved at the surface through the use of chokes. For a
drillstem test, two chokes are normally located in the floor manifold, an integral part of the
surface equipment used in testing a well. One is usually an adjustable choke, the other a positive
one ( Figure 1 , Location of chokes in surface system).
Figure 1
The choke size required to provide the objective flow rate for a test is normally determined by
flowing through the adjustable choke initially to determine the suitable size. Then a proper size
insert is placed within the positive choke. Whenever a choke size is changed, flow is redirected to
the adjustable choke, the insert is changed, and the flow is once again directed. This avoids having
to shut the well in for choke changes. A well is normally shut in by closing a valve at the surface.
A gas well is often tested at a series of constant flow rates ( Figure 2 , Flow rate and pressure
history of a typical conventional test).
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Figure 2
The operator, usually using a variable choke, changes the choke to the size needed for each flow
rate. The pressures measured at the taps on either side of the orifice plate in the meter run (
Figure 3 , Gas orifice metering system) are recorded and used to calculate the flow rate.
Measurement of Pressures
There are essentially four commercially available systems for measuring pressures during a well
test:
bottomhole mechanical down hole-recording pressure gauges;
wellhead electronic surface-recording pressure gauges;
bottomhole electronic surface-recording pressure gauges; and
bottomhole electronic down hole-recording pressure gauges.
We shall discuss each of them briefly.
Bottomhole Mechanical Downhole-Recording Gauges
These self-contained gauges have three essential components: a pressure-sensing device, a
pressure-time recorder, and a mechanical clock. The pressure element of a mechanical gauge is
normally a multiple-coil Bourdon-tube type ( Figure 1 ).
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Figure 1
Well pressure is transmitted through a rubber diaphragm to fluid contained inside of the Bourdon
tube. Pressure increases cause the tube to uncoil. The rotation is transferred to a stylus that makes
a mark on a coated-metal chart. The recording chart is moved vertically by a clock, with the time
of movement along one axis of the chart dependent upon the clock selected (2 to 360 hours). The
stylus is moved perpendicular to this direction by the Bourdon tube as it records pressures, and the
movement of the chart by the clock records time. The relative motion of each yields a pressure-
time chart. ( Figure 2 shows charts that represent the pressures recorded downhole during a
drillstem test.)
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Figure 2
Wellhead Electronic Gauges
Generally, any electronic gauge capable of monitoring and transmitting bottomhole pressures and
temperatures may be used to monitor wellhead conditions. However, two special pressure-
measuring systems are available to monitor wellhead conditions. These systems are especially
useful in closed-chamber drillstem testing. Wellhead gauges, of course, record at the surface.
Bottomhole Electronic Surface-Recording Gauges
These gauges incorporate a means of measuring bottom-hole pressure and temperature and
transmitting the measurements to the surface while the test is in progress ( Figure 3 , Example of
real-time surface pressure recording and interpretation system).
1-47
Figure 3
Most of these gauges use a single armored cable to transmit the signals from the sensor to the
monitoring system at the surface. The gauges may be either permanently installed or retrievable.
Bottomhole Electronic Downhole-Recording Gauges
Gauges of this type are self-contained, battery-operated devices. In operation, the gauge may be
lowered into a well on a solid wire (slickline), or it may be run on a recorder carrier ( Figure 4 ,
Downhole electronic temperature and pressure recorder with digital memory).
Figure 4
In most of these gauges a transducer converts pressure into an electrical signal that is recorded
downhole. Pressure data are available only after a gauge has been retrieved to surface.
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Surface Production Facilities
The surface facilities required to undertake a well test are generally more extensive than simply a
flow control device and pressure-sensing and -recording instruments. An example of the surface
equipment that may be required to test an offshore flowing well that has not yet been completed is
shown in Figure 1 (Location of chokes in surface system).
Figure 1
In referring to Figure 1, we see that the production flows up through the surface test tree, then
through a safety valve to a data header where fluid samples may be taken for laboratory analysis.
Production then flows through the positive or adjustable choke. In some cases, both chokes may be
closed and production directed through the manifold bypass. From the manifold the produced fluids
flow to the heat exchanger where they are heated before being separated. Oil, gas, and water are
separated in the separator and then individually metered. A test tank may be available to use in
cleaning up the well, taking samples, and proving liquid flow meters.
Tests may also be conducted on wells following final completion, using production equipment or
portable test equipment. If the well produces only dry gas, then a separator and heater are not
needed. In such a case, a critical flow prover and pressure instrumentation may be sufficient.
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Figure 3
Optimal Times to Test a Well
A well may be tested for a number of different reasons during its life. These usually coincide with
the need to make decisions with respect to the well or reservoir or the fact that an opportunity
presents itself to add to the data base of information available on the well. Optimally, well testing
will occur in conjunction with the following events:
Prior to Completion: To assist in the completion decision, a drillstem test or a
repeat formation test, or both, will normally be carried out.
Postcompletion: Once the well has been completed a buildup, draw-down, or
deliverability test is performed to quantify near-wellbore and reservoir conditions and to
define inflow performance characteristics.
Prestimulation and Poststimulation: Stimulation (acidizing or fracturing) treatments
are often applied to wells to improve their performance. Usually a well test (typically a
buildup test) is performed before the treatment to evaluate the need for stimulation and
after the treatment, to estimate its effectiveness.
Preoperational and Postoperational Changes: Whenever an operational change
occurs (e.g., a workover or installation of artificial lift) it is good policy to test the well
before and after that change to evaluate any problem that may have developed and to
add to the data base of the well.
Periodic Surveys: During either planned, routine field shut-in periods or unforeseen
field shut-ins, the pressure buildup of the wells should be recorded.
Enhanced Recovery: It is good policy to test wells whenever fluids are to be
injected into a reservoir or wells are to be converted from production to injection wells.
Testing should occur both before and after fluids are injected and should serve as a
means of monitoring fluid movement.
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Well testing at the above times will help in making important decisions and, in addition, allow the
monitoring of changes that may affect the well's long-term performance.
Planning a Well Test
Once the decision to test a well has been made and the objectives of the test clearly stated, a
well-test plan must be prepared. To be complete this package should include the following key
elements:
Statement of Test Objectives As we saw in the preceding section, we need to
specify why the well is being tested and what we expect to learn from the test data.
Proposed Test Design This section of the package includes the specification of the
type of test to be run; the flow rates, duration, periods; the shut-in periods and times;
the contingency procedures in the event that the test has to be altered in the field
because of mechanical problems.
Mechanical Design The required surface and subsurface mechanical system is
specified in this section of the package. It will typically include the test interval and
landing locations, a schematic of the well's tubular goods, the required surface test
facilities, the meter system, and the way in which the produced fluids are to be disposed.
Safety, environmental, and regulatory considerations must be included in this design.
Instrumentation The instrumentation package must also be specified. It should
include the pressure and temperature measuring and recording devices (with backup as
needed) as well as the wireline recommendations.
Sampling The package should also include specifications for sampling produced
fluids: how many samples to take, when, and where.
Well-Test Reporting Communicating the results of the well-test procedures clearly
to all persons concerned with the test and making sure that all test data is recorded
systematically is extremely important. For this reason the proposed test chronology and
data to be recorded are provided to the individuals responsible for the test. They, in
turn, should use appropriately prepared forms to record the actual test chronology and
actual data recorded and later interpreted. Several service contractors now offer
computer-based systems that monitor, record, and report pressures and flow rates at
many different points in the surface and subsurface systems during the test. Once the
test is complete, the contractor, with on-site -computers, can analyze the data and
provide an interpretation that includes the optimal design of the well's completion.
Communication to all concerned both before the test package is prepared and before the test is run
is important for success. Such communication will include discussion with local management, field
personnel, service companies who will provide equipment and instrumentation, regulatory officials,
and partners in the well.
Once the well test plan is complete, it may be given to the proper field personnel with confidence
that the recorded data may be interpreted so as to satisfy the test objectives.
1-51