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Introduction to Computing Systems:

From Bits and Gates to C and Beyond
2nd Edition

Yale N. Patt Sanjay J. Patel

Original slides from Gregory Byrd, North Carolina State University Modified by Chris Wilcox, S. Rajopadhye Colorado State University

CS270 Spring 2012 - Colorado State University

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Lecture Goals
! Review course logistics
n n n n

Assignments Policies Organization Grading Criteria Role of Abstraction Software versus Hardware Universal Computing Devices Layered Model of Computing

! Introduce key concepts

n n n n

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Logistics
! Lectures: Tue and Thu from 9:30-10:45 in Glover 130 ! Recitations: Tue 11:00-11:50, 1:00-1:50, Wed 11:00-11:50 in CSB 215 ! Exams:
n

One midterm in class (1 page notes, no calculator, no electronic aid) final on Wednesday May 9 6:20-8:20 in class (same rules) http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~cs270 http://ramct.colostate.edu
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! Materials on the website and RamCT:

n n

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Name cards
! Fold your card LENGTHWISE so that it can be placed on your desk ! Neatly write your name (how you want to be addressed) in BIG, BOLD LETTERS, using the markers that are circulating ! Prop it up on your desk so that it can be seen from the front of the classroom

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Instructor
! Name: Sanjay Rajopadhye ! Pronunciation (optional): In Indian names, a is almost always pronounced as a short u sound as in gun, fun, etc., or a long aa sound as in calm, bard, etc. ! Sanjay is pronounced as Sun-juy ! Rajopadhye Raaj-Oh-paath-yay (in the paath make the t sound like a d). Dont worry if you dont get it right, its almost always mispronounced, even in India). ! These pronunciation rules are used in many parts of Asia, e.g., pronounce Bagdad? ! Interesting fact: Everyone in my family was born in a different country
CS270 Spring 2012 - Colorado State University 5

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TeachingAssistant
! Name: Nirmal Prajapati ! Call me: Nirmal (like normal, but with an i) ! Pronunciation (optional): nearly normal Nirmal ! Major: Computer Science (Ph.D., 1st year) ! Interesting fact:

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Assignments
Assignments and quizzes are posted on RamCT: ! Weekly assignments combination of written and programming assignments ! Written (hardcopy) assignments are due Thursday at 9:30 pm (start of class) ! Programming assignments are submitted in electronic form Mondays at 5:00 PM. ! Reading Quizzes are online, the due date is Monday at 11:59pm

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Policies
! Grading Criteria
n n n n n

Homework Assignments (45%) Reading Quizzes (5%) Recitations (5%) Midterm Exam (20%) Final Exam (25%) Accepted up to 48 hours after posted date with 10% penalty per 24 hrs delay Not accepted after 48 hr delay http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~info/student-info.html Be smart about Spring 2012 - Colorado State University CS270 Internet resources

! Late Policy
n

! Academic Integrity
n n 8

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Organization
! 1/3 computer hardware: numbers and bits, transistors, gates, digital logic, state machines, von Neumann model, instruction sets, LC-3 architecture ! 1/3 assembly code: instruction formats, branching, control, LC-3 programming, I/O, subroutines, memory model ! 1/3 C programming: data types, language syntax, variables and operators, control structures, functions, pointers and arrays, memory model, recursion, I/O, data structures
CS270 Spring 2012 - Colorado State University 9

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Grading Criteria
How to be successful in this class: 1) Attend all classes and recitations, information will presented that you cant get anywhere else. 2) Do all the homework assignments, ask questions (early!) if you run into trouble. 3) Read the textbook, take the quizzes, work through the end of chapter problems. 4) Use office hours

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Chapter 1 Welcome Aboard

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Introduction to the World of Computing

! Computer: electronic genius?
n n

NO! Electronic idiot! Does exactly what we tell it to, nothing more. You will be able to understand how computers are built, and write programs in C and understand what s going on underneath. Build understanding from the bottom up. Bits Transistors Gates Logic Processor Instructions Assembly Code C Programming
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! Goal of the course:

n

! Approach:
n n

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Two Recurring Themes

! Abstraction
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Productivity enhancer dont need to worry about details Can drive a car without knowing how the internal combustion engine works. until something goes wrong! Where s the dipstick? What s a spark plug? Important to understand the components and how they work together.
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Two Recurring Themes

! Hardware vs. Software
n

It s not either/or both are components of a computer system that cooperate. Even if you specialize in one, you should understand capabilities and limitations of both. The best programmers understand the computer systems which run their programs. Computers are an entire ecosystem with multiple levels of abstraction.

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Big Idea #1: Universal Computing Devices

! All computers, given enough time and memory, are capable of computing exactly the same things.

=
PDA Workstation

=
Supercomputer
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Turing Machine
! Mathematical model of a device that can perform any computation Alan Turing (1937)
n n

ability to read/write symbols on an infinite tape state transitions, based on current state and symbol

! Every computation can be performed by some Turing machine. (Turing s thesis)

a,b

Tadd

a+b

a,b

Tmul

ab

Turing machine that adds

For more info about Turing machines, see http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_machine/

Turing machine that multiplies

For more about Alan Turing, see http://www.turing.org.uk/turing/
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Universal Turing Machine

! A machine that can implement all Turing machines -- this is also a Turing machine!
n

inputs: data, description of computation (other TMs)

Tadd, Tmul a,b,c

c(a+b)

Universal Turing Machine

Universal machine is programmable so is a computer!

instructions are part of the input data a computer can emulate a Universal Turing Machine

A computer is a universal computing device.

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From Theory to Practice

! In theory, computer can compute anything ! that s possible to compute
n

given enough memory and time

! In practice, solving problems involves computing under constraints.

n

time
! weather forecast, next frame of animation, ...

cost
! cell phone, automotive engine controller, ...

power
! cell phone, handheld video game, ...
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Big Idea #2: Transformations Between Layers

Problems Algorithms Language Instruction Set Architecture Microarchitecture Circuits Devices
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! A systematic sequence of transformations between layers of abstraction. Problem

How do we solve a problem using a computer?

Software Design: choose algorithms and data structures Algorithm Programming: use language to express design Program
Instr Set Architecture

Compiling/Interpreting: convert language to machine instructions

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Deeper and Deeper

Instr Set Architecture

Processor Design: choose structures to implement ISA Microarch Logic/Circuit Design: gates and low-level circuits to implement components Process Engineering & Fabrication: develop and manufacture lowest-level components
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Circuits

Devices

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Descriptions of Each Level

! Problem Statement
n n

stated using "natural language" may be ambiguous, imprecise step-by-step procedure, guaranteed to finish definiteness, effective computability, finiteness express the algorithm using a computer language high-level language, low-level language specifies the set of instructions the computer can perform data types, addressing mode
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! Algorithm
n n

! Program
n n

! Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

n n

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Descriptions of Each Level (cont.)

! Microarchitecture
n n

detailed organization of a processor implementation different implementations of a single ISA combine basic operations to realize microarchitecture many different ways to implement a single function (e.g., addition) properties of materials, manufacturability

! Logic Circuits
n n

! Devices
n

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Many Choices at Each Level

Solve a system of equations
Red-black SOR Gaussian elimination C Intel x86 Pentium 4 C++ Jacobi iteration Java Atmel AVR Xeon Multigrid

FORTRAN PowerPC Centrino

Tradeoffs: cost speed power (etc.)

Ripple-carry adder CMOS Bipolar

Carry-lookahead adder GaAs

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Book Outline
! Bits and Bytes
n

How do we represent information using electrical signals? How do we build circuits to process information? How do we build a processor out of logic elements? What operations (instructions) will we implement? How do we use processor instructions to implement algorithms? How do we write modular, reusable code? (subroutines) How does processor communicate with outside world? How do we write programs in C?
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! Digital Logic
n

! Processor and Instruction Set

n n

! Assembly Language Programming

n n

! I/O, Traps, and Interrupts

n

! C Programming
n

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Our Outline (CSU tweak)

! First C programming
n n

You already know how to program in Java Learning C will be much faster than the book s speed (Ch 11-13) Digital Logic Processor & Instruction Set Assembly Language Programming I/O, Traps, Interrupts Functions, procedures, activations/frames, etc. Reinforcement of ideas Second look at the same ideas

! Follow the text sequentially

n n n n n

! Write a LC3 simulator and LC3 assembler in C

n n

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13

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How to succeed in this class

1) Most university classes require two to three times the contact hours. 2) So a 15 credit student should spend 60 hours in school related activity.
1) 2)

Yeah right!!! BUT ITS TRUE ABOUT THIS CLASS 30 mins Quiz 4 hrs contact hours 30 mins review class notes (15 x 2) 8-11 hrs assignments
CS270 Spring 2012 - Colorado State University 27

3) Time management:
1) 2) 3) 4)

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Before next lecture

Read the notes at:

http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~cs270/.Spring12/Notes/ NumberSystems.pdf

Spend 1 hour on it.

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14

Chapter 2 Bits, Data Types, and Operations

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How do we represent data in a computer?

!
n

At the lowest level, a computer is an electronic machine.

works by controlling the flow of electrons

Easy to recognize two conditions:

1. presence of a voltage we ll call this state 1 2. absence of a voltage we ll call this state 0

!
n

Could base state on value of voltage, but control and detection circuits more complex.
compare turning on a light switch to measuring or regulating voltage
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Computer is a binary digital system.

Digital system:
finite number of symbols

Binary (base two) system:

has two states: 0 and 1

! Basic unit of information is the binary digit, or bit. ! Values with >2 states require multiple bits.
n

A collection of two bits has four possible states: 00, 01, 10, 11 A collection of three bits has eight possible states: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111 A collection of n bits has 2n possible states.
CS270 Spring 2012 - Colorado State University 31

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What kinds of data do we need to represent?

n n n n n n n

Numbers signed, unsigned, integers, floating point, complex, rational, irrational, Text characters, strings, Logical true, false Images pixels, colors, shapes, Sound waveforms Instructions representation and operations within the computer

! Data type:
n

! We ll start with numbers

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Unsigned Integers
! Non-positional notation
n

could represent a number ( 5 ) with a string of ones ( 11111 ) problems? like decimal numbers: 329 3 is worth 300, because of its position, while 9 is only worth 9

! Weighted positional notation

n n

329
102 101 100
3x100 + 2x10 + 9x1 = 329

most significant

101
21

least significant

22

20

1x4 + 0x2 + 1x1 = 5

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Seen on a geek T Shirt

! There are only 10 kinds of people ! Those that know binary ! Those that don t

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Unsigned Integers (cont.)

! An n-bit unsigned integer represents 2n values: from 0 to 2n-1.
22 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 21 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 20 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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Unsigned Binary Arithmetic

! Base-2 addition just like base-10!
n

add from right to left, propagating carry

10010 + 1001 11011

10010 + 1011 11101 10111 + 111

1111 + 1 10000

Subtraction, multiplication, division,

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Signed Integers
! With n bits, we have 2n distinct values.
n n n

assign about half to positive integers (1 through 2n-1) assign about half to negative (- 2n-1 through -1) that leaves two values: one for 0, and one extra just like unsigned zero in most significant (MS) bit 00101 = 5 sign-magnitude set sign bit to show negative 10101 = -5 one s complement flip every bit to represent negative 11010 = -5 in either case, MS bit indicates sign: 0=pos., 1=neg.
CS270 Spring 2012 - Colorado State University 37

! Positive integers
n

! Negative integers
n

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Two s Complement
! Problems with sign-magnitude, 1 s complement
n n

two representations of zero (+0 and 0) arithmetic circuits are complex ! How to add two sign-magnitude numbers?
n

e.g., try 2 + (-3) e.g., try 4 + (-3)

! How to add two one s complement numbers?

n

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Two s Complement
! Two s complement representation developed to make circuits easy for arithmetic.
n

for each positive number (X), assign value to its negative (-X), such that X + (-X) = 0 with normal addition, ignoring carry out

00101 (5) + 11011 (-5) 00000 (0)

01001 (9) +
(-9) 00000 (0)

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Two s Complement Representation

! If number is positive or zero,
n

normal binary representation, zeroes in upper bit(s) start with positive number flip every bit (i.e., take the one s complement) then add one

! If number is negative,
n n n

00101 (5) 11010 (1 s comp) + 1 11011 (-5)

01001 (9)
(1 s comp)

1
(-9)
40

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Two s Complement Shortcut

! To take the two s complement of a number:
n n

copy bits from right to left until (and including) first 1 flip remaining bits to the left

011010000 100101111 + 1 100110000

011010000
(1 s comp) (flip) (copy)

100110000

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Two s Complement Signed Integers

! MS bit is sign bit it has weight 2n-1. ! Range of an n-bit number: -2n-1 through 2n-1 1.
n

The most negative number has no positive counterpart.

22 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 21 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 20 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 -23 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 22 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 21 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 20 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
42

-23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Converting Binary (2 s C) to Decimal

1. If leading bit is one, take two s complement to get a positive number. 2. Add powers of 2 that have 1 in the corresponding bit positions. 3. If original number was negative, add a minus sign. X = 01101000two = 26+25+23 = 64+32+8 = 104ten
Assuming 8-bit 2 s complement numbers.
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n 2n
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024

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