Formula Book for Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Fluid and Mechanical Engineering Systems Department of Management and Engineering Linkping University o
Revised 2008-10-27

Contents
1 Elementary Equations 1.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . 1.2 The continuity equation 1.3 Reynolds number . . . . 1.4 Flow equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 6 6 6 6 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 12 13 13 13 14 15 15 15 15 17 17 17 17 17 17 18

2 Pipe ow 2.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Bernoullis extended equation 2.3 The ow loss, pf . . . . . . 2.4 The friction factor, . . . . . 2.5 Disturbance source factor, s 2.6 Single loss factor, . . . . . .

3 Orices 3.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 The ow coecient, Cq . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Series connection of turbulent orices . . 3.4 Parallel connection of turbulent orices

4 Flow forces 4.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Spool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Rotational transmissions 5.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Eciency models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Accumulators 6.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Calculating of the accumulator volume, V0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Gap theory 7.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Plane parallel gap . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Radial gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Gap between cylindrical piston and 7.5 Axial, annular gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8 Hydrostatic bearings 8.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Circled block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Rectangular block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Hydrodynamic bearing 9.1 Nomenclature . . . . 9.2 Cartesian coordinate 9.3 Polar coordinates . . theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Non-stationary ow 10.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Joukowskis equation . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Retardation of cylinder with inertia load 10.4 Concentrated hydraulic inductance . . . 10.5 Concentrated hydraulic capacitance . . 10.6 Concentrated hydraulic resistance . . . .

10.7 Basic dierential equations on ow systems with parameter distribution in space . 10.8 Speed of waves in pipes lled with liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Pump pulsations 11.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 System with closed end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Systems with low end impedance (e.g. volume) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Hydraulic servo systems 12.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 The servo valves transfer function . . . . . . . . 12.4 Servo valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 The hydraulic systems transfer function . . . . . 12.6 The servo stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7 The servos response bandwidth . . . . . . . . . 12.8 The hydraulic systems and the servos sensitivity 12.9 The servos steady state error . . . . . . . . . . . 12.10Control technical resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to loading stiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18 18 20 20 20 21 23 23 24 24 26 27 28 30 31 33 33 38 38 42 42 42 43 44 44 44

13 Hydraulic uids 13.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Pneumatic 14.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 Stream through nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Series connection of pneumatic components . . . . . 14.4 Parallel connected pneumatic components . . . . . . 14.5 Parallel- and series connected pneumatic components 14.6 Filling and emptying of volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix A Symbols of Hydraulic Components

47

1
1.1
Re V d dh p q qin t

Elementary Equations
Nomenclature
:Reynolds number :volume :diameter :hydraulic diameter :pressure :ow (volume ow) :ow in into volume :time [-] [m3 ] [m] [m] [Pa] [m3 /s] [m3 /s] [s] v e p :(mean-) ow velocity :eective bulk modulus (reservoir and uid) :pressure variation, upstream to downstream :dynamic viscosity :kinematic viscosity (= ) :density [m/s] [Pa] [Pa] [Ns/m2 ] [m2 /s] [kg/m3 ]

1.2

The continuity equation

dV
qin = dV V dp + dt e dt

qin p, V

Flow out from the volume is counted negative.

1.3

Reynolds number
vdh (dh hydraulic diameter) 4 cross section area dh = (dh = d at cirkular crosssection) circumference

Re =

1.4

Flow equations
Laminar ow Turbulent ow q p q p

For ow through x orices applies (see also section 3, Orices):

2
2.1
Re d d1 d2 h h1 h2 g x s

Pipe ow
Nomenclature
:Reynolds number :diameter :upstream diameter :downstream diameter :height :upstream height :downstream height :gravitation :length :distance after disturbance source :distance after disturbance source when the ow prole is completely developed [-] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m/s2 ] [m] [m] p p1 p2 r v v1 v2 pf s :pressure :upstream pressure :downstream pressure :radius :(mean-) ow velocity :upstream (mean-) ow velocity :downstream (mean-) ow velocity :correction factor :pressure loss, upstream to downstream :angle :friction factor :density :single loss factor :disturbance source factor [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [m] [m/s] [m/s] [m/s] [-] [Pa] [ ] [-] [kg/m3 ] [-] [-]

[m]

2.2

Bernoullis extended equation

2 v 2 v1 + gh1 = p2 + 2 + gh2 + pf 2 2

At stationary incompressible ow p1 +

2.3

The ow loss, pf
v 2 d 2 v 2 pf = s 2 v 2 2 at a straight distance after a disturbance source at a single disturbance source

2.4

The friction factor,

64 Re

Re < 2300 laminar ow 2300 < Re < 105 turbulent ow in smooth pips

2.5

Disturbance source factor, s

s 1,21 s 0,06dRe (Re < 2300),

0,316 4 Re

The laminar ow is completely developed at the distance s after a disturbance source.

For < s applies s = 1,28 tanh(6,28x0,44 ) where x = x dRe x < 0,06dRe, see diagram in gure 1

1,30

1,00

0,50

0,00

lx / d Re 10
-5

10

-4

10

-3

10

-2

10 0,06

-1

10

Figur 1: The disturbance source factor s as function of

x . dRe

The turbulant ow is completely developed at the distance s after a disturbance source. s 0,09 For < s applies s = 0,09 x 40d x < 40d s 40d (Re > 2300),

2.6

Single loss factor,

Pipe connections to reservoir

tank v
The pipe starts at a given distance inside the reservoir 1 = 0,5 Slightly rounded edge Sharp edge

tank v
Pipes in the reservoir wall = 0,5

tank

r d v

Pipe in the reservoir wall with rounded edge

r/d 0,1 0,12 0,15 0,08 0,25 0,05 0,6 0,04

tank l d v

The pipe starts at a given distance inside the reservoir with entrance cone: For given , optimal cone angle and resistance factor is stated.
/d [ ] 0,1 6090 0,40 0,15 6080 0,26 0,25 6070 0,17 0,6 5060 0,13 1,0 5060 0,10

tank d l v

Pipe in reservoir wall with entrance cone: For given , optimal cone angle and resistance factor is stated.
/d [ ] 0,1 5060 0,18 0,15 5060 0,14 0,25 4555 0,12 0,6 4050 0,10

Area variations in the pipe

d1

d2

Increase of area: The loss factor is found in the gure 2

0,9
0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 1,50

= 180, dashed

= 60
40 30 20 15 10 5

2,00

2,50

3,00

3,50

4,00

d2/d1

Figur 2: The loss coecient as function of the area relationship with the angle as parameter at increase of area.

Decrease of area: The loss factor is described by = 0 , where 0 for dierent geometries is received from section above about Pipe connection to reservoir.

d1

d2 v

According to von Mises applies when

d2 /d1 0,90 0,19 0,80 0,37 0,70 0,51 0,50 0,76 0,30 0,91 0,10 0,99

Disturbance source factor s applies in a similar way s = s0 1 d2 d1

3

The uncompensated disturbance source factor s0 is received from section 2.5, Disturbance source factor, s . 4

Pipe bend

r d

For pipe bend relates: = 90 90 where 90 is

d/r 90 0,20 0,13 0,40 0,14 0,60 0,16 0,80 0,21 1,00 0,29

For pipe angle gives directly by

[ ] 10 0,04 60 0,55 20 0,10 70 0,70 30 0,17 80 0,90 40 0,27 90 1,20 50 0,40

[ ]

Special geometries

= 0,10

= 1,20

= 0,50

45 = 0,15 = 0,06 = 0,50

45 = 2,5 3

Banjonipple = 2,5 4

3
3.1
A A1 Cq Re d K

Orices
Nomenclature
:area :upstream area :ow coecient :Reynolds number :diameter :constant Cq A 2/ [m2 ] [m2 ] [-] [-] [m] [m3 /s P a] p p1 p2 q :length :pressure :upstream pressure :downstream pressure :ow (volume ow) :density [m] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [m3 /s] [kg/m3 ]

p1 q

p2

q = Cq A

2 (p1 p2 )

3.2

The ow coecient, Cq

Hole orice (sharp edged)

p1 A1 A

p2

Cq = Cq (Re,

A ) A1

If nothing else is stated Cq = 0,67 can be used. Pipe orice (sharp edged)

p1

d l

p2

Laminar ow in the orice (Re < 2300) Cq = 1 1,5 + 1,28 tanh(6,28x0,44 ) + 64x dr x = a dRe

The term 1,28 tanh(6,28x0,44 ) agrees with s and can be received from the diagram in gure 1 in section Pipe ow. When x 0,06, the value 1,21 is accepted. Turbulent ow in the orice with 2 1 0,316 1,46 + 0,088 + 4 d Re d 1 1,46 + 0,115 d 20 d 2300 Re 2 104

Cq =

2 104 Re

3.3

Series connection of turbulent orices

p0 q K1 K2 Ki Kn p1 p2 pi pn

The sum of the orices applies: q = K p0 pn dr a K= 1

n

Ki = Cqi Ai 1 2 Ki

i=1

The pressure after the j:th orice is given by

j

pj = p0 (p0 pn )K 2

i=1

1 2 Ki

3.4

Parallel connection of turbulent orices

p0 q1 K1 q q2 K2 p1 qi Ki qn Kn

The sum of the orices applies: q = K p0 p1

n

dr K = a
i=1

Ki

Ki = Cqi Ai

The ow through the i:th orice is given by qi = Ki q K

4
4.1
Fs d p p1 p2

Flow forces
Nomenclature
:ow force :spool diameter :length :pressure :upstream pressure :downstream pressure [N] [m] [m] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] q v w x :ow (volume ow) :(mean-)ow velocity :area gradient :spool opening :jet angle :density [m3 /s] [m/s] [m] [m] [ ] [kg/m3 ]

4.2

Spool
Fluidelement

Fs

For this valve, without pressure relief grooves, is the area gradient: w = d

p1
p2

Fs = |2Cq wx(p1 p2 ) cos()| + q The term with absolute value is the static part of the ow force and has a closing eect. If the spool and bushing have sharp and right angle edges and if the gap between the spool and the bushing is small and also x d, then are: 0,62 Cq 0,67 and = 69

5
5.1
Cv D Min Mut kp kv k n

Rotational transmissions
Nomenclature
:laminar leakage losses :displacement :driving torque pump :output torque motor :Coulomb friction :viscous friction losses :displacement coecient :revs [-] [m3 /rev] [Nm] [Nm] [-] [-] [-] [rev/s] qe :eective ow p :pressure dierence :displacement setting hm :hydraulic mechanical eciency vol :volumetric eciency Sub index p pump m motor [m3 /s] [Pa] [-] [-] [-]

Pump

np, Min Dp p
Motor

Eective ow

qep

qep = p Dp np volp Torque Min = 1 p Dp p 2 hmp

Eective ow

qem

nm, Mut m Dm
Torque

qem = m Dm nm

1 volm

Mout =

m Dm phmm 2

5.2
Pump

Eciency models
Hydraulic mechanical eciency p |p |np hmp = 1 np (k (1 |p |)) 1 + (kp + kv )e p

Volumetric eciency volp = 1 Cv

Motor Volumetric eciency volm = 1 + Cv 1 p |m |nm Hydraulic mechanical eciency hmm = 1 (kp + kv nm (k (1 |m |)) )e p

6
6.1
V0 n p0

Accumulators
Nomenclature
:accumulator volume :polytrophic exponent :pre-charged pressure (absolute pressure, normally 90 % av p1 ) [m3 ] [-] [Pa] p1 p2 V :minimum working pressure (absolute) :maximum working pressure (absolute) :working volume [Pa] [Pa] [m3 ]

6.2

Calculating of the accumulator volume, V0

A. Both the charging and discharging is either adiabatic or isotherm process V V0 = 1 p1 p0

1 n

1 n=

isotherm process

p1 p2

1,4(1,5) adiabatic process

B. Isotherm charging and adiabatic discharging V V0 = p2 p1 p2 p0

1 n

n = 1,4(1,5)

10

7
7.1
Ff Mf Pf b e h h0

Gap theory
Nomenclature
:friction force :friction torque :power loss :gap width perpendicular to ow direction :eccentricity :gap height h1 + h2 mean gap height ( ) 2 :length [N] [Nm] [W] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] p q r r1 r2 v p :pressure :leakage ow :radius :inner radius :outer radius :relative velocity :pressure dierence through the gap (p1 p0 ) :angle :dynamic viscosity :angular speed [Pa] [m3 /s] [m] [m] [m] [m/s] [Pa] [rad] [Ns/m2 ] [rad/s]

7.2

Plane parallel gap

Leakage ow relative to the x wall vbh bh3 p + 2 12

l p1 h

v ql p0

q = Friction force Ff =

vb bh p h 2

Eect losses (ow and frictional losses) Pf = bh3 p2 v 2 b + 12 h

7.3

Radial gap
p0 ql r p1 h

When h r can the equations for plane parallel gap be used with following substitution: v = r = r

7.4

Gap between cylindrical piston and cylinder

Leakage ow relative to the x gap wall q = vrh0 + rh3 p 0 1 + 1,5 6 e h0
2

r h1 e p1 h2

l v p0 ql
Frictional force Ff = h0

2rv 1 e h0
2

rh0 p

11

Eect losses (ow and frictional losses) Pf = rh3 p2 0 1 + 1,5 6 e h0

2

+ h0

2rv 2 1 e h0
2

7.5

Axial, annular gap

Leakage ow q = ph3 r2 6 ln r1

p0 ql p1 r1 h r2

Pressure as function of radius ln pr = p1 (p1 p0 ) Friction moment Mf = 4 4 (r r1 ) 2 h 2 ln r r1 r2 r1

Eect losses (ow and frictional losses) Pf = h3 6 p2 r2 ln r1 + 2 4 4 (r r1 ) 2 h 2

12

8
8.1
Ae B F K1 K2 L ae f h

Hydrostatic bearings
Nomenclature
:eective area :bearing chamber length :load :constant :constant :bearing surface length :eective area/width :load/width :gap height :length [m2 ] [m] [N] [Ns] [Nm2 s] [m] [m] [N/m] [m] [m] kb k2 p pb qs qsB r1 r2 :constant :constant :pressure :pressure in the bearing chamber :ow through the bearing :ow through the bearing/width :inner radius :outer radius :dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ] [Nms] [Pa] [Pa] [m3 /s] [m2 /s] [m] [m] [Ns/m2 ]

8.2

Circled block
Flow h3 pb kb

h = constant

p=0 r2 pb r1
where Load

qs =

F = Ae pb kb = 6 ln r2 r1

and Ae =

2 2 r2 r1 r2 2 ln r1

Squeeze Pressure

p=0 r2 pb F h h
and K2 = Load

pb =

K1 h h3 K2 h h3 r1 r2 r1 r2
2

r1
where

F =

2 K1 = 3r2 1

3 4 r 1 2 2

p=0 r2 pb F h h r1

If pb = 0 Load F = where

K2 h h3
3 4

K2 =

3 4 r1 r2 1 2 + 2 2 r2

r1 r2

r1 r2

13

8.3

Rectangular block

h = constant

p=0 L pb f B h L
Squeeze

Flow qsB = Load

h3 pb kb

f = ae p b where kb = 6L and ae = B + L

p=0 L pb f h h L

Pressure pb = Load f =

K1 h h3 k2 h h3

where K1 = 6L(B + L) and 4 k2 = 6L B 2 + 2BL + L2 3

p=0 L pb f h h L
If pb = 0 Load f = where k2 = 2L3

k2 h h3

14

9
9.1
U1 U2 V1 V2 T c h p qx qz qr

Hydrodynamic bearing theory

Nomenclature
:velocity in x-axis surface 1 :velocity in x-axis surface 2 :velocity in y-axis surface 1 :velocity in y-axis surface 2 :temperature :specic heat :gap height :pressure :ow/width unit in x-axis :ow/width unit in z-axis :ow/width unit in r-axis [m/s] [m/s] [m/s] [m/s] [K] [kJ/kg K] [m] [Pa] [m2 /s] [m2 /s] [m2 /s] q r t u w x 1 2 :ow/width unit in -axis :radius :time :ow velocity in x-axis :ow velocity in z-axis :dynamic viscosity :shear stress in x-axis :shear stress in -axis :density :velocity in -axis surface 1 :velocity in -axis surface 2 :angle [m2 /s] [m] [s] [m/s] [m/s] [Ns/m2 ] [N/m2 ] [N/m2 ] [kg/m3 ] [rad/s] [rad/s] [rad]

9.2

Cartesian coordinate
y z V1 U1 V2 U2 x

Speeeds u= Flows qx = Shear stresses h p U2 U1 + 2 x h y y 1 p + U2 [y(y h)] + U1 1 2 x h h h3 p h + (U1 + U2 ) 12 x 2 w= 1 p [y(y h)] 2 z

qz =

h3 p 12 z

y z

x|y=0 = x|y=h = Reynolds equation x

p x|y=0

x|y=h x

U2 U1 h p + 2 x h

h3 p x

h3 p z

= 6(U1 U2 )

(h) + 12(V2 V1 ) x

Adiabatic energy equation c qx T T T + qz +h x z t = h3 (U1 U2 )2 + h 12 p x

2

p z

9.3

Polar coordinates
y 2 V2 x V1
15

w y

u r

Velocities u= Flows qr = Shear stresses r(2 1 ) h p + 2 r h 1 p [y(y h)] 2 r h3 p 12 r w= y y 1 p + r2 [y(y h)] + r1 1 2 r h h h3 p rh + (1 + 2 ) 12 r 2

q =

|y=0 = |y=h =

|y=h

h p r(2 1 ) + 2 r h

|y=0

Reynolds equation r h3 r p r + r h3 p = 6r(1 2 ) (h) + 12r(V2 V1 )

Adiabatic energy equation c qr T T T + q +h r t = r2 h3 (1 2 )2 + h 12 p r

2

1 r2

p p r r

16

10
10.1
A B CH C0 F LH L0 P Q RH RHt R0 R0t V1 V2 Z0 a d m

Non-stationary ow
Nomenclature
:line sectional area :constant (L0 a) :conc. hydr. capacitance :conc. hydr. capacitance/l.enh. :force :conc. hydr. inductance :conc. hydr. inductance/l.enh. :pressure (frequency dependent) :ow (volume ow) (frequency dependent) :conc. hydr. resistance (lam.) :conc. hydr. resistance (turb.) :conc. hydr. res./l.unit. (lam.) :conc. hydr. res./l.unit. (turb.) :volume :volume :impedance :speed of sound :diameter :length :mass p [m2 ] p0 [kg/s m4 ] p [m5 /N] 1 p 4 /N] 2 [m ps [N] q 4] [kg/m q 5 ]0 [kg/m s [Pa] 3 /s] t [m t [Ns/m5 v ] v [Ns/m5 ]0 [Ns/m6 ] [Ns/m6 ] 3 ] e [m p [m3 ] [Ns/m5 ] [m/s] [m] [m] [kg] :pressure :pressure in point of operation :upstream pressure :downstream pressure :supply pressure :ow (volume ow) :ow in point of operation :Laplace operator (i) :time :valve closing time :ow velocity :velocity of cylinder :dimensionless area :eective bulk modulus :change in pressure due to pressure peek :dynamic viscosity :friction coecient :parameter :density :single resistant loss [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [m3 /s] [m3 /s] [1/s] [s] [s] [m/s] [m/s] [-] [Pa] [Pa] [Ns/m2 ] [-] [1/m] [kg/m3 ] [-]

10.2

Joukowskis equation
p = av0

Reduction due to valve closing time. pred = p 2 atv for tv > 2 a

10.3

Retardation of cylinder with inertia load

v0 m

V2 p2

V1 p1

FL

Pressure dierence for retardation (v0 0) p1max p2min = v0 2e m V1

ps = const

pT = 0

10.4

Concentrated hydraulic inductance

p1 p2 = L H dq dt were LH = A

10.5

Concentrated hydraulic capacitance

q1 q2 = CH dp dt were CH = A e

17

10.6

Concentrated hydraulic resistance

R = 128 H d4 For laminar ow For turbulent ow, with linearization around the working point with the ow q0

p1 p2 = RH q

were RH =

10.7

Basic dierential equations on ow systems with parameter distribution in space

q p + L0 + R0 q|q|m = 0 x t p q + C0 =0 x t

R = q0 Ht d A2

Parameter values (per length unit) independent of ow regime C0 = A e L0 = A

with laminar ow R0 = 128 d4 m=0

with turbulent ow R0t = 0,1582 0,25 0,75 d1,25 A1,75 m = 0,75

10.8

Speed of waves in pipes lled with liquid

1 a= = L0 C0 e

Graphical solution F-wave

F

f-wave
f

p = Bq were B = L0 a

p = Bq

18

Boundary conditions: At a valve q = q0 p p0

were = dimensionless area and p0 , q0 is stationary state. At a pressure source with concentrated friction loss p = p0 + Solution with impedance method Transfer matrices P (s, ) Q(s, ) P (s, 0) Q(s, 0) P (s, x) Q(s, x) P (s, x) Q(s, x) = cosh() 1 Z0 sinh() cosh() 1 Z0 sinh() cosh(x) 1 Z0 sinh(x) Z0 sinh() cosh() Z0 sinh() cosh() Z0 sinh(x) cosh(x) P (s, 0) Q(s, 0) P (s, ) Q(s, ) P (s, 0) Q(s, 0) P (s, ) Q(s, ) d q 2 2A2

cosh(( x)) 1 Z0 sinh(( x)) = (L0 s + R0 )C0 s

Z0 sinh(( x)) cosh(( x)) Z0 =

were

L0 s + R0 C0 s

19

11
11.1
A T D L P V a d fp n

Pump pulsations
Nomenclature
:the pipes cross-sectional area :wave propagation time :pump displacement :pipe length :pulsation amplitude :volume :wave propagation speed :pipe diameter :dim. free ow spectrum :pump speed [m2 ] [s] [m3 /varv] [m] [N/m2 ] [m3 ] [m/s] [m] [-] [rev/s] ps z p :static pressure level :the pumps piston number :dynamic viscosity :dim.free cylinder volume :bulk modulus :the pumps displacement :dim.free dead volume :density :dim.free charging time :angular frequency [Pa] [-] [Ns/m2 ] [-] [Pa] [-] [-] [kg/m3 ] [-] [rad/s]

11.2

System with closed end

k T L a

Resonances in a pipe system with closed end are obtained at following frequency/-ies: = where T = a= k = 1, 2, 3, . . .

Figur 3: Amplitude for the resonances k = 1, 2, 3 and 4 in a system with closed end.

Flow disturbance from the pump rises at following frequencies: = 2nzj j = 1, 2, 3, . . .

Under condition that the pumps ow disturbance frequencies coincide with the pipe systems resonances, can the resulting pressure amplitude at this frequency be calculated with following equation: P 2fp p D n = 3 zj ps max dL 1+ 2 p = + 3 1 + ( j) 2 The dimensionless charging time is the relationship between the time you, due to the oils compressibility, receive a back ow into a cylinder, and the total time period, i.e. the time between two volumes in succession are charged. This parameter is very dicult to decide, a typical value of is between 0,05 till 0,3. The higher values are referred to pumps designed for low ow pulsations for example pumps with pressure relief grooves. The dead volume has often the magnitude of 0,2, that is 20% of the eective cylinder volume. Anti-resonances are received in a pipe system with closed end at following frequencies: fp =
1 (k + 2 ) k = 0, 1, 2, . . . T Under condition that the pump ow disturbance frequencies coincide with the pipe systems anti-resonances, can the resulting maximum pressure amplitude at this frequency be calculated with following equation: 4fp p Dn P = ps max d2 a

where

20

Example: The above equations are used for following example. A constant pressure pump presumed work against a closed valve. Following data is obtained:
d = 38 103 n = 25 z=9 D = 220 106 e = 1,5 109 [m] [rev/s] [m3 /rev] [Pa] = 0,2 =0 = 0,02 = 900 = 0,25

[Ns/m2 ] [kg/m3 ]

Four dierent pipe lengths between pump and valve is analysed:

L L L L = 1,45 = 1,91 = 2,15 = 2,90 m m m m Gives Gives Gives Gives resonances for j = 2, 4, 6, . . . resonance for j = 3, 6, . . . resonance for j = 4, . . . resonance for j = 1, 2, 3, . . . anti-resonances for j = 1, 3, 5, . . . no anti-resonance anti-resonances for j = 2, 6, . . . no anti-resonance

In the table below shows the obtained relationship between pulsations pressure amplitude and the systems pressure level for respective disturbance harmonic. Note, for L = 1,91 m and L = 2,15 m can some disturbance harmonics not be analysed with the equations above, since they dont coincide with any of the pipes resonances or anti-resonances. However, the amplitudes at these frequencies are relative small because they dont coincide with any of the pipes resonances. In the table below, these values are in parenthesis.
Relative pulsation amplitude |P/ps | j 1 2 3 4 5 6 f [Hz] 225 450 675 900 1125 1350 L = 1,45 m 0,01 0,45 0,00 0,18 0,00 0,07 L = 1,91 m (0,01) (0,01) 0,22 (0,00) (0,00) 0,05 L = 2,15 m (0,01) 0,00 (0,01) 0,12 (0,01) 0,00 L = 2,90 m 0,35 0,22 0,14 0,09 0,05 0,03

11.3

Systems with low end impedance (e.g. volume)

1 (k + 2 ) T

Resonances in a pipe system with low end impedance is obtained at following frequencies: = k = 0, 1, 2, . . .

Figur 4: Amplitude for the resonances k = 0, 1, 2 and 3 for a system with low end impedance.

Anti-resonances in a pipe system with low end impedance is obtained at following frequencies: = k T k = 1, 2, 3, . . .

The same equations as in previous section can be used here for calculation of maximum pressure amplitude for the pulsations.

21

If a volume, which size is not innite, is connected to the pipe system is a dislocation of the lines resonances from the values in above equations obtained. This dislocation can be calculated according to following equation = 1 T arctan 2 V Aa

I.e. if a nite volume is used the resonance frequency is increased. As example on this section, a high pressure lter is placed before the valve in the example with the constant pressure pump. The valve is closed in this example too. The volume of the lter is 2 liters; other parameters are the same as the previous example except for the length of the line. The following line lengths are analysed:
L = 1,47 m L = 1,87 m L = 3,00 m Gives resonance for j = 3, 5, . . . Gives resonance for j = 1, 4, . . . Gives no resonance anti-resonance for j = 2, 4, 6, . . . anti-resonance for j = 3, 6, . . . anti-resonance for j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .

Note, the volume is relative small and therefore the dislocation equation has to be used. When the new resonance frequency is calculated, passningsrkning has to be used. The method is a shown bellow for L = 1,47 m and k = 1. = 430 rad/s = 1810 rad/s = 340 rad/s = 1720 rad/s 1 k+ 2 = 350 rad/s = 1730 rad/s = 1350rad/s = T The size of the pulsation amplitude in relation to the static system pressure is shown in the table below. The values in parenthesis show, as in previous example, a more correct analyze of the disturbance harmonic which can not be calculated with the equation given in this handbook.
Relative pulsation amplitude |P/ps | j 1 2 3 4 5 6 f [Hz] 225 450 675 900 1125 1350 L = 1,47 m (0,01) 0,00 0,28 0,00 0,11 0,00 L = 1,87 m (0,54) (0,01) 0,00 0,14 (0,00) 0,00 L = 3,00 m 0,01 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

22

12
12.1
A Ah Am Ar Au Bm Bp Ce Ci Ct Cq D FL Gc Go Greg Jt Kc Kp Kq Kreg Kv Mt Np S TL U V

Hydraulic servo systems

Nomenclature
:piston area :control piston area (3-port valve) :amplitude margin :piston area, rod side (3-port valve) :the open systems transfer function :viscous friction coe. (motor) :viscous friction coe. (cylinder) :external leakage ow coe. (cylinder/motor/pump) :internal leakage ow coe. (cylinder/motor/pump) :total leakage ow coe. :leakage ow coe. :displacement (motor/pump) :external (load-) force on cylinder :the closed systems transfer function :the open systems transfer function :controller transfer function :total moment of inertia (motor and load) :owpressure coe. (servo valve) :pressure gain (servo valve) :ow gain (servo valve) :control gain :loop gain :total mass (cylinder piston and load) :pump speed :stiness :external (load-)moment on motor :under lap :volume Vh Vt e 2] [m kp [dB] p pc [m2 ] ps q [Nms/rad] qc [Ns/m] s t [m5 /Ns] xv xp [m5 /Ns] w 5 /Ns] [m e [-] h [m3 /rad] 0 [N] m p m 2] [kg m b 5 /Ns] [m c [Pa/m] h [m2 /s] Re Im [m2 ] [kg] [rad/s] [Nm] [m] [m3 ] :control volume (3-port valve) :total volume :control error :displacement gradient (pump) :pressure :control pressure (3-port valve) :supply pressure :ow (volume ow) :centre ow :Laplace operator (i) :time :position (servo valve) :position (cylinder piston) :area gradient :eective bulk modulus :hydraulic damping :control error (stationary) :density :angular position (motor) :displacement angle (pump) :phase margin :angular frequency :bandwidth :crossing-out frequency :hydraulic eigen frequency :real part :imaginary part [m3 ] [m3 ] [m3 /rad2 ] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [m3 /s] [m3 /s] [rad/s] [s] [m] [m] [m] [Pa] [-] [kg/m3 ] [rad] [rad] [ ] [rad/s] [rad/s] [rad/s] [rad/s]

Tillggsindex a
0 e m p v t L :working point :eective :motor :cylinder (piston), pump :valve :total :load

23

12.2

Introduction

The servo technical section discusses following system: valve controlled cylinder valve controlled motor pump controlled cylinder pump controlled motor As example in this section will a position servo of the type valve controlled cylinder in a constant pressure system be used. In this example is the servo valve a 4-port valve with negligible dynamic and the cylinder is symmetric. See gure 5.

xp V1 A1 p1 xv pT = 0 ps = constant
Figur 5: Lgesservo: ventilstyrd cylinder i konstanttryckssystem. a

A2 V2 p2

FL Mt Bp

xp ref

Greg

A position servo looks, in general, out as follow:

FL (TL) Xp ref (m ref)

+ -

Controller

X v (p)

Xp (m) Hydraulic system

The special case when the hydraulic system consists of a valve controlled cylinder becomes the block diagram as:

FL

Kce A2 p
Xp ref
+

1+
+

Vt
4eKce

)
1

Hydraulic system Xp
h

E
-

Controller

X v

Kq Ap

s2 2 h

+ 2h s + 1

12.3

The servo valves transfer function

All the transfer functions in this section are applied when the load spring constant K is negligible and its viscous friction Bp and Bm respectively is small (can often be set to 0). The direction

24

dependent friction coecient Cf is neglected also in the motor case. Valve controlled systems The dynamic of the servo valve in the valve controlled systems is assumed to be negligible compared to the system. Following is valid for the servo valve (see also section 12.4): 4-ports servo valve qL Kq = xv qL Kc = pL pL Kq = Kp = Kc xv 3-ports servo valve qL Kq = xv qL Kc = pc pc Kq = Kp = Kc xv

the servo valves ow gain the servo valves owpressure coecient the servo valves pressure gain

The load ow and load pressure through a 4-port valve controlled symmetric cylinder/motor is dened according to following expression: qL = (qL1 + qL2 )/2 pL = p1 p2

Pump controlled systems The dynamic of the pump in the pump controlled systems is assumed to be negligible compared to the system. The pumps ideal ow is: qp ideal = p Dp Np = kp p Np Linearised and Laplace transformed equations which describes the dynamic of the following hydraulic systems are presented in section 12.5.

25

xp V1 A1 p1 q1 xv ps = const pT = 0 TL Bm Jt m p1 V1 q1 xv ps = const pT = 0 Dm p2 V2 q2 V1 A1 p1 xp A2 FL Mt Bp p2 = const A2 V2 p2 q2 FL Mt Bp xv Vh Ah pc

xp Ar FL Mt Bp

ps = const

pT = 0

a. Valve controlled symmetric cylinder (4-port valve)

b. Valve controlled asymmetric cylinder (3-port valve)

TL B m Jt m Dm p1 V1 p2 = const

M
d. Pump controlled cylinder

M
e. pump controlled motor (transmission)

c. Valve controlled motor

Figur 6: Dierent types of servo systems.

12.4

Servo valve
1 xv pL |xv |

4-port zero lapped valve Load ow: Centre ow: Zero coecients: qL = Cq wxv qc = 0 ideal ps pL0 = 0 Kc0 = 0 ideal xv0 = 0 Kp0 = ideal ps

Kq0 = Cq w qL0 = 0

26

4-port under lapped valve Load ow: Centre ow: Zero coecients: qL = Cq w (U + xv ) qc = 2Cq wU Kq0 = 2Cq w qL0 = 0 ps ps ps pL (U xv ) ps + pL for |xv | U

Kc0 = Cq wU xv0 = 0

1 ps

Kp0 =

2ps U

pL0 = 0

3-port zero-lapped valve Cq wxv Load ow: qL = Cq wxv Centre ow: qc = 0 ideal Zero coecients: Kq0 = Cq w qL0 = 0 3-port under lapped valve Load ow: Centre ow: Zero coecients: ps

2 (ps pc ) d xv 0 a 2 pc d xv 0 a

Kc0 = 0 ideal ps 2 xv0 = 0

Kp0 = ideal

pc0 =

qL = Cq w (U + xv ) qc = Cq wU Kq0 ps ps = 2Cq w pL0 = ps 2

2(ps pc ) (U xv )

2pc

for |xv | U

Kc0 = 2Cq wU xv0 = 0

1 ps

Kp0 =

ps U

qL0 = 0

12.5

The hydraulic systems transfer function

Valve controlled symmetric cylinder with mass load (4-port valve) Vt Kce Kq Xv 2 1 + s FL Ap Ap 4e Kce Xp = s2 s s 2 + 2h + 1 h h 4e A2 p Vt Mt e A2 p if V1 V2 if V1 = V2 Vt = V1 + V2

where

h =

Kce

1 1 + Mt V1 V2 Cep = Kc + Cip + 2

h =

Kce Ap

Bp e M t + Vt 4Ap

Vt e M t

Ap = A1 = A2

27

Valve controlled asymmetric cylinder with mass load (3-port valve) Vh Kq Kce Xv 2 1 + s FL Ah Ah e Kce Xp = s s2 s 2 + 2h + 1 h h where h = e A2 h Vh Mt h = Kce 2Ah Bp e M t + Vh 2Ah Vh e M t Kce = Kc + Cip

Valve controlled motor with moment of inertia Kq Vt Kce Xv 2 1 + s TL Dm Dm 4e Kce = s s2 s 2 + 2h + 1 h h h = Cem 2 Kce Dm Bm e Jt + Vt 4Dm V1 = V2 Vt e Jt

where

h =

2 4e Dm Vt Jt

Kce = Kc + Cim +

Vt = V1 + V2 ,

Pump controlled cylinder with mass load kp Np V0 Ct p 2 1 + s FL Ap Ap e Ct Xp = s2 s s 2 + 2h + 1 h h where h = e A2 p V0 Mt e M t V0 Ct Bp + 2Ap V0 2Ap e Mt Ap = A1 = A2 = Cip(iston) + Cip(ump) + Cep(iston) + Cep(ump) h =

V0 = V1 Ct = Cit + Cet

Pump controlled motor with moment of inertia (transmission) V0 Ct kp Np p 2 1 + s TL Dm Dm e Ct = s2 s s 2 + 2h + 1 h h e Jt V0 Ct Bm + 2Dm V0 2Dm e Jt Ct = Cit + Cet = Cip + Cim + Cep + Cem h =

where

h = V0 = V1

2 e D m V0 Jt

12.6

The servo stability

Feedback systems can become instable if the feedback is incorrect dimensioned. In this case we study a position servo with proportional feedback Greg = Kreg . The open loop transfer function become: Kv Au = Greg Go = 2 s s s 2 + 2h + 1 h h 28

where Go is the transfer function which describes the hydraulic systems output signal (cylinder position) as function of the hydraulic systems input signal (valve position) when the disturbance signal (FL ) is zero. The steady state loop gain Kv (also called the velocity coecient) is: Kv = Kv = Kv = Kv = Kv = Kq Kreg Ap Kq Kreg Ah Kq Kreg Dm kp Np Kreg Ap kp Np Kreg Dm valve controlled symmetric cylinder (4-port valve) valve controlled asymmetric cylinder (3-port valve) valve controlled motor pump controlled cylinder pump controlled motor

Then, the open systems Bode-diagram for a position servo become as gure 7.
10
1

270 180 phase(Au) [degrees], (dashed line)

c Kv
10 |Au| [-], (solid line)
0

|Au| = 1 Am Kv / 2hh 90 0

10

-1

h
10
-2

-90 -180

10

-3

10

-1

10 10 Angular frequency [rad/s]

10

-270

Figur 7: The open systems transfer function for a position servo. Amplitude, (solid line) and phase, (dashed).

Stability condition A stable system is obtained when the amplitude margin Am > 0 dB at 180 phase shift. If the phase intersects 180 more than one time the Nyquist diagram is needed. the phase margin m > 0 at 0 dB amplitude. If the amplitude curve intersects 0 dB more than one time the Nyquist diagram is needed. For a proportional position servo with a feedback is, for the hydraulic, the amplitude margin the critical stability margin. It means that a stable system needs the open loop gain |Au | to be <= 1 (0 dB) when the phase shift is <= 180. Figure 7 shows that the stability condition becomes Kv <1 2h h Stability margins Position servo (with Bode-diagram according to gure 7) amplitude margin can be written as: Am = 20 10 log Kv 2h h [dB]

The following margins should be used when the control parameters shall be dimensioned in a hydraulic system with a feedback. 29

amplitude margin: Am 10 dB phase margin: m 45 The systems critical working condition Since hydraulic systems are non-linear systems, the stability margin will become dierent in dierent working condition. From the gure for the open systems transfer function Au the stability margin become worst when both h and h are low and steady state loop gain Kv is big. This happened for a valve controlled symmetric cylinder when Cylinder piston is centered (xp = 0), i.e. V1 = V2 =
Vt 2 .

h is minimised.

The servo valve is closed (xv = qL = 0), i.e. when Kc = Kc0 . Kce and consequently h is minimised. Cylinder piston is out balanced, i.e. when pL = 0. Kq , which is proportional to ps pL , is maximised and consequently also Kv (proportional to Kq ). With similar discussion, the critical working condition can be decided for other systems. In practical dimensioning, the hydraulic damping is often set to h 0, 1.

12.7

The servos response bandwidth

The bandwidth (b ) for the closed loop system species how high frequency the servos output signal can follow a sinusoidal input signal, when the disturbance FL = 0, without: the gain lowers more than 3 dB (29,3 %) or the phase shift become more than 90 If the feedback is 1, the closed loop systems transfer function for a position servo with any of the earlier described hydraulic systems becomes: Gc = Au = 1 + Au 1 1 2h 2 1 3 2s + K s + K s+1 K v h v h v

where Gc =

Xp for a position servo with a valve controlled cylinder. Xp ref

10
1

270 180 phase(Gc) [degrees], (dashed line)

b,1
|Gc| [-], (solid line)
0

|Gc| = 0.71 -3 dB

10

|Gc| = 1

90 0

10

-1

-90

b,2
10
-2

-180 -270

10

-1

10 10 Angular frequency [rad/s]

10

Figur 8: The closed loop systems transfer function for a position servo. Amplitude (solid) and phase (dashed).

30

The closed loop systems transfer function can also be written as Gc = s +1 b 1 s s2 +1 + 2nc 2 nc nc

If h and Kv /h is small nc h b K v Kv 2nc 2h h

12.8

The hydraulic systems and the servos sensitivity to loading stiness

Cylinder - respective motor position sensitivity to disturbance force FL or a disturbance torque TL is described with its stiness S. When the stiness is studied is all other input signals assumed to be constant (Insignal = 0). The stiness is dened as S= FL Xp or S= TL m

The hydraulic systems transfer function can be found in section 12.5. As example on a system without respective with a feedback, the stiness for the valve controlled (4-port valve) symmetric cylinder is decided. The same approach is used when the stiness is decided for the other hydraulic. System without feedback For a hydraulic system without feedback, the stiness for the valve controlled cylinder is calculated as s s2 s 2 + 2h + 1 h 1 FL h = S= = Xp s Kce Xp 1+ FL A2 s p where s = 4e Kce = {if Bp isneglected} = 2h h Vt

The transfer function for the stiness is shown in gure 9.

10
10

10 |S| [N/m]

10

2
7

10

Kce
s h

qh!h Ap!h 2
2
1+ (! )

10

10

-1

10 10 Angular frequency [rad/s]

10

Figur 9: The transfer function for the stiness for the non-feedback valve controlled cylinder.

31

System with feedback For a system with feedback with the feedback 1 and proportional gain of the control error is following stiness obtained for a valve controlled cylinder(Xp ref are set to 0). 1 2h 2 1 3 2s + K s + K s+1 K v h 1 FL v h v = S= = Kv Xp s Kce Xp 1+ FL A2 s p where s = 4e Kce = {if Bp isneglected} = 2h h Vt

The transfer function for the stiness in the position servo is shown in gure 10.
10
10

10 |S| [N/m]

10

KvAp / Kce

10

10

10

-1

10 10 Angular frequency [rad/s]

10

Figur 10: The transfer function for the stiness for the valve controlled cylinder with proportional feedback.

32

12.9

The servos steady state error

The control error e(t) in a servo system is dened as the dierence between the output value and the input value when Disturbance signal = 0. According to end value theorem, the steady state control error will be: 0 = lim e(t) = lim sE(s)
t s0

where the error gets the following expression if the feedback is 1: E(s) = Xpref Xp = Xpref 1 1 + Au

The end value theorem is only usable on an asymptotic stable system, i.e. if the output signal has a nite limit value. For all systems can the transient be studied in the time domain (inverse transformation, see section 12.10). The input signal is a step If the input signal Xpref respective mref is a step with the amplitude A becomes the input signal A/s in frequency domain. The end value theorem becomes 0 = lim s
s0

1 A A A = =0 s 1 + Au 1 + lim Au
s0

Practical, the steady state error does never become 0, because of the components which are included in the control loop do not have ideal characteristic. The input signal is a ramp If the input signal Xpref respective mref is a ramp A t (i.e. the speed A is desired), becomes the input signal A/s2 . The steady state position error becomes 0 = lim s
s0

1 A A = 2 1+A s Kv u

12.10

Control technical resources

Linearize Non-linear dierential equations are linearized around a working point with the rst term of the Taylor series according to
n

f
0

= f (x10 , x20 , . . . , xn0 ) =

j=1

xj

f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) xj

(x10 ,x20 ,...,xn0 )

where the working point is assumed to have stationary working conditions.

33

Laplace transformation The following Laplace transformation table translates equations in the time domain to equations in frequency domain (rad/s) and vice versa.

Denition

L{f (t)} = F (s) =

est f (t)dt

Function in time domain f (t) af (t) + bg(t) f (t a) f (at) tn f (t) f (t) t eat f (t) f (t a)H(t a) f (t) f (n) (t)
t 0

Transform to frequency domain F (s)

a, b constants a0 a>0 n = 0, 1, 2, . . . f (t) exists t0+ t lim a constant a > 0, H(t) 0 1 then t < 0 otherwise

aF (s) + bG(s) eas F (s) 1 F a

s

s a

(1)n F (n)(s) F (u)du

F (s + a) eas F (s) sF (s) f (0)

n

n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

sn F (s)
k=1

snk f (k1) (0)

f (u)du
t t

F (s) s g(u)f (t u)du F (s)G(s)

f (t) g(t) =
0

f (u)g(t u)du =
0

Function in time domain tn eat tn eat cos at sin at eat cos bt eat sin bt t cos at 2 cos at at sin at sin at + at cos at sin at at cos at n = 0, 1, 2, . . . a constant n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

Transform to frequency domain n! sn+1 1 sa n! (s a)n+1 s s2 + a 2 a s2 + a 2 sa (s a)2 + b2 b (s a)2 + b2 s2 a 2 (s2 + a2 )2 2s3 2 + a 2 )2 (s 2as2 2 + a 2 )2 (s 2a3 2 + a 2 )2 (s Re(s) > 0 Re(s) > Re(a) Re(s) > Re(a) Re(s) > |Im(a)| Re(s) > |Im(a)| Re(s) > |Im(a)| Re(s) > |Im(a)| Re(s) > |Im(a)| Re(s) > |Im(a)| Re(s) > |Im(a)| Re(s) > |Im(a)|

34

Block diagram reduction Reduction System Equivalent system

u
1. Feedback

G H

G GH 1

2. Series connection

3. Parallel connection

u
4. Move branch point after a block

5. Move branch point in front of a block

u y

6. Move summation point after a block

7. Move summation point in front of a block

y u
8. Shift summation order
+ + +

G
+

GH

G H

+ +

G+H

u u

G 1 G

u y G

y z

y G z

y z

G 1 G

y z

u + y z z
+

y u u + y z
+ +

u + y z

35

Bode diagram For the transfer functions K G(s) = p s

1+

1.

s z1 s 1+ p1

1+

s z2 s 1+ p2

1+

s zm s 1+ pn

(real numbers)

2.

G(s) =

1 s s2 2 + 20 + 1 0 0

0 < 1 (complex numbers)

the amplitude curve becomes i i + log 1 + + z1 z2

1.

log |G(i)| =

log K p log || + log 1 + + log 1 + 1 1 2 2 0

2

i i i i log 1 + log 1 + log 1 + zm p1 p2 pn

2.

|G(i)| =

+ 20

and the phase becomes z1 z2 zm

1.

arg G(i) =

p90 + arctan arctan

+ arctan

+ + arctan pn

2.

arctan p1 p2 20 0 arctan 2 1 2 0 arg G(i) = 90 20 0 180 + arctan 2 1 2 0

arctan

d 0 0 a d = 0 a d > 0 a

Nyquist diagram If the transfer function is plotted direct in the complex domain, the Nyquist diagram is obtained which is more usable than the Bode diagram. From the Bode diagram can Nyquist diagram be constructed in following way:

36

10

270 180 phase(Au) [degrees], (dashed line)

10 |Au| [-], (solid line)

90 |Au(ii)| 10
-1

0 arg(Au(ii)) -90 -180 -270

10

-2

i
10
-3

10

-1

10 10 Angular frequency [rad/s]

10

0,50

0,25

Im(Au)

0,00 |Au(ii)| -0,25 arg(Au(ii))

-0,50 -1,50

-1,00

-0,50 Re(Au)

0,00

0,50

Linear systems - linearized system Under presumption that Au does not have poles in the right side are following valid: For a feedback system shall be stable must not the open loop systems transfer function enclose Re(Au ) = 1 in the Nyquist diagram. Mnemonic rule: Pull the rope downward. If Re(Au ) = 1 follows - the system is instable! Non-linear systems With non-linear systems can a host of phenomenon occur due to occurrence of play, hysteresis in the system etc despite the system is seemingly stable. A analyse method for investigation of the stability is the descriptive functions where the open loop systems transfer function is divided in a linear part and a non-linear part according to Au = Glinear Gnonlinear which results in the stability condition Glinear Gnonlinear = 1 By plotting Glinear and (1/Gnonlinear) in the Nyquist diagram can the stability be investigated. The intersection point gives in many cases the frequency and the amplitude for the self oscillation. See other literature for determination of the non-linear transfer function. 37

13
13.1
V V1 V2 Vc Vg V Vt p p0 p1 p2 u n ys yt

Hydraulic uids
Nomenclature
:volume :start volume (secant) :end volume (secant) :volume (reservoir) :volume (gas) :volume (uid) :total volume :absolute pressure :absolute pressure at NTP (= 0,1 MPa) :start pressure (secant) :end pressure (secant) :ow velocity in x-led :polytrophic exponent :correction coecient (secant) :correction coecient (tangent) [m3 ] [m3 ] [m3 ] [m3 ] [m3 ] [m3 ] [m3 ] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [m/s] [-] [-] [-] x0 e c g t s bt bs :amount of air in the oil (gas volume/total volume at normal state, NTP) :kinematic viscosity :density :eective bulk modulus :bulk modulus (reservoir) :bulk modulus (gas) :bulk modulus (uid) :bulk modulus with no air in the :bulk modulus with no air in the :bulk modulus with air in the oil :bulk modulus with air in the oil :skjuvspnning a :dynamic viscosity [-] [m2 /s] [kg/m3 ] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [N/m2 ] [Ns/m2 ]

oil (tangent) olja (secant) (tangent) (secant)

Denition, dynamic viscosity for Newton uid

y
= du dy

u(y)

Kinematic viscosity

Bulk modulus for oil with no air Tangent value, is used at small changes t = V dp dV

t is shown in gure 11. Most of the normal hydraulic oils have bulk modulus between the Naften based oil and Paran based oil.
2500 Bulk modulus, tangent [MPa] ASME-36 Naften based oil ASME-31 Paraffin based oil T = 0 25 50 75 1500 100

2000

1000 0 10 20 30 Pressure [MPa] 40 50

Figur 11: Tangent value of the bulk modulus for oil with no air.

38

s is shown in gure 12. Most of the normal hydraulic oils have bulk modulus between the Naften base oil and Paran base oil.
2500 Bulk modulus, secant [MPa] ASME-36 Naften based oil ASME-31 Paraffin based oil T = 0 2000 25 50 1500 75 100

Secant value, is used at big changes from normal pressure (p1 = 0, V1 ) till (p2 , V2 ) p2 s = V1 V2 V1

1000 0 10 20 30 Pressure [MPa] 40 50

Figur 12: Secant value of bulk modulus for oil with no air.

Bulk modulus for oil with air Tangent value Simplied model and can be used when x0 0,1. bt = yt t dr a yt = 1 x0 t 1+ np (1 x0 ) p0 p
1 n

yt is shown in gure 13 for dierent amount of air in the oil, x0 , at the special case: polytrophic exponent n = 1,4 t = 1500 + 7,5p [MPa]

1,0 x0 = 0,1 x0 = 0,05 0,6 x0 = 0,005 p0 = 0,1 MPa 0,2 n = 1,4 x0 = 0,02 x0 = 0,01 0,4

0,8 Compensator factor yt

t = 1500 + 7,5p MPa

0,0 0 10 20 30 Pressure [MPa] 40 50

Figur 13: Correction for the air included in oil, tangent value.

39

Secant value Simplied model and can be used when x0 0,1. bs = ys s dr a ys = 1 x0 + 1 s x0 1 (p p0 ) p0 p

1 n

ys is shown in gure 14 for dierent amount of air in the oil, x0 , at the special case: polytropexponent n = 1,4 s = 1500 + 3,7p [MPa]
1,0

s = 1500 + 3,7p MPa

p0 = 0,1 MPa n = 1,4

x0 = 0,005

Compensator factor ys

0,8

x0 = 0,01 0,6 x0 = 0,02 0,4 x0 = 0,05

0,2

x0 = 0,1

0,0 0 10 20 30 Pressure [MPa] 40 50

Figur 14: Correction for the air included in oil, secant value.

Eective bulk modulus, e The eective bulk modulus, e , is dened as Vt 1 = e Vt p Total initial volume: At compression: Vt = V + Vg Vt = V Vg + Vc

Gas Vg Fluid Vl

where , g och c refer to uid, gas respective reservoir. In general, the bulk modulus is calculated as (secant value) 1 Vg 1 V 1 1 = + + e Vt g Vt c For oil with no air: 1 1 1 = + e c
Fluid Vc

Gas Vg

Vt

40

Specic heat capacity

2500

20 = 840 kg/m
Specific heat [J/kg K] 2300

2100

1900

860 880 900 920 940 960

1700 0 50 100 Temperature [degrees C] 150

Thermal conductivity ability

0,14 Thermal conductivity [W/m K]

20 = 840 kg/m
860 0,13 880 900 920 0,12 940 960

0,11 0 50 100 Temperature [degrees C] 150

41

14
14.1
A0 A12 A23 Ae Cd Ci Cs K Kt N R T0 T1 T3 Tv

Pneumatic
Nomenclature
:min. cross-section area of the orice :eective entrance area :eective exit area :eective orice area (Cd A0 ) :ow coecient :C-value for component i :C-value for system :constant :temperature correction ( T0 /T1 ) :parameter :gas constant (287 for air) :reference temperature (NTP) :upstream total temperature :downstream total temperature :total temperature i volume [m2 ] [m2 ] [m2 ] [m2 ] [-] [-] [-] [ kgK/J] [-] [-] [J/kg K] [K] [K] [K] [K] b bi bs m p1 p2 p3 pv q t :critical pressure ratio :b-value for component i :b-value for system :mass ow :upstream total absolute pressure (= static + dynamic pressure) :downstream static absolute pressure :atmospheric pressure (0,1 MPa) :atmospheric pressure in volume :volume ow :time :parameter :isentropic exponent :parameter :dimension free time (= RT At ) V [-] [-] [-] [kg/s] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [m3 /s] [s] [-] [-] [-] [-]

14.2

Stream through nozzle

According to the thermodynamic, the mass ow m through a nozzle can be written as +1 2 1 +1 p2 p1

p1 Cd A0 KN m= T1 1 critical pressure ratio:

where

K=

R for

p2 p1

N=

p2 p1

2 p2 p1

+1 for p2 > p1 p2 p1

+1 2 1 1 2 +1

b=

p2 p1

2 1 +1

With b- and C-value hold for volume ow q following expression at NTP q = p1 Kt C 1 for p
2

p2 b p1 p2 >b p1

p 1 1 1b

for

42

14.3

Series connection of pneumatic components

p1 q1 T1 b1 p2 b2 p3 bi Ci bn Cn pn+1 qn+1

C1 q2 C2 q3 bs ,Cs

Figur 15: Series connection of pneumatic components with b- and C-values

On condition that every component can be described with q = p1 Kt C b- and C-value is known for every component absolute static pressure after one component is equal to the absolute total pressure before the next component the entrance temperature holds for all system every component have the same mass ow (q1 = q2 = = qn ) qs = p1 Kt Cs 1 med Kt = fr o p
n+1

T0 T1

pn+1 bs p1 pn+1 > bs p1

p 1 1 1 bs

bs

fr o

Case A If b- and C-value is about the same 1 = 3 Cs

n

i=1

1 3 Ci

n 2 bs = 1 Cs

i=1

1 bi 2 Ci

Case B In cases of, the components characteristics show large divergence, the components sequence have to be considered (gradual reduction) Calculation sequence: 12 = 12 < 1 12 = 1 12 > 1 C1 C2 b1

Critical pressure drop rst over component 1, and because of the decrease of pressure ratio as well in component 2. Both components is critical at the same time Critical pressure drop only in component 2 C1 1 b1 12 b1 + (1 b1 ) 2 + 12 C12 = b1 C2 12 2 1 b1 2 + 12 b1 43

for 12 1 1 for 12 > 1

2 b12 = 1 C12

1 b2 1 b1 + 2 2 C1 C2 osv . . .

13 =

C12 C3 b12

14.4

Parallel connected pneumatic components

p1 q1 T1

b1 C1

b2 C2

bn Cn

bs ,Cs p2

Figur 16: Parallel connected pneumatic components with b- and C-values

qs = p1 Kt Cs 1
n

med Kt = forr

T0 T1

p2 bs p1 p2 > bs p1

For systems with the same further line (see gure 16) relates to Cs =
i=1

p 1 1 1 bs

bs

for

Ci

Cs = 1 bs

i=1

Ci 1 bi

14.5

Parallel- and series connected pneumatic components

For system with separate further lines are dealt as series links, after which the total ow is obtained as the sum of all the partial ows in every series links.

14.6

Filling and emptying of volumes

Assumptions isotherm process (T = T1 = Tv = T3 ) stationary conditions dAe dV dp1 dp3 dT = 0, = 0, = 0, = 0, =0 dt dt dt dt dt

p3 = atmospheric pressure p1 and pv are absolute pressure A12 and A23 are eective areas

44

Charging a volume The diagrams below shows pv as a function of dimensionless time = A23 as parameter. relation of A12
0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 2,0 0,2 0,1 0,0 0,0

RT A12 t with the area V

A23/A12 = 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5

A12 p1 T1 pv Tv V

A23 p3 T3

(a) The downstream pressure p3 = 0,1 MPa absolute.

Pressure pv [MPa absolute]

0,5

1,0 tao [-]

1,5

2,0

2,5

(b) The upstream pressure p1 = 0,6 MPa (absolute)

1,1 1,0 Pressure pv [MPa absolute] 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0,0 0,5 1,0 tao [-] 1,5 2,0 2,5 2,0 A23/A12 = 0,0 0,5 Pressure pv [MPa absolute] 1,0 1,5 2,2 2,0 1,8 1,6 1,4 1,2 1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0,0 0,0 0,5 1,0 tao [-] 1,5 2,0 2,5 1,5 2,0 A23/A12 = 0,0 0,5 1,0

(c) The upstream pressure p1 = 1,1 MPa (absolute)

(d) The upstream pressure p1 = 2,1 MPa (absolute)

Figur 17: Charging of the volume V .

45

Discharging a volume The diagrams below shows pv as a function of dimensionless time = A12 as parameter. relation of A23
0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0,0 A12/A23 = 1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4

RT A23 t with the area V

A12 p1 T1 pv Tv V

A23 p3 T3

Pressure pv [MPa absolute]

0,2 0,0

(a) The downstream pressure p3 = 0,1 MPa absolute.

1,0

2,0 tao [-]

3,0

4,0

5,0

(b) The upstream pressure p1 = 0,6 MPa (absolute)

1,1 1,0 0,8 0,6 Pressure pv [MPA absolute] Pressure pv [MPa absolute] 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0,0 1,0 2,0 tao [-] 3,0 0,0 0,2 0,4 A12/A23 = 1,0 2,2 2,0 1,8 1,6 1,4 1,2 1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 5,0 0,0 0,0 1,0 2,0 tao [-] 3,0 0,0 4,0 5,0 0,2 0,4 A12/A23 = 1,0 0,8 0,6

4,0

(c) The upstream pressure p1 = 1,1 MPa (absolute)

(d) The upstream pressure p1 = 2,1 MPa (absolute)

Figur 18: Discharging the volume V .

For both charging and discharging a volume If p1 is between the assumed levels in the diagrams can the time be calculated with linear interpolation of the two diagram according to the equation below ((p1 in MPa)). t5 + p1 0,6 (t10 t5 ) for 0,6 p1 1,1 MPa 0,5 t= t10 + (p1 1,1)(t20 t10 ) for 1,1 p1 2,1 MPa

46

Appendix A
Symbols for hydraulic diagrams
Correspond to the international standard CETOP RP3 and the Swedish SMS 712. It is specied when the two standards dier. General symbols................................................................... Mechanical elements............................................................. Pipes and connections.......................................................... Control systems.................................................................... Pumps and Motors............................................................... Cylinders.............................................................................. Directional control valves..................................................... Check valves or non-return valves........................................ Pressure control valves....................................................... Flow control valves............................................................... Components for cooling, ltering, energy storage etc.......... Energy sources..................................................................... Measurement equipments..................................................... 48 48 48 49 49 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 57

47

General symbols
1) 2)

Flow direction

1)Hydraulic 2)Pneumatic

Variability Joined nents compoComponents belonging to one assembly or functional group

Mechanical elements
D D<5E

Shaft, lever arm, bar, rod piston

Rod piston can be drawn with a single line

Rotational shaft Spring

One respective two rotational directions

Pipes and connections

E L<10E E L<10E

Line

Solid line = main pipe Dotted line with L>10E = control pipe Dotted line with l<5E = drain pipe (E = line width)

Flexible hose
d

pipe, The symbol is used mainly for movable parts

Pipe connection

d = 5E (E = line width) 1) Air-drain for hydraulic pipe 2) Air outlet without possibility of connection 3) Air outlet with possibility of connection 1) Plugged connection 2) Connection with connected pipe. mally is the connection plugged.) (Nor-

1)

2)

3)

Air-drain air outlet

and

1)

2)

Connection

1) 3)

2) 4)

Quick connect ttings Rotatable connection

Enable connection of pipes without tools. 1) Quick connect tting without valve (interconnected) 2) Quick connect tting with valve (interconnected) 3) Half of a quick connect tting without valve 4) Half of a quick connect tting with valve Can rotate during operation, with one line

48

Control systems
1) 3) 2) 4)

Manual controls Mechanical controls

1) 2) 3) 4)

General symbol Control with push button Control with lever arm Control with pedal

1)

2)

3)

1) Plunge 2) Roll 3) Spring 1) Electromagnetic with one winding 2) Electromagnetic with two winding (active in two directions) 3) Control with electric motor Pressure control through pressure rise respective pressure reduction Direct control through dierential pressure Simplied symbol for pre-controlled valve. Control at pressure rise respective pressure reduction. Control line is inside the valve. 1) Control with electromagnetic controlled pre-control valve. 2) Control with electromagnetic or pre-control valve.

1)

2)

3) M

Electric controls

Pressure control Pressure control

Indirect pressure control Internal control line

1)

2)

Combined controls

Pumps and Motors

1) 2)

Pump with constant displacement Pump with variable displacement

1) One ow direction 2) Two ow directions 1) One ow direction 2) Two ow directions

1)

2)

49

1)

2)

Example of controls for variable pump Compressor with one ow direction

1) Manual control 2) Pressure control via control valve

The two distorted lines is not included in SMS

Vacuum pump Motor with constant displacement Pneumatic motor with constant displacement Motor with variable displacement Motor with limited angle of twist Component working as pump/motor at: 1) Shifted ow direction, maintained pressure side. 2) Maintained ow direction, shifted pressure side. 3) Shifted ow direction and pressure side. Pump and motor together as one unit without external pipe system.

1)

2)

1) One ow direction 2) Two ow directions

1)

2)

1) One ow direction 2) Two ow directions

1)

2)

1) One ow direction 2) Two ow directions

1)

2)

3)

Pump/motor with constant displacement Hydrostatic gear

50

Cylinders
Single-acting cylinder Single-acting cylinder Double-acting cylinder Double-acting symmetric cylinder Dierential cylinder
1) 2) 1) 2)

The uid pressure exercises a force in one direction only. The uid pressure exercises a force in one direction only and the return stroke by return spring. The uid operates alternatively in both directions.

Double-acting cylinder where the area dierent between the both sides are essential for the function. with 1) Single acting cushion. 2) Double acting cushion.

Cylinder cushion

Cylinder with variable cushion

1) Single acting cushion. 2) Double acting cushion. Unit converting a pressure X into a higher pressure Y. 1) For one medium (air). 2) For two mediums (air and oil). Unit converting a pneumatic pressure into an equal hydraulic pressure.

1) 2)

x x

y y

x x

y y

Pressure intensiers

Air-oil actuators

51

Directional control valves

Opening and closing of one or more ow paths. Symbols with several squares. The external ow lines are normally situated at the square which indicates the neutral or normal position. Other positions can be shown by displacement of the squares until the external ow lines are situated at the corresponding square. 1) Two pipe connections and free throughow. 2) Two connections that are closed. 3) 4) Four connections and free throughow. 5) Four connections where all are tied to each other. 6) Four connections were two are closed and two are tied together. 7) Five connections were one is closed. Several service positions each shown by a square; 1) Valve with two distinct positions. 2) Valve with three distinct positions. 3) Valve with two distinct positions (outer squares), but between the distinct positions the valve passes a central position with essential function. First number in the description denotes the number of ports, the second the number of positions. Pilot ports are not included. Control e.g. 1) manual 2)by pressure against return spring (unloading valve). 1) Control by pressure from both ends. 2) Control by solenoid against return spring, with transient intermediate position.

1) 3) 5) 7)

2) 4) 6)

Example squares dierent paths.

of with ow

1) 2) 3)

Non-throttling directional control valve

1) 2)

2/2 directional control valve 3/2 directional control valve Electro hydraulic servo valve with pilot and mechanical feedback. 4/2 directional control valve 5/2 directional valve

1) 2)

Combined with solenoid operated pilot valve with return spring. Representation 1) detailed 2) simplied. Control by pressure in both directions.

52

1) 2)

Throttling directional control valve One throttling orice (2 ports) Two throttling orices (3 ports) Four throttling orices (4 ports) Single stage electrohydraulic servo valve Two stage electrohydraulic servo valve with mechanical feedback Two stage electrohydraulic servo valve with hydraulic feedback

Two end positions and intermediate throttling positions. 1) Shows only the end positions. 2) Shows the end positions and the centre (neutral) position. All valve symbols have parallel lines outside the envelope. Tracer valve; plunger operated against return spring. Pressure controlled against return spring in two directions. Tracer valve; plunger operated against return spring.

Amplication of innitely variable electrical input signals transformed onto hydraulic output; without pilot operation.

Check valves or non-return valves

1) without, 2) with back pressure. Opening if inlet pressure is 1) higher than the outlet pressure, 2) higher than the outlet pressure plus spring pressure. Pilot controlled 1) Opening can be prevented 2) Closing can be prevented The inlet under pressure is automatically connected to the common outlet and the other inlet is closed.

1)

2)

Check valve Pilot controlled check valve

1)

2)

Shuttle valve

53

One way restrictor Quick valve exhaust

Valve which allows free ow in one direction and restricted ow in the other direction. When pressure falls at the inlet connection, the outlet is automatically opened to exhaust.

Pressure control valves

1) 2) 3)

Pressure control valves

Automatic control of pressure; 1) One throttling orice, normally closed. 2) One throttling orice, normally open. 3) Two throttling orices. Arrows with or without tails. Pictures in the right column are not according to SMS standard. Inlet pressure is controlled by opening the exhaust port to the reservoir or the atmosphere against an opposing force. The left valve has xed preloaded spring force, the right has variable. Inlet pressure is controlled by spring force or by a value determined by the pressure in a outer pilot port. In the left gure pilot pressure acts against the spring force. In the right gure it acts together with the spring force. Inlet pressure is limited to a value proportional to the pilot pressure. When the inlet pressure exceeds the opposing force of the spring, the valve opens permitting ow through the outlet port. With varying inlet pressure the outlet pressure remains substantially constant. Inlet pressure must however remain higher than the selected outlet pressure. 1) without, 2) with unloading device.

Pressure valve

relief

Pilot controlled pressure relief valve Proportioning pressure relief valve

Sequence valve

1) 2) 3)

Pressure regulator

54

Pilot controlled pressure regulator Dierential pressure regulator Proportioning pressure regulator

Outlet port pressure proportional to pilot pressure. The outlet pressure is reduced by a xed amount with regard to the inlet pressure. The outlet pressure is reduced by a xed ratio with regard to the inlet pressure.

Flow control valves

1) 3) 2)

Variable ow control valve

Manual controlled throttle valve. 1) Detailed 2) Simplied Mechanical controlled throttle valve. 3) Mechanical controlled against spring (braking valve). Regulator with xed setting, without exceeding oil bleed o. 1) Detailed 2) Simplied Regulator with xed setting, with exceeding oil bleed o. 1) Detailed 2) Simplied The ow is divided into two xed ows substantially independent of pressure variations.

1)

2)

Series ow control valve

1)

2)

By-pass ow control valve

Flow divider

Shut-o valve

Simplied symbol.

55

Components for cooling, ltering, energy storage etc.

Acc. CETOP: 1) Viscosity dependent (pipe orice) 2) 1) Viscosity dependent (sharp edged) Acc. SMS: 1) General symbol 3) Viscosity dependent (pipe orice) 1),2), and 4) Reservoirs with atmospheric pressure. 3) Pressured reservoir. 1),3) The ow line ow into the reservoir above the the uid level. 2) The ow line ow into the reservoir below the the uid level. 4) The ow line ow connected under the reservoir. 1) Hydraulic, the uid is subjected to pressure from a spring, weight or gas (air, nitrogen, etc) 2) pneumatic (receiver)

1)

2)

3)

Orices

1)

2)

3)

4)

Reservoirs

1)

2)

Accumulators Filter; strainer

1)

2)

Water trap Filter with water trap Desiccator

1) Manual control of draining, 2) automatic draining. The apparatus is a combination of lter and water trap.. Air drying by chemicals. For lubrication of apparatus small quantities of oil are added to the air which is owing through the lubricator. Apparatus comprising lter, pressure regulator and lubricator assembled as a unit, 1) detailed 2) simplied.

1)

2)

Lubricator
1)

Maintenance unit
2)

56

Temperature controller

The uid temperature is controlled between two predetermined values. The arrows indicate both heat introduction and dissipation. 1) Without 2) with indication of the ow lines of the coolant. The arrows in the square indicate the heat dissipation. The arrows indicate introduction of heat.

1)

2)

Cooler Heater Silencer

Energy sources
Pressure source

1) 2)

Electric motor

Combustion engine

1) According to CETOP 2) According to SMS

Measurement equipments
Manometer (Pressure transducer) Thermometer Flow rate meter The symbol can be placed arbitrarily. Measure ow (volume per time unit) Measure the total volume which is passed. The symbol shows a switching contact.

Integrated ow meter Pressure switch

57