Motion in Plane

Physics/Class XI 1
2012 Vidyamandir Classes Pvt. Ltd.

Physics: Motion in a Plane
Hand-Out Chapter - 3
Figure (a): Shows two equal
vectors A
and B
Figure (b): Shows two vectors X
and Y
are unequal
though they are of same length because they have
different directions.
1. SCALARS AND VECTORS
Scalars: Physical quantities that have only magnitude but no directions are called scalar quantities. For example, mass,
length, time, energy.
Scalar quantity is specified completely by a single number along with the proper unit.
Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided just as the ordinary numbers.
Vectors: Physical quantities that have magnitude as well direction and follow vector laws of addition are called vector
quantities. For example; velocity, linear momentums, force, impulse, etc.
We use () type sign over any vector quantity, for example momentum vector is represented by an arrow placed
over a letter, say p
.
The magnitude of a vector is called its absolute value indicated by
p p =
.
A vector is represented by an arrow over the letter e.g., by , , , L....... v a p

with respective magnitudes denoted by
v, a, p, L {without arrow}.
Unit Vector
A unit vector has unit magnitude. It is used to denote the direction of a given vector.
It has no units and dimension.
Any vector a
can be expressed in terms of its unit vector a
as follows
| | a a a =

. Here a is in the direction of , a a
is read as a cap.
| |
a
a
a
=
So, if a given vector is divided by its magnitude we get a unit vector.

Three Rectangular Unit Vectors
The three rectangular unit vectors

, , i j k are shown as follows:
i denotes the direction of X-axis.
j
denotes the direction of Y-axis.

k
denotes the direction of Z-axis.
These three vectors are collectively known as base vectors.
Equality of Vectors
Two vectors are said to be equal if they have equal magnitude and same direction.
If two vectors A
and
B
are represented by two equal parallel lines drawn with same scale having arrow heads in the same
direction then,
A
and B
are equal vectors. i.e., A
= B

Physics/Class XI 2
Multiplication of Vectors by Real Numbers
1. Multiplying a vector
a
withapositivenumber gives another vector

a
whose magnitude is changed by thefactor:

if 0 a a =
(i) If is positive, then the direction of
a
is the same as that of

a
.
In the following figure
a
is multiplied by 2 and we get another vector

b
such that
2 b a =

The magnitude of
b
is twice the magnitude of a
, while the direction of

b
is the same as that of

a
.
(ii) If is negative, then the direction of a
is opposite to that of a
Again, in the following figure a
is multiplied by 2. The new

vector b
is such that
2 b a =

The magnitude of b
is twice the magnitude a
of but direction opposite to that of a
.
2. If a
is multiplied by zero, we get a vector whose magnitude is zero and whose direction is arbitrary. This vector is
called a zero vector or null vector.
3. If is a pure number and has no units, then the units of a
are the same as those of a
. But, generally is scalar with

certain units. In these cases, the units of a
will be obtained by multiplying the unit of a
by unit of .
The multiplication of a vector by a real number assumes a lot of significance in statements like velocity of car B is
double the velocity of car A.
2. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS-GRAPHICAL METHOD
1. Triangle Law of Vector Addition: (Head to Tail Method)
If two non-zero vectors represent the sides of triangle then their resultant is given by the third side of the triangle
taken in reverse order.
Let us consider two vectors
A
and
B
that lie in a plane as shown in

the adjoining figure.
To find the sum A + B

, we place vector
B
so that its tail is at the head

of the vector
A
. Then, we join the tail of A
to the head of B
. The line
OQ represents a vector
R
, which is the sum of the vectors

A
and
B
.
Since in this procedure of vector addition, vectors are arranged head to tail, this graphical method is called the head-
to-tail method.
Vector addition obeys commutative law.
A B B A =

Vectors addition obeys the associative law (A B) C A (B C) =

Zero Vector or Null vector: Let us consider two vectors A
and A
as shown in the figure below:

Their sum is A ( A)

. Since, the magnitudes of two vectors are the same, but the directions are
opposite, the resultant vector has zero magnitude and is represented by 0. This is called a null
vector or a zero vector. i.e.,
A A 0 =

,
0 0 =
Physics/Class XI 3
(1) When a zero vector is added to any vector A
, we get A
only..
A 0 A =

(2) When a zero vector is subtracted from A
we get A
only..
A 0 A =

(3) When a zero vector is multiplied by a non-zero scalar we get zero vector
0 0 =

(4) When a vector B
is multiplied by zero, we get zero vector

0(B) 0 =

PROPERTIES OF A ZERO VECTOR
Physical Significance of Zero Vector ( 0
)
The physical significance of zero vector can be clearly understood from the following examples:
(i) The displacement of a ball thrown up and received back by the thrower is a zero vector.
(ii) The velocity vector of a stationary body is zero vector.
(iii) The acceleration vector of a body in a uniform motion is a zero vector.
Subtraction of vector can be defined in terms of
addition of vectors.
We define the difference of two vectors
A
and
B
as the sum of two vectors

A
and
B
.
A B A ( B) =

. It is shown in figure. The
Vector
B
is added t o vector
A
to get
2
R A ( B) A B = =

, vector
1
R A B =

is also shown in the same figure for comparison.
2. Parallelogram Law of Vectors
Parallelogram law of vectors is another useful law for the addition of two vectors.
It states that: If two vectors acting simultaneously at a point, can be represented both in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then the resultant is represented
completely both in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.
In the adjoining figure P
vectors and Q
are completely represented by the two sides OA and OB respectively

of a parallelogram.
Then, according to parallelogram law of vectors, the diagonal OC of the parallelogram will give the resultant
R
such that
R P Q =

Physics/Class XI 4
Analytical Method
1. In Two Dimensions: It is much easier to add vectors by combining their respective components. Consider two
vectors
A
and
B
in x-y plane with components A

x
, A
y
and B
x
, B
y
:
A
= A A
x
i
+ A A
y
j
and
B
= B
x
i
+ B
y
j
Let
R
be their sum. We have R
= A
+ B
= (A
x
+ A A
y
)
i
+ (B
x
+ B
y
)

j
Since vectors obey the commutative and associative laws, we can arrange and regroup the vectors.
R
= (A
x
+ B
x
) i
+ (A
y
+ B
y
)

j
Since, R
= R
x
i
+ R
y

j
Thus, each component of the resultant vector
R
is the sum of the corresponding components of A and B.

2. In Three Dimensions: We have,
A
= A
x
i
+ A
y
j
+ A
z
k
and B
= B
x
i
+ B
y
j
+ B
z
k
= A
+ B
= R
x
i
+ R
y

j
+ R
z
k
with R
x
= A A
x
+ B
x
, R
y
= A A
y
+ B
y
, R
z
= A A
z
+ B
z
This method can be extended to addition and subtraction of any number of vectors.
Let us analytically calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector
R
.
Let u be the angle between two given vectors
P
and
Q
. From C, draw a
perpendicular CN on OA (produced) as shown in the adjoining figure.
R A B =

= R
x
i
+ R
y

j
+R
z
k
with R
x
= A
x
+B
x
, R
y
= A
y
+B
y
, R
z
= A
z
+B
z
This method can be extended to addition and subtraction of any number of vectors.
Let us analytically calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector R
.
Let u be the angle between two given vectors
P
and
Q
. From C, draw a perpendicular CN on OA (produced) as shown

in the adjoining figure.
In the right-angled AANC,
CN
sin or CN ACsin
AC
= =
[ AC = OB = Q]
Or CN = Q sin u (1)
Also,
AN
cos or AN ACcos
AC
= =
Or AN Qcos =
Now, ON = OA + AN = P + Q cos u (2)
Consider the right-angled AONC,
2 2 2
OC ON CN =
Or
2 2 2
R (P Qcos ) (Qsin ) = [From (2) and (1)]
Physics/Class XI 5
Or
2 2 2 2 2 2
R P Q cos 2PQcos Q sin =

2 2 2 2 2
P Q cos Q sin 2PQcos =

2 2 2 2
P Q (cos sin ) 2PQcos =
2 2 2
R P Q 2PQcos = [
2 2
sin cos 1 =
]
2 2
R P Q 2PQcos = (3)
The equation above is the required expression for the magnitude of the resultant of two vectors P and Q

inclined to each
other at an angle .
Let | be the angle which the resultant
R
makes with
P
.
Then,
CN
tan
ON
=
(in rt. Zd AONC)
Or
Qsin
tan
P Qcos
[from (2) and (1)] (4)

1
Qsin
tan
P Qcos
1

=

( )
The above equation gives the direction of the resultant vector.
Special Cases
Case (i): When the given vectors
P
and
Q
act in the same direction.

In this case, u = 0
R =
2 2
P Q 2PQcos 0
[From equation (3)]
=
2 2
P Q 2PQ
[ cos 0 = 1]
=
2
(P Q) P + Q =
Or R
= P Q

So, the magnitude of the resultant vector is equal to the sum of the magnitudes of the given vectors.
Also, tan | =
Qsin 0
P Qcos 0

[From equation (4)]
Or tan | = 0 [ sin 0 = 0]
| = 0
So, the resultant vector points in the direction of the given vectors.
Physics/Class XI 6
Case (ii): When the given vectors
P
and Q
act at right angles to each other..

In this case, u = 90
R =
2 2
P Q 2PQcos 90
Or R =
2 2
P Q
[ cos 90 = 0]
Or | R |
=
2 2
| P | | Q|

Also, tan | =
Qsin90
P Qcos90

Or tan | =
Q
P
[ sin 90 = 1]
Or | =
1
Q
tan
P

( )
[ cos 90 = 0]
If P = Q, then R =
2 2
P P
Or R =
2
2P 2P =
Also, in this case, tan | =
P
1
P
=
| = 45
Case (iii): When the given vectors
P
and Q
act in opposite directions.

R =
2 2
P Q 2PQcos180
Also, in this case, tan | =
P
1
P
=
| = 45
Case (iii): When the given vectors
P
and Q
act in opposite directions.

R =
2 2
P Q 2PQcos180
Or =
2 2
P Q 2PQ
[ cos 180 = 1]
=
2
(P Q)
R = (P Q) P Q or Q P =
Or | R |
= | P | ~ | Q|

[ | P | ~ | Q|

implies positive difference between | P |
and | Q|
.]
So, the magnitude of the resultant vector is equal to the positive difference of the magnitudes of the given vectors.
Physics/Class XI 7
Also, tan | =
Qsin180
P Qcos180

Or tan | = 0
| = 0 or 180
When | P | | Q|

, then | = 0
When | P | | Q| <

, then | = 180
Clearly, the resultant vector acts in the direction of the bigger of the two vectors.
3. RESOLUTION OF VECTOR
The process of splitting a vector is called resolution of a vector.
The parts obtained after resolution are known as components of the given vector.
Consider two non-zero vectors a
and b
in a plane.
Let A
be any other vector in this plane. Through the tail (P) of

A
, draw a straight line parallel to a
.
Similarly, draw a straight line parallel to b
through the terminal point (Q) of

A
. Let both the lines intersect at C.

Applying triangle law of vectors,
A PC CQ =

(1)
As per the geometrical construction,
PC a =

and CQ b =

, where &
are real numbers.
Thus, from eq. (1) A a b =

. So,
A
has been resolved along a
and b
.
Using this method one can resolve a given vector into two component
vectors along a set of two vectors all the three lie in the same plane.
4. RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS OF VECTOR
If the components of a given vector are perpendicular to each other, then they are called rectangular components. These
are the most important components of a vector.
Let us consider a vector
A
represented by
OP
. Through the point O, draw two mutually perpendicular axes-X-axis and

Y-axis. Let the vector
A
make an angle u with the X-axis. From the point P, drop a perpendicular PN on X-axis.
Now ON( A )
x
=

is the resolved part of
A
along x-axis.
It is also known as the x-components of
A
or the horizontal component of

A
.
A
x
may be regarded as the projection of

A
on X-axis.
OM( A )
y
=

is the resolved part of
A
along Y-axis.
It is also known as the y-component of
A
or the vertical component of

A
.
A
y
may be regarded as the projection of

A
on Y-axis.
So, A
x
and A
y
are the rectangular components of A
.
Applying triangle law of vectors to the vector triangle ONP, we get
A A A
x y
=

Ay
Ax
Ay
Physics/Class XI 8
In right-angled triangle ONP,
A
cos or A Acos
A
x
x
= = (1)
A
sin or A Asin
A
y
y
= = (2)
Squaring and adding (1) and (2), we get
2 2 2 2 2 2
A A A cos A sin
x y
=
Or
2 2 2 2 2
A A A (cos sin )
x y
=
2 2 2
A A A
x y
=
2 2
[ cos sin 1] =
Or
2 2
A A A
x y
=
This equation gives the magnitude of the given vector in terms of the magnitudes of the components of the given vector.
5. DOT PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
Dot product of two vectors is defined as the product of the magnitude of one vector & the magnitude of the component
of other vector in the direction of first vector.
Properties
1.

. . . 1 i i j j k k = = = 2.

. . . 0 i j j k k i = = = 3. A.B B.A =

4.
2
A. A A =

Examples : -
1. W = F.S

2. P = F. v

3. F.S o =

6. VECTOR PRODUCT OR CROSS PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
The vector product or cross product of two vectors
A
&
B
is another vector C
. Whose magnitude is equal to the

product of the magnitude of two vectors & sine of the smaller angle between them.
A B A B sin c =

where c
is a unit vector in the direction of
c
. The direction of c
or c is perpendicular to the plane containing A B

&
direction is given by right hand thumb rule
Properties
1.

0 i j j j k k = = =
2.

i j k =

j k i =

k i j =
3.

j i k =

k j i =

i k j =
A B

= B A

Examples
1. = r F

2. L = r P

3. v = r

4. a = r

5.
c a =

Physics/Class XI 9
7. POSITION AND DISPLACEMENT VECTOR
Position Vector: Position vector r
of a particle P located in a plane with reference to the origin of an x-y reference frame
(Fig. (a)) is given by
OP
=

r xi yj = +
In magnitude,
2 2
| | r x y =
Where x and y are components of r along x- and y- axes (coordinates of the

object).
Position vector gives the position of a point with reference to any point at any
instant of time.
Similarly for three dimensional co-ordinate system, the position vector is given
by

r xi yj zk = + +
In magnitude,
2 2 2
| | r x y z =
Displacement Vector: Suppose a particle moves along the curve shown

by the thick line and is at point P at time t and P' at time t
2
.
Then, the displacement is: ' r r r A =

and is directed from P to P
We can write above equation in a component form:
( ) ( )

' ' r x i y j x i y j A =
=

i x j y A + A
Wherex = x x,y = y y
8. VELOCITY & ACCELERATION
Velocity: The average velocity of an object is the ratio of displacement
and corresponding time interval

x y z
r x y z
v i j k v i v j v k
dt dt dt dt
= = =
Then

x y z
v v i v j v k =
Since
r
v
t
=
, the direction of average velocity

v
is same as that of
r
.
In magnitude
2 2 2
| |
x y z
v v v v =
The instantaneous velocity is given by the limiting value of the average velocity as the time interval approaches zero.
0
lim
t
r dr
v
t dt
= =

Now we can express v in a component form

0

lim

t
dr x y z
v i j k
dt t t t
1

= =

( )
=
0 0 0

lim lim lim

t t t
x y z
i j k
t t t

Physics/Class XI 10
Or

x y z
dx dy dz
v i j k v i v j v k
dt dt dt
= =
where x y y
dx dy dz
v v v
dt dt dt
= = =
Magnitude of v is then
v =
2 2 2
x y z
v v v
And the direction of v is given by the angle u:
tan
y
x
v
v
=
1
tan
y
x
v
v
1

=

( )
The direction of velocity at any point on the path of an object is tangential to the path at that point and is in the direction
of motion.
Acceleration: Average acceleration of an object is equal to ratio of the change in velocity to the time interval.

( )

x y z
v i v j v k
v
a
t t

= =

y
x z
v
v v
i j k
t t t

x y z
a a i a j a k =
The instantaneous velocity is given by the limiting value of the average velocity as the time interval approaches zero.
0
lim
t
v
a
t

lim

y
x z
t
v
v v dr
a i j k
dt t t t
1

= =

( )
=
0 0 0

lim lim lim

y
x z
t t t
v
v v
i j k
t t t

Or

y
x z
x y z
dv
dv dv
a i j k a i a j a k
dt dt dt
= =
where
x
x
dv
a
dt
=
,
y
y
dv
a
dt
=
and
z
z
dv
a
dt
=
In one dimension, the velocity and the acceleration of an object are always along the same straight line (either in the
same direction or in the opposite direction).
However, for motion in two or three dimensions, velocity and acceleration vectors may have any angle between 0 and
180.
NOTE
Physics/Class XI 11
9. MOTION IN A PLANE WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION
Motion in a plane (two-dimension) can be treated as two separate simultaneous one-dimensional motions with constant
acceleration along two perpendicular directions.
For an object moving with constant acceleration in a plane, the following equation of motion holds true:
Here a
= constant acceleration,
r
= position vector of object at any time t,

r
= position vector of object at time t = 0,

v
= velocity at any time t,

v
= velocity at t = 0.
1. v v at =

In terms of component
x ox x
v v a t = (along x-axis)
y oy y
v v a t = (along y-axis)
2.
2
1
2
r r v t at =

In terms of component
2
1
2
ox x
x x v t a t =
(along x-axis)
2
1
2
oy y
y y v t a t =
(along y-axis)
10. RELATIVE VELOCITY IN TWO DIMENSION
Suppose that two objects A and B are moving with velocities
A
v
and
B
v
(each with respect to some common frame of reference, say ground.).

Then, velocity of an object A relative to that of B is:
AB A B
v v v =

and, the velocity of object B relative to that of A is:
BA B A
v v v =

Therefore,
AB BA
v v =

and
AB BA
v v =
Consider two cars A and B moving with velocities
A B and v v

respectively in directions
inclined to each other at an angle . Let us find the relative velocity
BA v
of B w.r.t. A. A.
Clearly,
BA v
=
B A ( ) v v

Now
2
BA
v =
2 2
A B A B
2 cos (180 ) v v v v
Physics/Class XI 12
But cos(180 ) =
cos
BA
v =
2 2
A B A B
2 cos v v v v (i)
Also, tan =
B
A B
sin(180 )
cos(180 )
v
v v

Or tan =
B
A B
sin
cos
v
v v
(ii)
Let s now find the relative velocity
AB v
of A w.r.t. B.
AB v
=
A v
+ (
B v
)
Now
2
AB
v =
2 2
A B A B
2 cos(180 ) v v v v =
Or
AB
v =
2 2
A B A B
2 cos v v v v (iii)
Also, tan o =
B B
A B A B
sin(180 ) sin
cos(180 ) cos
v v
v v v v
=

(iv)
It is clear from equations (i) and (iii)
BA AB
v v =
It is further clear from equations (ii) and (iv), =
Conclusion: The magnitude of relative velocity in both the cases is the same. But the direction is reversed.
Special Cases
1. When two bodies are moving along parallel lines in the same direction i.e., when u = 0,
AB
v =
2 2
BA A B A B
2 cos 0 v v v v v =
Or
AB
v =
2
BA A B A B
( ) ( ) v v v v v = =
Or
AB
v =
BA A B B A
( ) or ( ) v v v v v =
Conclusion: The relative speed between two bodies moving in the same direction is equal to the difference of the
individual speeds of two bodies.
2. When two bodies are moving along parallel lines in opposite directions i.e., when u = 180.
AB
v =
2 2
BA A B A B
2 cos180 v v v v v =
Or
AB
v =
2 2 2
BA A B A B
( ) 2 v v v v v = ( cos 180 = 1)
Or
AB
v =
AB
v
Conclusion: The relative speed between two bodies moving in opposite directions is equal to the sum of the individual
speeds of the two bodies.
Physics/Class XI 13
Have you ever noticed that when it is raining you need to hold umbrella depending upon the direction of the rain. Go
out when it is raining. First you stand still and watch out the the way in which you have to hold the umbrella. Now start
running and watch out the direction in which you have to hold the umbrella. Perform this activity and try to apply the
relative velocity concepts.
ACTIVITY
11. PROJECTILE MOTION
A body that is in flight after being thrown or projected through the atmosphere but is not being propelled by any fuel
is called a projectile.
Example:
(i) A bomb released from an aeroplane in level flight.
(ii) A bullet fired from a gun.
(iii) A javelin thrown by an athlete.
(iv) An arrow released from a bow.
The path followed by a projectile is called trajectory.
The motion of a projectile is two-dimensional.
When we consider the motion of a projectile, the following assumptions are made:
(i) There is no resistance due to air.
(ii) The effect due to curvature of earth is negligible.
(iii) The effect due to rotation of earth is negligible.
(iv) For all points of the trajectory, the acceleration due to gravity g is constant in magnitude and direction.
Trajectory of Projectile
Consider a projectile thrown with velocity v at an angle u with the x-axis
(horizontal).
The velocity v can be resolved into two rectangular components
(i) v cos u along x-axis
(ii) v sin u along y-axis.
The motion of the projectile is two-dimensional motion.
It is supposed to be made up of two motions horizontal motion (along x-
axis) and vertical motion (along y-axis) occurring simultaneously.
Horizontal motion: The horizontal motion of the projectile is uniform in nature as the net external force acting on the
body is zero.
Thus, the equations of motion of the projectile for horizontal direction are simply the equations of uniform motion in
a straight line.
The horizontal motion takes place with constant velocity v cos u.
Vertical motion: The vertical motion of the projectile is an uniformly accelerated motion controlled by the force of
gravity. This is because the only force acting on the projectile is the force of gravity, acting vertically downward.
Physics/Class XI 14
Mathematical expression: Let us take initial position of the object to be origin of the reference frame, therefore,
0 & 0 x y = =

. Let x and y be the horizontal & vertical distance covered in time t, then
( cos ) or
cos
x
x v t t
v
= =
2
1
( sin )
2
y v t gt =
If and
x y
v v are the horizontal and vertical velocity components at any time t,
x
v = v cos u and
y
v = v sin u gt
If and
x y
a a are the horizontal and vertical acceleration components at any time t,
0 &
x y
a a g = =
Since we know,
2
1
sin t
2
y v gt =
Substituting the value of
cos
x
t
v
= ,
We get
2
1
sin
cos 2 cos
x x
y v g
v v
1 1

=

( ) ( )
Or
2
2 2
sin
2 cos
gx
y x
v
=
This is a first degree equation in y and a second degree equation in x. This is the equation of a parabola. So, the path
followed by the projectile, i.e., the trajectory of the projectile is parabolic. It is clear that the trajectory is completely
known if v cos u is known.
It should be kept in mind that the above equation is valid only if u lies between 0 and
2
.
* Maximum Height
It is denoted by
max
h or H. It is also known as vertical range. It is the maximum height to which a projectile rises above
the horizontal plane of projection. In order to calculate the maximum height H, we
make use of the fact that the velocity ( )
y
v t of the projectile at the maximum
height is zero. If
1
t be the time taken by the projectile to reach maximum height,
then
1
0 sin v gt =
Or
1
sin gt v =
Or 1
sin v
t
g
=
So, when
1
' ' , ( ) H t t y t = =
H =
2
1 1
1
( sin )
2
v t gt
Or H =
2
2 2 2 2
sin 1 sin sin sin
sin or H
2 2 2
v v v v
v g
g g g g
1

=

( )
Or
2 2
sin
H
2
v
g
=
Physics/Class XI 15
Time of Flight
It is the total time taken by the projectile to return to the same level from where it was thrown. Time of flight is equal to
twice the time taken by the projectile to reach the maximum height. This is because the time of ascent is equal to the time
of descent.
Time of flight, T = 2t, where t is the time taken by the projectile to reach maximum height.
Now, at the highest point ( ) 0, , (0) sin
y y y
v t a g v v = = =
We know that ( ) (0)
y y y
v t v a t =
Substituting values 0 sin v gt =
Or sin gt v =
Or
sin v
t
g
=
2 sin
T
v
g
=
* Horizontal Range
It is the total horizontal distance from the point of projection to the point where the projectile comes back to the plane
of projection. It is denoted by R.
To calculate horizontal range R, consider horizontal motion of the projectile. The horizontal motion is uniform with
constant velocity v cos u.
R = v cos u time of flight
R = v cos u
2 sin v
g
Or
2
(2sin cos )
R
v
g
=
Or
2
sin 2
R
v
g
=
( 2sincos sin 2) =
* Maximum Horizontal Range
For a given velocity of projection and a given place, the value of R will be maximum when the value of sin 2u is maximum
i.e., 1.
For R to be maximum, sin 2u = 1 (maximum value)
Or sin 2u = sin 90 Or u = 45
So, for a given velocity, the angle of projection for maximum range is 45, i.e.,
4
.
Maximum horizontal range,
2
max
R
v
g
=
.
Physics/Class XI 16
A boy and a girl are tossing an apple back and forth between them. The sketch at the right shows the path the apple
followed when watched by an observer looking on from the side. The apple is moving
from the left to the right. Five points are marked on the path. Ignore air resistance.
(a) Make a copy of this figure. At each of the marked points, draw an arrow that
indicates the magnitude and direction of the apples velocity when it passes
through that point.
ACTIVITY
12. UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
When an object follows a circular path at a constant speed, the motion of the object is called uniform circular motion.
The word uniform refers to the speed, which is uniform (constant) throughout the motion i.e. the body travels
equal distance in equal interval of time.
Consider an object moving with uniform speed v in a circle of radius R as shown in Figure.
Since the rate change in velocity is acceleration, in this case the body is moving with uniform speed but velocity
of the object is changing continuously in direction, thus object undergoes acceleration.
Let us find the Magnitude and the direction of this acceleration.
Let r
and
r be the position vectors and v
and
v
the velocities of the object when it is at point P and

P
as shown
in Fig. (a)
By definition, velocity at a point is along the tangent at that point in the
direction of motion.
Since the path is circular, v
is perpendicular to r
and so is
v
to
r
.
Therefore, v is perpendicular to r .
Since average acceleration is along
v
v
a
t
1
^

=

( ) ^
, the average acceleration

a
is perpendicular to r
and it is directed towards the centre of the circle.

In Fig. (b), 0 t and the average acceleration becomes the instantaneous
acceleration. It is directed towards the
centre. Thus, we find that the acceleration
of an object in uniform circular motion is
always directed towards the centre of the circle.
By definition the magnitude of a
is given by:
0
lim
t
v
a
t
Let the angle between position vectors

r
and r
be . Since the velocity vectors

v
and v
are always perpendicular to the position vectors, the angle between them
is also

. Therefore, the triangle CPP'formed by the position vectors and the triangle
GHI formed by the velocity vectors , and v v v

are similar (Fig. (a)). Therefore, the
ratio of the base-length to side-length for one of the triangles is equal to that of the
other triangle. That is:
Fig. (b)
'
Fig. (a)
Physics/Class XI 17
v r
v R
=

Or
r
v v
R
=

Therefore,
0 0 0
lim lim lim
R R
t t t
v v v r v
a
t t t

= = =

If t is small, will also be small and then arc
PP
can be approximately taken to be | r|:
r v t
v
v
t

0
lim
t
r
v
t
Therefore, the centripetal acceleration a

c
is:
2
c
v v
a v
R R
1

= =

( )
Thus, the acceleration of an object moving with speed v in a circle of radius R has a magnitude
2
v
R
and is
always directed towards the centre.
This is why this acceleration is called centripetal acceleration (a term proposed by Newton).
Since v and R are constant, the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is also constant.
However, the direction changes pointing always towards the centre.
Therefore, a centripetal acceleration is not a constant vector.
We have another way of describing the velocity and the acceleration of an object in uniform circular motion. As the
object moves from P to P' in time At (= t
t), the line CP turns through an angle
^
called angular distance.
We define the angular speed (Greek letter omega) as the time rate of change of angular displacement:
=
t
Now, if the distance traveled by the object during the time At is As, i.e.
PP
is As, then:
s
v
t
=

But As = R Therefore:
v R R
t
v R
= =
=
We can express centripetal acceleration a

c
in terms of angular speed:
2 2 2
2
2
c
c
v R
a R
R R
a R
= = =
=
Physics/Class XI 18
The time taken by an object to make one revolution is known as its time period T
The number of revolution made in one second is called its frequency (= 1/T).
However, during this time the distance moved by the object is s 2R =
Therefore,
2R
2R
T
= =
In terms of frequency v, we have
2 2
2
2R
4 R
c
v
a
=
=
=
Whirling Bucket: Put a little water in a bucket - tie a string firmly to the bucket handle and then swing the bucket in a
vertical circle. As long as the rate of rotation is great enough the water stays in the bucket! Slowing the rate of rotation
can get the water to almost fall out at the top of the path and you can usually hear it slopping around at this critical
point.
Make sure that the handles of the bucket do not come off and that the bucket does not hit the floor at the lowest point
of the circle, or the ceiling. This is best done outside; in any case avoid the temptation to stand on anything.
The force with which you are pulling on the string provides the centripetal force needed to keep the bucket orbiting.
Check that you understand the direction in which this force acts towards your hand.
At the same time, you can feel a force pulling on your hand. This force is the equal and opposite reaction to your pull.
Since it acts outwards from the centre of the circle, it can be described as centrifugal, or centre-fleeing.
Now can you identify the centripetal force and its direction?
ACTIVITY
Physics/Class XI 19
1. A person stands at 80 m from a building and throws a ball which just enters a window 36 m above the ground. Calculate
the velocity of projection of the ball. [Ans. 40.1 ms
1
]
2. A particle is projected with a velocity v so that its horizontal range is twice the greatest height attained. Find its horizontal
range. [Ans.
2
4
5
v
g
]
3. Find a vector
A
and its magnitude with initial point P (2, 2, 1) and terminal point Q (3, 1, 2). [Ans. A =
11
]
4. What is the magnitude and direction of ( )

i j . [Ans. | = 45]
5. What is the property of two vectors
A
and B
, if A B A B =

. [Ans. u = 90]
6. Find the unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors

3 2 i j k and

2 2 4 i j k . [Ans.
8 3
]
7. Calculate the area of the parallelogram whose sides are represented by

3 i j k and

i j k . [Ans. 4.89]
8. A particle moves from position

2 3 6 i j k to position

12 13 9 i j k in metres when a uniform force ( )

4 2 i j k
newton acts on it. Calculate the work done by the force. [Ans. W = 30 J]
9. For what value of ,

A 2i j k =
is perpendicular to

B 4 2 2 i j k =
. [Ans. = 3]
10. At which point of projectile motion (i) potential energy is maximum (ii) kinetic energy is maximum (iii) total mechanical
energy is maximum. [Ans. (i)
1
2
m u
2
sin
2
u, (ii)
1
2
m u
2
cos
2
u (iii)
1
2
mu
2
]
11. A particle is projected at an angle u from the horizontal with kinetic energy K. What is the K.E. of the particle at the
highest point. [Ans. K Cos
2
u]
12. Pick out the two scalar quantities in the following list: force, angular momentum, work, current, linear momentum,
electric field, average velocity, magnetic moment, relative velocity.
13. What will be the effect on the horizontal range of a projectile when its initial speed is doubled keeping its angle of
projection same.
14. A unit vector is represented by

ai bj ck . If the values of a and b are 0.6 and 0.8 respectively, find the value of c.
[Ans. Zero]
15. What is the velocity and momentum of the body at highest point of projectile motion.
16. Two equal forces have their resultant equal to either. What is the inclination between them.
17. A cyclist has to bend a little inwards from his vertical position while turning. Why.
18. Prove the following statement, For Elevation which exceed or fall short of 45 by equal amount, the range is equal.
19. A lady walking due east on a road with velocity of 10 m/s encounters rain falling vertically with a velocity of 30 m/s. At
what angle she should hold her umbrella to protect herself from the rain.
20. A swimmer can swim with velocit y of 10 km/h. w.r.t. the wat er flowing in a river with velocit y of
5 km/h. (i) In what direction should he swim to reach the point on the other bank just opposite to his starting point.
Physics/Class XI 20
***
21. The angle between vector A
and B
is 60. What is the ratio of A.B and AB

. [Ans.
1
3
]
22. A passenger arriving in a new town wishes to go from the station to a hotel located 10 km away on a straight road from the
station. A dishonest cabman takes him along a circuitious path 23 km long and reaches the hotel in 28 min. What is (a) the
average speed of the taxi, (b) the magnitude of average velocity. Are the two equal.
[Ans. 49.3 / , 21.4 / a km h b km h = = ]
23. In long jump, does it matter how high you jump. What factors determine the span of the jump.
24. Rain is falling vertically with a speed of 30 ms
1
. A woman rides a bicycle with a speed of 10 ms
1
in the north to south
direction. What is the direction in which she should hold her umbrella. [Ans.
1
1
tan
3
| |
| =
|
\ .
]
25. The position of a particle is
2

3.0 2.0 4.0 r t i t j k =
given by where t is in seconds and the coefficients have the proper

units for r to be in metres.
(a) Find
v
and a
of the particle. [Ans.
( )
v= 3 4 / i j m s
,
2
a = 4 j / m s ]
(b) What is the magnitude and direction of velocity of the particle at t = 2s. [Ans. 8.54 / m s , ( )
1
tan 2.66
| = ]

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Physics/Class XI 1

2012 Vidyamandir Classes Pvt. Ltd.

Figure (b): Shows two vectors X

can be expressed in terms of its unit vector a

So, if a given vector is divided by its magnitude we get a unit vector.

i denotes the direction of X-axis.

are equal vectors. i.e., A

withapositivenumber gives another vector

whose magnitude is changed by thefactor:

is the same as that of

is multiplied by 2 and we get another vector

is twice the magnitude of a

, while the direction of

is the same as that of

Again, in the following figure a

is multiplied by 2. The new

is twice the magnitude a

of but direction opposite to that of a

are the same as those of a

. But, generally is scalar with

will be obtained by multiplying the unit of a

that lie in a plane as shown in

so that its tail is at the head

. Then, we join the tail of A

, which is the sum of the vectors

as shown in the figure below:

is multiplied by zero, we get zero vector

as the sum of two vectors

are completely represented by the two sides OA and OB respectively

in x-y plane with components A

be their sum. We have R

is the sum of the corresponding components of A and B.

. From C, draw a perpendicular CN on OA (produced) as shown

[from (2) and (1)] (4)

act in the same direction.

act at right angles to each other..

act in opposite directions.

act in opposite directions.

be any other vector in this plane. Through the tail (P) of

, draw a straight line parallel to a

through the terminal point (Q) of

. Let both the lines intersect at C.

has been resolved along a

. Through the point O, draw two mutually perpendicular axes-X-axis and

or the horizontal component of

may be regarded as the projection of

or the vertical component of

may be regarded as the projection of

are the rectangular components of A

. Whose magnitude is equal to the

or c is perpendicular to the plane containing A B

Where x and y are components of r along x- and y- axes (coordinates of the

Displacement Vector: Suppose a particle moves along the curve shown

, the direction of average velocity

Now we can express v in a component form

= position vector of object at any time t,

= position vector of object at time t = 0,

= velocity at any time t,

(each with respect to some common frame of reference, say ground.).

r be the position vectors and v

the velocities of the object when it is at point P and

, the average acceleration

and it is directed towards the centre of the circle.