Lecture noter Numerical Hydraulics

7-1

7 Waves
7.1 Wave theory
7.1.1
2

Governing equations
2

Waves are described by the Euler equation. In one dimension it has the following form:
u 2 u -------- = v -------2 2 t x

(7-1)

where: u = u(x,t) : amplitude at location x and time t v : phase velocity [LT-1] Equation (7-1) is a homogeneous, linear, partial differential equation of 2nd order. Its solution takes the form: u = ( kx t ) (7-2)
where:

k = 2/k = 2f f

: wave number [L-1] : wave length [L] : angular velocity [T-1] : (normal) frequency [T-1]

The proof of Eq. (7-2) is readily obtained by calculating the 2nd derivatives in Eq. (7-1):

2 2 = 2 2 ; t 2

2 2 = k2 2 , x 2

= kx t

(7-3)

Since the second derivatives of the function , 2 / 2 , vanish in Eq. (7-1), it follows that:
v = --k

(7-4)

In 2 dimensions the equation is written analogously:

2 2 2 u 2 u u -------- = v -------- + -------- 2 x 2 y2 t

(7-5) (7-6)

and its solution is:

u = ( k x x + k yy t )

with phase velocity:

v = ----------------------------2 2 12 ( kx + ky )

(7-7)

which can again be proven by calculating the second derivatives of Eq. (7-6) and inserting them into Eq. (7-5).

7-2

Lecture noter Numerical Hydraulics

Following Eq. (7-6), for a fixed time t the amplitude u attains the same value where kxx + kyy = a (a is an arbitrary constant), i.e. where: (7-8) a kx y= x ky ky From Fig. 7-1 it is visible that curves corresponding to a fixed amplitude form lines with slope (kx/ky). In other words, Eq. (7-5) leads to plane waves in the (x,y)-plane and the corresponding wave vector is k = (kx, ky).

Steigung: -k /k Wellenfront
x y

k
Abb: 7-1:

Au sbreitung einer ebenen W elle mit W ellenvektor k = (k x ,k y ). Die Wellenfront bezeichnet die Kurven gleicher Amplitude

Note that Eq. (7-7) implies that the phase velocity v depends only on the magnitude of the wave vector |k| = (kx2 + ky2)1/2 and does not depend on its direction (isotropic propagation).
Assumption: Let the direction of propagation be parallel to the x-axis (ky = 0). Since the wave equation (7-1) is linear, superpositions of two solutions 1 and 2 form another solution. In particular we can form an arbitrary waveform using the superposition of harmonic waves:
u k ( x , t ) = a k sin ( k x t ) + b k cos ( k x t )

(7-9)
e
ix

or written in a more compact way using

u k ( x, t ) = A k e

= cos x + i sin x

i ( k x t )

(7-10)

In an infinite domain (-< x < a wave can generally be described as:

( x, t ) =

u k ( x, t ) dk =

Ak e

i ( kx t )

dk

(7-11)

The amplitudes (Fourier coefficients) determine the waveform. For the case when waves are confined to a finite domain only discrete values of k are admitted:
k ( n ) = -- n L ,
( x, t ) =

n = 1, 2,...

(7-12) (7-13)

u k ( n) ( x, t )

Note that the relationship between k and is determined by Eq. (7-4) and this equation on its part depends via v on the physics of the wave mechanism.

Lecture noter Numerical Hydraulics

7.1.1 Group velocity and dispersion

7-3

A wave packet of finite length can be described using a superposition of harmonic waves consisting of slightly different wavelengths and frequencies. Consider the simple example of two harmonic waves:
u 1 = a sin ( k 1 x 1 t ) u 2 = a sin ( k 2 x 2 t )

(7-14)

with
k = k 1 k 2 k = 1 ( k 1 + k 2 ) = 1 2 = 1 ( 1 + 2 ) it follows that: --, 2 2 , ,

k u to t = u 1 + u 2 = 2a cos ------ x ------- t sin ( kx t ) 2 2

(7-15)

The sinus represents a normal wave with average wave number k or frequency , respectively. The cosine causes an amplitude modulation with half the wavelength 2/k, which corresponds to a wave package (Fig. 7-2).
2 / k

2/k
Abb: 7-2: berlagerung von 2 Wellen mit leicht verschiedenen Wellenzahlen

The propagation velocity of the packet can be determined analogously to Eq. (7-4) from the relation:
v g = ------k

(7-16)

The velocity vg is termed group velocity. For the case k, 0 this equation becomes:
d v g = ------dk

(7-17)

When the phase velocity v is constant (i.e. independent of k) the Eq. (7-4) implies that:
d v g = ------- = v dk

(7-18)

i.e. group and phase velocity are equal. Such waves are called dispersionless. They are observed in ideal, isotropic elastic media. Water waves are dispersive. For the case where the wave length is much smaller than the water depth h, the phase velocity v is given by (this will be demonstrated further below):
g 12 g 1 2 v = ------ = -- k 2

(7-19)

and hence = kv = (kg)1/2 and

d 1 g 12 1 - = -- v v g = ------- = -- -- dk 2 k 2

(7-20)

Dispersion can be included into the wave equation (7-1) via an additional term (nevertheless the

7-4 equation remains linear!):

2 2 u 2 u -------- = v -------- + cu 2 2 x t

Lecture noter Numerical Hydraulics

(7-21)

Let again (kx - t) be a solution, then Eq. (7-21) implies that:

2 2 d 2 -------- k ----- + c = 0 2 2 d v

(7-22)

For an arbitrary choice of k und this leads to a differential equation for , which determines the specific waveform. Dispersion leads to a deformation of the wave packet, which can be represented as a linear superposition of different harmonic waves (Eq. (7-10)), because the different components uk propagate with different velocities v. Wave equations, which additionally contain a derivative in time, e.g.:
u 2 u u -------- + a ----- = v -------2 2 t x t
2 2

(7-23)
u ( kx t ) = A e
i ( kx t )

lead to the following relation using

: (7-24)

2 + ia v 2 k 2 = 0
which has the solution:

1 ia 4v 2 k 2 a 2 2

(7-25)

For a < 2vk (no dampening) is complex, e.g. = 0 + i1, which implies for the time dependent part of u that:
e it = e i0t e 1t fr t

(7-26)

Lecture noter Numerical Hydraulics Therefore, the wave is dampened.

7-5

Finally, it is noteworthy that nonlinear wave equations lead to a coupling between the harmonic wave parts uk. This is also known as wave interaction. Coupling between waves is a typical property of hydrodynamical systems (turbulence!).

7.2 Types of waves

Waves can be classified into:

Gravity waves capillary waves shallow water waves solitons internal waves, seiches
Gravity waves
c, Wellengeschwindigkeit

the restoring force is the gravity force the important force is surface tension are gravity waves, but for small water depth waves with constant waveform

7.1.1

r r w
2

Abb: 7-3:

Schwerewellen

The water particles describe circular trajectories, as shown in Fig. (7-3). The waves are shallow compared to the water depth, i.e. 2r h. The water particles do not experience a net transport, but describe cirlular trajectories. The angular frequency of the particles is defined as:
2 = ----T

(7-27)

The particle velocity on the wave crest is:

w1 = c r
and in the wave trough it is:

(7-28)

w2 = c + r

(7-29)

7-6

Lecture noter Numerical Hydraulics

The Bernoulli equation along a streamline (corresponding to the free water surface) is formulated as:
w1 w2 ----- + 2r = ----2g 2g
2 2

(7-30)

This implies that, for deep water waves, the wave velocity c is defined as:
gT c = -----2

(7-31) we obtain:

using

= cT

c=

g = 2

g k

(7-32)

Gravity waves are dispersive because c = c() (which is not the case for sound waves!). The water velocity decreases rapidly (exponentially) with depth. The decrease can be described as ~ z0 z exp 2 ------------- . (This implies that smaller waves attenuate faster with depth then bigger waves!)

Since = f(k), gravity waves have a group velocity c*:

c =

d 1 g 1 = = c dk 2 k 2
2 2 ) , k= T

(7-33)

(where =

7.1.2

Capillary waves

For small distances, an additional force becomes important, namely the surface tension. For the one-dimensional case we can write:

p p = 0 + g g Rg
where R = radius of curvature and = surface tension. The Bernoulli equation along the free water surface reads:
w2 w1 ----- + 2r + ----------- = ----- ---------2g R g 2 g Rg ,
2 2

(7-34)

R=

2 4 2 r

(7-35)

The radius of curvature R is obtained as the inverse of the curvature which is expressed by the second derivative of the wave form. From Eq. (7-35) we obtain for the wave velocity c:
c= g 2 + 2

(7-36)

Lecture noter Numerical Hydraulics For long waves the first term dominates:
c = g -----2

7-7

For short waves the second term dominates: c =

The transition occurs at a wave length 1, where c has a minimum (the two terms under the square root in (7-36) are equal):
1 = 2 -----g

(7-37)

If:
> 1: long wave => gravity wave < 1: short wave => capillary wave

Both waves experience dispersion.

For the case of water we have: = 1000 kg/m3 = 0.073 N/m 1 = 1.71 cm

c1 = 23.1 cm/s So far we have considered waves in deep water, only. The general formula for waves with a finite water depth h is written as:

c2 =

4 2 2 g tanh( h) 1 + 2 g2

(7-38)

When the water depth is large h we have:

2 tanh ------h 1

(7-39)

and we find again Eq. (7-36).

7.1.3 Shallow water waves

Shallow water means: water depth h wave length and 1 (surface tension unimportant, see Eq. 7-37). This means that:
2 2 tanh ------h -----h

(7-40)

and so:
c = gh , oder c =
2

gh

(7-41)

7-8

Lecture noter Numerical Hydraulics

Therefore, shallow water waves are dispersion free (Fig. 7-4):

Im tiefen Wa sser

Im flachen Wa sser

hydrostatische Druckverteilung
h < /2

Abb: 7-4:

Schwerewellen

7.1.4

Solitons

The wave velocity of solitons is defined as:

c = f(h )

(7-42)

The wave crests propagate faster than the troughs. This causes a steepening of the wave and finally leads to wave breaking. Solitons are characterized by two competing effects: steepening and dispersion.
Dispersion Expanding c2 from Eq. (7-38) to
kh = 2h

(7-43)

and neglecting capillary forces, one obtaines at lowest order:

c(k ) gh (1 k 2h2 ) 6

(7-44)

The width of the wave is defined in Fig. (7-5):

A

Abb: 7-5:

Solitonen

The dispersion or the broadening of the wave is defined by

c 1 = h gh ----2
2

(7-45)

Since:
c' = g(h + A) > c = gh

(7-46)

Lecture noter Numerical Hydraulics the crest is faster than the trough. The steepening is described by:

7-9

c2 = c'c

g A h 2

(7-47)

Solitons keep a balance between steepening and flattening. The wave therefore propagates without changing its form:
c 1 = c2

(7-48)

This implies that:

A

2h 3 2

(7-49)

The exact solution, which is propagated without change of form is written as:
A y = h ---------------------2 x cosh -- , -

with A = -- h c = 3 ,

g (h + A )

(7-50)

7.1.5

Internal waves and seiches

Internal waves and seiches form in lakes due to the action of strong winds, wich push the water towards the coast and slightly increase the water depth at the coast. After the wind seizes the water flows back towards its initial state and, due to its inertia, exceeding its initial state. A standing wave is formed (Fig. 7-6).
Grundschwingung Erste Oberschwingung

Schwingungsknoten
Gleichgewichtslage der Seeoberflche

Schwingungsknoten

Abb: 7-6:

Stehende Oberflchenwelle, genannt Seiches

7-10

Lecture noter Numerical Hydraulics

Also if barely visible at the surface, internal waves or seiches are more important than surface seiches for chemical and biological processes in lakes. Internal seiches are caused by vertical density gradients between epi- and hypolimnion. The two regions are separated by an interface where the temperature shows a jump (thermocline). Since these density differences are much smaller than those between water and air, internal seiches are slower than their counterparts at the surface, however, they show a much higher amplitude. An internal seiche is a so-called internal standing wave.
Free surface seiches

We analyze a free surface seiche in a rectangular lake with constant density (Fig. 7-7).
z

h u 0
Abb: 7-7:

x
Oberflchenseiche in einem Rechtecksee

The linearized momentum equation for the horizontal velocity u reads:

u 1 p - ----- = -- ---- x t

(7-51)

The pressure at depth z is expressed as:

h+

p( z ) = p0 + g

dz = p0 + g ( h + z )

(7-52)

Where: g: gravitational acceleration

: deflection of the free surface from the equilibrium position h

p0: atmospheric pressure at the free surface h: water depth when the free surface stands still (equilibrium position) Since
p ----- = g -----x x

(7-53)

is independent of depth z und friction losses of the water between regions of different velocity have been neglected in Eq. (7-51), it is reasonable to assume that the horizontal velocity does not change with depth z. The continuity equation establishes a relation between the horizontal water transport over the whole depth of the lake, (h+)u, and the deflection of the free surface :
u ----- [ ( h + )u ] h ----- = -----x x t

(7-54)

where has been neglected with respect to h as well as the product of two small quantities,

Lecture noter Numerical Hydraulics namely, obtain:

u ----------- = g -------2 x t x
2 2

7-11

u ---- x

. Inserting Eq. (7-53) into (7-51) and deriving with repect to the space variable x, we

(7-55)

On the other hand, deriving Eq. (7-54) once more in time leads to:
u h ---------- = -------2 xt t
2 2

(7-56)

Combining these two equations and eliminating the mixed derivative of u, one obtains a wave equation:
-------- = gh -------2 2 x t
2 2

(7-57)

Comparison with Eq. (7-1) shows that the wave propagates with velocity
v = gh

(7-58)

along the x-axis. The waves are dispersion free and satisfy Eq. (7-4); they are shallow water waves with wave length h discussed above. A standing wave forms when the ratio between wave length and twice the length of the lake 2L is an integer number:
2L 2 = ----- = ----n k

(7-59)

and so:
k n = -- n L

und n = vk n

(7-60)

This implies for the period Tn:

2L 1 2 - T n = ------ = ---------- -n gh n

(7-61)

7-12

Lecture noter Numerical Hydraulics

The integer number n denotes the order of a wave: for n = 1 one abtains the primary mode, i.e. the 2L wave with the longest period T 1 = ---------- .
gh

Internal seiches The wave equation for the internal seiche is derived analogously. Only the main steps are outlined (Fig. 7-8).
z h H +h E hH
Hypolimnion H

Epilimnion E

u v x

Abb: 7-8:

Interne Seiche im Rechtecksee

The pressure in the epilimnion is expressed as:

p = p 0 + g E ( h E + z )

(7-62)

and so:
p ----- = gE -----x x

(7-63)

Pressure in the hypolimnion:

p = p 0 + g E ( h E + ) + g H ( h H + z )

(7-64)

thus:
p ----- = g ----- + ------ x x E x

(7-65)

where = HE. The momentum equation can be written as:

v 1 p - ----- = ----- ----- = g ------ ----- g ----- x x H x t
u ----- = g -----x t

(7-66) (7-67)

Note that differences between E and H have been neglected as long as the two densities do not appear as a difference (Boussinesq approximation) ( denotes the average density). The continuity equation can be written as:
v h H ----- = ----x t

(7-68)

and so
u h E ----- = ----- -----x t t

(7-69)

Lecture noter Numerical Hydraulics

7-13

The wave equation for is obtained combining the four Equations (7-66) to (7-69). First, Eq. (7-68) is derived with respect to t and Eq. (7-66) is derived with respect to x and the combination of the two yields:
2 2 2 -------- = ghH ------ -------- + -------- 2 x 2 x 2 t

(7-70)

The second derivative of in x, which appears in Eq. (7-70), is eliminated through analogous treatment of Eq.s (7-67) and (7-69), which implies that:
2 2 2 1 -------- = --------- ------- -------- 2 gh E t2 t2 x

(7-71)
t
2 2

The acceleration term ( 2 t 2 ) is negligible. Inserting into (7-70) and solving for
2 2 2 h E h H -------- = g ------ ------------------ ------- = g'h' -------2 2 h E + h H x 2 t x

leads to: (7-72)

with the so-called reduced acceleration of gravity

g' = ------ g

(7-73)

and the combined flow depth

1 1 1 --- = ----- + -----h' hE hH

(7-74)

In other words: internal seiches are in principle governed by the same conditions (Eq. (7-58) to (761)) as seiches on the surface, where only g has to be replaced by g and h by h!
Example for the primary periods of a free surface seiche and an internal seiche:

Length of the lake: Depth: mean Epilimnion

L = 20 km h = 50 m hE = 10 m

Hypolimnion hH = 40 m Density difference H/E / = 10-3

Free surface seiche v = (gh)1/2 = 22.2 m/s

T1 = 1800 s = 0.5 hours

T

Internal seiche g = g/ = 9.81*10-3 ms-2

h = 8 m v = (gh)1/2 = 0.28 m/s T1 = 1.43*105 s = 39.7 hours