EDUCATION OF

YOUNG MAMMALS
Baby mammals learn from their parents in different ways
according to their habitats and lifestyles. In its early days
a young mammal learns new skills critical to its survival.
THE INTELLIGENCE OF PRIMATES
Of all the primates, the chim-
panzee resembles man the
most. It is one of the few
mammals to use tools. A
young chimp learns by watch-
l
ing its mother. It is soon able
to use a twig to dig for in-
sects. Following its mother's
example, the chimp breaks off
leaves and buds to make the
I
twig easier to use.
Primates live in groups with
a social hierarchy and com-
municate with each other by
using body language as well
as vocalization. They commu-
nicate emotion through facial
expressions. For example, a
grimace is a sign of anger.
From birth, young primates
cling to their mother's fur,
and from this position they
learn how the others in the
group behave. Monkeys, like
humans, must learn how to
walk. A female rhesus monkey
ANIMAL TRAINI
Right: Like man, the chimpanzee
uses expressive body language to
communicate.
Below: Taught by its mother, a
chimpanzee soon learns how to
hunt for food.
teaches her baby to walk by
sitting it down and walking
away from it. If the baby does
not move to follow her, she
prods it into action before
finally gathering it into her
arms. She repeats the lesson
until the baby can walk.
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Many experiments have been
performed to determine the
intelligence of animals.
Squirrels are able to com-
plete difficult obstacle courses
in order to reach food. Pri-
mates are capable of learning
human language and can be
trained to help disabled peo-
ple in their homes.
Almost all animals have the
same needs for essential food
and shelter. The promise of
these can motivate an animal
to learn new skills.
Right: Trained dolphins respond to
a handler's orders and put on dis-
plays that educate and entertain.
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Mammals have evolved over thousands
of years, each adapting to its own
environment. Much of a young
mammal's behavior is instinctive.
But it learns still other behaviors from
its parents and through experience.
~ LEARNING ABILITIES
The intelligence of mammals
varies from species to species,
with some having a greater
capacity for learning than
others.
Front cover: A female rhesus
monkey carries her young until it
is ready to walk.
Inset: A young wildebeest takes
its first step.
Monkeys and apes are
among the most intelligent
mammals; the chimpanzee's
intelligence is believed to be
the most similar to man's.
Other mammals, such as
rabbits, are of low intelligence
and survive mainly by instinct.
Still, instinct is just as impor-
tant as intelligence.
~ LEARNING TO HUNT
Mammals have to make quick
decisions. A predator has to
learn how to catch its prey or
it will starve.
Wild cats and dogs learn
how to hunt from their par-
ents. A mother cat brings live
prey home so that the young
In the case of rabbits,
instinct ensures their survival
as a species. Though they are
a favorite food of many preda-
tors, they flourish because of
their rapid breeding rate.
Above: Two young elephants
play fight. They use their tusks,
which become entwined in mock
battle.
can learn how to kill. Later,
they follow their mother on
hunting trips and hunt and kill
for themselves. Many dogs
hunt in packs, and it is impor-
tant that skills are well learned,
since a mistake could cost the
entire pack a meal.
~ LEARNING THE
~ LANGUAGE
Many mammals "talk" to
each other. Among the most
vocal are the primates and
marine mammals such as
dolphins and whales.
Whales and dolphins that
live in groups have a vocabu-
lary that they use to identify
themselves as well as ap-
proaching predators and the
location of food.
A young whale stays close
to its mother for over a year
and learns to communicate
with her and the rest of the
group. Each species commu-
nicates using its own dialect.
~ SOCIALIZATION
Mammals that live in groups
or have more than one young
at a time must learn social
skills from the others.
Young mammals often play
at fighting. This prepares
them for adulthood and
teaches them their place in
the group.
Meerkats, for example, live
in complex groups, depend-
ing on teamwork for survival .
Older meerkats show the
young how to catch scorpi-
ons, watch the young, keep
guard, and bring back food to
newborn meerkats.
Top: Lion
cubs learn
how to kill
from their
mothers.
Above: These
two brown
bears play-
fight with
each other.
Right: Mock
fights prepare
young
mammals for
adulthood.
HOW BIRDS BUILD THEIR NESTS
Birds build nests in many shapes, sizes, and locations-from tree
holes to tunnels, from twig platforms to tiny cups of mud-but all
provide security, warmth, and their eggs and young.
KEY FACTS
MASTER BUILDERS
Some birds improve on the
basic cup-shaped nest. Mag-
pies crown their treetop nests
with a roof of thorns to deter
egg thieves. Tailorbirds also
build cone-shaped nests by
sewing together large leaves.
The male pecks a series of
holes down the sides of the
leaves, stitching the leaf edges
together with plant fibers .
The ovenbirds make their
rounded, roofed clay nests
sometimes weighing up to
100 times more than the bird.
Swallows also build enclosed
mud and saliva nests, gluing
them into building eaves so
that heavy rains cannot wash
them away.
Weaverbirds build a com-
munal, weatherproof roof be-
fore building individual nest
chambers under its protec-
tion. The most able of all nest
builders, weaverbirds use
threads stripped from large
leaves to weave their circular
or conical basket nests. The
birds may use more than a
dozen different kinds of knot.
Right: The completed weaver nests
look like fruit hanging from the tree.
DID YOU KNOW?
Birds nesting in tree holes
or tunnels lay white eggs
that can be seen in the dark
because they do not need
camouflage.
The Egyptian plover sits on
its eggs through the night
and covers them with sand
Above: The weaver starts by
threading grasses to form the basic
outline of its nest.
during the heat of the day.
The white tern does not
really build a nest. It sticks its
eggs to a branch with a glob
of mucus instead.
Unlike most birds, which
build their nest of plant mate-
rial, the swiftlet builds its
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Above: It uses its beak and feet to
weave fibers into the dense walls
and opening of the nest.
four-inch-wide nest from sa-
liva over a one-month period.
Some eagles build such a
huge aerie (nest) that small
finches have room to nest in
its branches. It provides a
good base for their nests and
protection from predators.
0160200311 PACKET 31
Nest building is an inherited skill that birds
have developed to improve their young's chances
for survival. The variety of design
and construction reflects the differing needs
of each species and the birds' adaptability
to habitats and available materials.
~ WHY BUILD NESTS?
Like most reptiles, the ances-
tors of modern birds buried
their eggs in the soil or in rot-
ting vegetation. During their
Front cover inset: Great spotted
woodpeckers in their tree hole.
evolution birds began using
their body heat to incubate
their eggs and a warm, pro-
tective nest was needed.
During breeding season,
longer days or rising tempera-
~ TUNNEL NESTS
The manx shearwater lays its
eggs in an old rabbit burrow
or a cavelike crevice safe from
predators. The kingfisher tun-
nels into steep riverbanks,
first pecking out a small hole.
It then digs deeper, shoveling
out sandy soil with its feet to
make a chamber to house its
white eggs.
Left: The kingfisher's nesting
tunnel can extend as far as three
feet into the riverbank.
~ GROUND NESTS
Birds nest in a variety of ways
depending on the presence of
predators, suitable nest sites,
and nesting material. Com-
mon terns lay their eggs
Below: Western meadowlark
nestlings nest in a grass-lined hole
in the ground.
tures stimulate hormones that
trigger the building urge.
One or both of the mating
birds may build the nest, but
the nest design remains the
same in each species.
~ T R E E HOLES
Woodland birds often use hol-
low trees for their nests. Dead
or diseased trees rotted from
the inside out provide deep,
secure holes used by birds
such as pigeons, parrots, owls,
and starlings.
The woodpecker enlarges its
hole, but the wood duck and
mandarin duck keep the holes
much as they find them.
Treecreepers and horn bills
reduce the hollow openings
among beach pebbles, while
ring-necked pheasants nest
down in grassy hollows.
Some waders build floating
platforms from twigs and
leaves, held in place by
rooted plants. The nests soon
become waterlogged and rot,
which allows the warmth of
the decomposing vegetation
to incubate the eggs.
Many smaller birds such as
the lark make cup-shaped
nests in the earth to protect
their tiny young. Hollowing
the ground with their breasts,
they weave layers of grass
and wood stems into a cup
shape and line it with moss
and wool or hair. The nest
and eggs are camouflaged,
but predators such as wea-
sels, foxes, and hawks can still
find them.
Above right: The male heron
supplies nesting material for the
female who then arranges them
into a broad platform.
Right: The sociable rook builds a
messy twig nest high in a tree and
returns to it each year, making
necessary repairs.
by plastering the edges with
mud to keep predators out.
Abqve: A great tit feeds its young in
a secure tree hole.
~ NESTS ABOVE GROUND
Tree nests range from huge,
crudely built eagle aeries to
skillfully woven, mud-lined
thrush nests. They are built in
layers in a fork of a branch
with twigs, wood stems, or
tough grass depending on the
size of the nest. Each piece is
chosen for length and pliabili-
ty before use.
Large birds nest in treetops
for easy flying access, while
smaller birds often camou-
flage their nests with moss or
lichen in secure, thick shrubs.
The nests may be mud-lined
to make a dry, wind-proof
cup for the eggs, which are
cushioned by soft materials
and strands of spiders' webs.
DOMESTICATION
OF ANIMALS
Domestication was started by our early ancestors who realized
the potential of certain wild animals to perform tasks and provide
humans with a reliable source of food and clothing.
KEY FACTS
THE CONSEQUENCES OF DOMESTICATION
Animal domestication has led
to the existence of a wide
variety of breeds. More than
200 breeds of dog descended
from the wolf.
The domestication of ani-
mals has changed mankind's
way of life significantly.
Domesticated dogs and
horses helped people to
round up herds, enabling
them to build permanent
settlements that later evolved
into towns and cities.
As domestication became
more sophisticated, animals
were bred to produce more
meat, milk, or wool. This
created certain breeds of
cow and pig that are totally
reliant on humans for their
day-to-day survival.
Right: A beekeeper provides the
honeybee with a home and is
rewarded by a supply of honey.
CAN DOMESTICATION BE REVERSED?
Whether or not domesti-
cated animals could survive
on their own depends on
their degree of domestica-
tion. A hardy breed of hill
sheep that still retains its
wild survival instinct would
probably do well on its own.
But the large white pig,
which has been bred to pro-
duce large amounts of meat,
does not have the ability to
fend for itself.
Formerly a domesticated
Below: The cat was originally
domesticated by the ancient
Egyptians.
animal, the Australian dingo
escaped into the wild and
quickly reverted to its wild
state. Many colonies of feral
(returned to the wild) city
cats have behavior patterns
Left: In the case
of reindeer, do-
mestication has
been very slight.
This animal's
natural ability
to survive harsh
conditions
makes it
valuable.
much like the wildcat's.
But certain breeds of pet
would have difficulty surviv-
ing in the wild because they
have become too tame to
compete with other animals.
SOME DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND THEIR ORIGINS
Domestic Animal
Dog
Cat
Horse
Sheep
Cattle
Rabbit
Pig
Goat
Chicken
Pigeon
Ancestor
Wolf/jackal
African wildcat
Asiatic wild horse
Urial
Aurochs
Wild rabbit
Wild boar
Persian wild goat
Red jungle fowl
Rock dove
Where Found Wild Today
Europe/Africa
Africa
Soviet Union
Southwest Asia
Extinct
Europe
European forests
Crete!Turkey
India
Europe
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The effects of domestication vary in different
animals. The dog bears little resemblance to
its ancestor, the wolf, yet still retains some
of the wolf's wild instincts. The pig, on the other hand,
bred purely for its meat, has none of the natural
instincts of its predecessor, the wild boar.
~ ORIGINS OF DOMESTICATION
Wild animal domestication
began in 9000 B.C. when
nomadic tribes started building
permanent settlements and
herding together animals they
had previously only hunted.
Mainly mammals and birds
were domesticated to provide
meat, milk, and eggs as well as
wool and hides. Larger mam-
mals were used to carry or pull
heavy loads.
Hunters first used the dog to
track down and kill other wild
animals. It also provided pro-
tection and gradually evolved
into a companion. Certain
breeds of dog were bred for
their appearance and do not
look similar to their ancestor
the wolf, but some breeds
Right: The yak's
hardiness makes
it ideal for
Tibetan hill
tribes.
Front cover
insets: Since
early times, the
dog has been
"man's best
friend. II The
blackface sheep is
bred for its fine
wool and meat.
retain wolflike features. Still,
even dogs that look different
share common ancestors. For
example, the closely related
but different-looking rott-
weiler and chihuahua were
carefully bred to fulfill differ-
ent purposes for their owners.
The cat was domesticated
for its beauty, but it devel-
oped into a rat-catcher. The
cat's ancestor was probably
the easily tamed African wi ld-
cat rather than the untamable
European cat. The ancient
Egyptians mummified cats in
their royal family tombs.
French monks domesticated
the rabbit before 1000 A.D.
The rabbit's rapid reproduc-
tion provided meat and fur.
~ CAN ALL ANIMALS BE DOMESTICATED?
Many species' wild instincts
make them impossible to
domesticate. Attempts to
domesticate the zebra have
failed.
Other wild animals are kept
as pets. Indian princes used
the cheetah for hunting, and
the hyena is kept as a guard
in some parts of Africa. These
animals are not truly domesti-
cated and will go wild if they
escape. Even household pets
such as the guinea pig and
hamster must be caged to
keep them from escaping.
Right: Attempts to domesticate
the zebra have failed.
SOME UNUSUAL DOMESTIC ANIMALS
Alpaca: Kept for its wool
and used as transportation.
Bees: Until the discovery of
sugar refining 200 years
ago, honey was the only
known sweetener. The wax
produced in the combs
was used in medicine.
Camel: Kept as a p ~ c k
animal in Africa and Asia.
They were introduced into
Australia where today they
roam wild.
Elephant: Kept as a worker
in India, the Asian elephant
moves trees and heavy
objects.
Goldfish: One of the very
few domestic fish, they were
kept by monks for food.
llama: Pack animal in the
Andes, South America.
Reindeer: Farmed by the
Laplanders for food.
Yak: Used in Tibet as a pack
animal and for meat.
Above: The honeybee is the only
insect successfully domesticated
by humans.
Left: Humans exploited the
wolf's natural skills and created
a perfect hunting companion.
Below: Przewalski's horse is the
only completely wild horse left.
Today's different breeds of
horses evolved from herds of
wild horses that roamed the
plains of Asia. The first people
probably hunted the horse
for its meat, as they did with
most large, herd animals.
They eventually began using
it as a beast of burden and a
means of transportation. The
rare Przewalski's horse is the
only true wild horse to
survive today.
Selective breeding changed
the wild horse's appearance
as an adaptation for its spe-
cific use. For example, the
heavy shire horse that pulls
carts and plows and the sleek
race horse are adapted for
different purposes.
CANNIBALISM IN ANIMALS
A cannibal is an animal that feeds on others of its own species.
This is not an unnatural characteristic: around 140 different species
show cannibalistic tendencies under various conditions.
KEY FACTS
INFANTICIDE
Cub-killing among lions
Of the higher mammals, the
lion shows the most definite
cannibalistic tendencies. There
have been many reports of
male lions killing and then
sometimes eating young cubs.
In almost all cases, however,
the male lion is prompted to
kill the cub, not from hunger
or population pressure, but by
a need to safeguard his own
offspring. In most cases, the
young are killed but not
eaten. This killing is better
described as infanticide-the
killing of young-rather than
cannibalism.
This extreme behavior is
linked to the fact that a female
lion reproduces quite slowly,
usually coming into season
again only after her cubs have
become independent. Also,
the male has a short breeding
Right: A male
hamadryas
baboon
occasionally kills
and eats the
young of
another pair.
This may seem
an outrageous
act, but it does
help to protect
the future of the
male's own
offspring.
Below: The
adult male lion
does not usually
eat a cub he has
killed. Like the
baboon,he
simply elimi-
nates possible
future rivals to
his own young.
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period of only about three
years. By killing any cubs and
young lions already present,
he both encourages the
females to come into season
and eliminates the chance of
any rivalry against offspring
he later fathers.
Primate infanticide
The males of several primate
species, including the com-
mon langur, also practice
infanticide. Bands of male
langurs will attack a mixed
troop, driving off the males
and killing the offspring be-
fore mating with the females.
Baboons also have been
observed killing their young,
and, like the lion, occasionally
even eat them.
0160200221 PACKET 22
Cannibalism is most common among lower
vertebrates and invertebrates, often due to a
predatory animal mistaking one of its own kind
for prey. But it also occurs among birds and
mammals, especially when food is scarce.
~ WHAT IS CANNIBALISM?
The word cannibalism comes
from the name of an island
race called the Canibales. This
warrior tribe had the habit of
feasting on their enemies
killed or captured in battle.
The name has since been
applied to any animal that
eats others of its own species.
There are two kinds of
Front cover inset: The carrion
crow sometimes resorts to killing
and eating a rival's young.
cannibals: active and passive.
Active cannibals hunt and kill
their own kind before eating
them. Passive cannibals feed
on already-dead members of
their own species.
Active cannibalism takes
various forms. In some spe-
cies, for example, it occurs
only between animals of one
generation, while among
others it is common between
adults and their offspring.
~ WHY DO ANIMALS BECOME CANNIBALS?
Generally, cannibalism is a
particular form of feeding be-
havior where a predatory spe-
cies preys upon-or simply
eats- animals of its own kind.
Cannibalism is not the result
of a predator's efficiency, but
the opposite. Few of the top
flesh eaters, such as wolves
and tigers, ever eat those of
their own kind. Even those
that do, like the spotted
hyena, are usually passive
cannibals.
Cannibalism is more com-
mon among lower animals
such as the preying mantis,
when they may not be able
to distinguish between
relatives and prey.
Right:
The blue crab
does not prey
on its own
species, but it
will feed on a
corpse.
Below left:
One male
scorpionfly
will eventually
eat the other.
~ THE BENEFITS OF CANNIBALISM
Cannibalism may seem purely
destructive, but it can, in fact,
be quite beneficial. Clearly, a
voracious cannibalistic species
would rapidly eat itself out of
existence.
When cannibalism occurs in
response to overcrowding, for
example, it can increase the
species' chances for survival. A
population rising too rapidly
without restraints can elim-
inate its own food supply.
During a harsh winter or
drought, when food is scarce
it is clearly to a species' advan-
tage for at least some of the
population to remain well-fed
and healthy-even at the
expense of others.
Among species that pro-
duce many offspring, such as
frogs, cannibalism of siblings
helps ensure that some young
develop into adults, thus con-
tinuing the species. Cannibal-
ism appears to be an inherited
trait in some species.
~ OPPORTUNISTIC CANNIBALISM
Many species of gull that nest
in large colonies cannibalize
eggs and young. When it is
sporadic, this behavior may
be a response to crowding,
Left: Tadpoles cannibalize, en-
abling some to mature into frogs.
but some gulls throughout
the breeding season live
entirely on the eggs and
chicks of their own species.
The chief perpetrators tend to
be males without young of
their own.
~ ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES
Some animals become canni-
bals when faced by certain
environmental conditions.
Mice and rats, for example,
may turn cannibal when their
colony population rises rapid-
ly, and their naturally high re-
productive rate results in a
high mortality of young. Dead
offspring may be eaten by the
hungry and stressed survivors.
This behavior is most often
observed in animals kept un-
der unnaturally cramped con-
ditions in captivity-but there
is also evidence of cannibalism
occurring in the wild under
similar conditions.
Among some bird species,
parents or nestlings may eat
the young when populations
become dense, or food scarce.
Young birds of prey often kill
and sometimes eat weaker
nestlings. Crows, too, may
eat eggs and chicks of rivals
to improve their own chance
of successful breeding.
Left: The
female mantis
often eats the
male after
mating.
Below: An
American
alligator may
kill and feed
on a smaller,
weaker rival.
BIRD COURTSHIP
Birds perform elaborate and showy courtship rituals. Serenades,
intricate dances, and the display of exotic
plumage are all part of the contest to attract a mate.
KEY FACTS
BOWERBIRD COURTSHIP
The male bowerbird of New
Guinea and Australia creates
elaborate nests during breed-
ing season to attract a mate.
These nests serve only as
areas for courtship display
and are used and improved
for several years.
The bowerbird chooses an
open site among the trees,
and sweeps it clear of leaves.
The bird then builds the
structure (bower) from care-
fully chosen twigs that he
COMPETITIVE COURTSHIP
Some game bird species such
as the capercaillie and grouse
perform communal courtship
rituals.
Prior to the breeding sea-
son, both males and females
gather at sites called leks,
which the birds use annually
for the males' display activity
to attract females. The males
Front cover: The frigate bird
puffs up its pouch for display.
Front inset: The crowned crane
performs its courtship ritual.
sticks firmly in the ground.
The enclosures' shapes
differ by species. For ex-
ample, the gardener bower-
bird builds circular hutlike
bowers, often around the
trunk of a small tree. The
bower's floor is decorated
with brightly colored flowers
and fruit.
Another species builds an
open-topped structure made
from two rows of twigs three
feet long and six inches
Left: Satin
bowerbirds
decorate their
nests to attract
mates.
Right: The
great bower-
bird decorates
his nest with
curious objects
and bright
flowers.
strut and puff out their beard
feathers while performing
songs of clicks and rattles.
Below: Capercai/lies display with
songs of clicks and rattles.
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wide. The whole area is deco-
rated with such objects as
bleached bones, feathers,
shells, fruits, and petals. Some
birds even paint their bowers
with the juice of berries.
The male bowerbird entices
a female to his completed
structure and dances before
her, displaying himself and
the objects he has collected.
After mating, the female
builds herself a separate nest
for her eggs.
The females watch the dis-
play, sometimes from their
perches in the branches of a
nearby tree.
The males occasionally
fight each other, stabbing
with their beaks or leaping
into the air and crashing
their wings together.
The dominant birds will
eventually occupy the cen-
tral areas of the leks; the
females then join them
and they mate.
01 fi0200201 PACKET 20
Courtship displays perform
several different functions, from identifying
a bird's species and sex to helping individuals
choose a partner. They also help strengthen pair
bonds and ensure that both birds are ready to
breed at the same time.
~ COURTSHIP VARIETY
Every species of bird performs
a slightly different courtship
ritual. These differences help
to ensure that only birds of
the same species will mate.
Males and females also per-
form different and complemen-
tary roles, thus only attracting
members of the opposite sex.
Before mating season, many
male birds grow colorful
plumage. They then show
off to attract a mate.
Birds that are less colorful,
such as species of the war-
bler, show much less variety
of plumage between the
sexes. Instead, they use
extremely complicated and
individual songs to identify
themselves and to attract a
mate.
~ MALE DANDIES
Usually it is the male that plays
the leading role in courtship by
showing off his plumage to the
duller-colored females. For
plainer birds such as the house
sparrow, the male' s display
may consist of puffing out his
chest or tipping back his head
to emphasize his dark bib.
Exotically feathered species
such as the male peacock often
put on a stunning display. The
male peacock will fan his tail
to present a dazzling array of
blue, green, and golden feath-
ers in one of the showier dis-
plays of any bird.
The male mandarin duck de-
velops impressive golden
"sails" from enlarged tertiary
flight feathers on its wings and
long, chestnut-colored whis-
kers on either side of its brightly
colored head.
Not all birds rely on colorful
feathers to impress potential
mates. The blue-footed booby,
for instance, performs a court-
ship dance, to display its bril-
liant blue, webbed feet to its
intended mate.
Left: A male peacock displays his
magnificent plumage to the less
showy white-feathered hen.
~ GIFT GIVING
Many birds perform a ritual
known as courtship feeding or
gift giving. Usually the female
will spread her wings and open
her beak, behaving like a
young bird begging for food.
This ritual not only allows her
to build up her strength for the
demanding job of laying and
incubating the eg'gs, but it also
assures her that the male will
~ MUTUAL DISPLAY
Plumage of similar color
across the sexes means that
they are more equal in thei r
courtship displays. Alba-
tross, for example, perform
complex joint rituals which
look like a courtly dance. The
longer the display lasts, the
closer the bond formed
between them.
Some species perform
courtship displays in the air.
Lapwings try to impress their
mates by tumbling through
the air as if they were about
to crash. Male skylarks fly
high into the air singing
loudly.
Many birds of prey court
each other by displaying their
hunting skills in mock aerial
combat. The female pere-
grine falcon will often fly on
its back as the male swoops
Below: Male albatross'
courtship rituals are very
complex.
be a good provider for the
chicks.
Instead of food, some
species of bird present their
partners with nesting mate-
rial. Herons give their mates
large twigs which are offered
up with ceremonial bowing.
Gift giving is probably a sym-
bolic show of the male's nest-
building abilities.
overhead; the pai r briefly
touch claw to claw. The
male may even pass food to
the female during similar
encounters.
Birds often begin their
courtship awkwardly. They
become more skillful as they
progress. Once the ritual is
performed perfectly, the
birds will often mate. Mating
is not the only goal of the
Above: A blue-footed booby
displays his brilliantly colored
feet to the female.
courtship ritual, however;
many pairs remain together
to share the tasks of building
nests, incubating eggs,
and raising young.
Below: The male mandarin duck
is set apart by his colorful
plumage.
HOW BATS 'SEE'
IN THE DARK
Bats see the world in 1/ sound pictures. " From the echoes of the
complex, high-frequency sounds they produce, they can tell the size,
shape, distance, and even texture of objects around them.
KEY FACTS
HOW WEll CAN BATS "SEE"?
It is hard for humans to
imagine how bats use only
their sense of sound to obtain
as detailed a view of their
surroundings as we do with
sight. Experiments show that
bats "see" extremely well.
They can tell distance, speed,
and direction of movement.
The only quality of an object
the bat cannot perceive by
sound is color.
Flies and fine wires
The little brown bat detects
wires as fine as 0.01 inch from
over three feet away, and it
spots wires 0.12 inch thick
over six feet away. The Medi-
terranean horseshoe bat navi-
gates between wires thinner
than a human hair.
When hunting, the little
brown bat can spot fruit flies
no larger than 0.12 inch from
PHYSICAL ADAPTATIONS
Producing the sound
Bats produce their calls using
a voicebox that is proportion-
ally larger than that of other
mammals. To make sounds,
the bat forces air between two
membranes that vibrate. Mus-
cles tense the membranes,
producing different pitches
that are either amplified or
filtered through various cham-
bers before exiting the bat's
mouth or nose. Bats that call
through their nose have nose
leaves that direct the sound.
It is mainly insect- and
nectar-eating bats that use
Sending a signal: The bat
produces sounds in pulses, timing
the delay between sending out the
sound and receiving the echoes
that bounce back from its target.
two feet away. It detects and
eats from 500 to 1,200 of
them in an hour.
On target
Experiments show that the big
brown bat discriminates be-
tween targets as close
together as half an inch and
this method of echolocation.
But one known species of cave-
dwelling fruit bat uses a more
basic form of echolocation,
clicking its tongue to produce
high-frequency sounds.
Specialized ears
The bat's ears are sensitive to
the direction and quality of its
echoed calls. The external ears
collect sound well, and some
species' ears are huge. Bats
move their ears to locate
sound. The sounds are picked
up by each ear and combined
in the bat's brain.
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Receiving a signal: Echoes from
the target are picked up by each ear
and combined in the bat's brain to
form an accurate "picture" of the
prey's location and size.
can tell one triangle measuring
4 inches x 4 inches x 2 inches
from another measuring 3'/2
inches x 3'/2 inches x 2 inches.
It has also been able to tell the
difference between plastic
plates with holes drilled into
them at depths varying by
only 0.03 inch.
Above: The complex nose leaves
of the lesser horseshoe bat direct
the sounds that it sends out.
0160200301 PACKET 30
For many years, it was assumed that
exceptionally keen sight allowed bats to fly and
hunt in total darkness-a feat even sharp-eyed owls
cannot match. It is now known that most bats have
a highly sophisticated method of using sound instead
of light to perceive the world around t h e ~
a method that is just as effective as sight.
~ A MYSTERY UNRAVELLED
For centuries scientists did not
know how bats could fly at
night between finger-sized
tree branches and accurately
catch tiny flying insects.
They originally thought that
the bat, like other nocturnal
animals, had super-sensitive
eyesight. Late eighteenth-
century Italian scientist
Lazzaro Spallanzani found
that owls could not fly in a
completely dark room while
bats could fly normally. He
discovered that blinded bats
could fly and capture prey,
but those fitted with ear plugs
were grounded.
Later, after the Titanic hit an
iceberg in 1912, machine-gun
inventor Hiram Maxim began
investigating sonar (the use of
sound for navigation and
ranging) . Maxim believed that
bats used sonar, but mistak-
enly thought they used low-
frequency sounds generated
by wing movements. Not
until the 1930s, when G.W.
Pierce developed a high-
frequency sound detector,
were bat sounds first heard.
DID YOU KNOW?
Several species of insect
can hear bat calls and take
evasive action. Some moths
produce ultrasonic calls to
confuse their attackers.
The wavelength of a bat's
call is between 0.2 and 0.8
inch, the same length as
many of the insects it
hunts.
The calls of the little
brown bat have the same
sound energy as the noise
of a jet engine. To avoid
deafening itself, the bat
Left: The bat
can echo locate
in the air or
from a perch,
varying the
volume,
number, and
complexity of
the sounds it
emits depending
on whether it is
hunting or
navigating.
Front cover
inset: The long-
eared bat has
ears that
efficiently
collect sound.
Left: In
darkness, the
Bechstein bat
can sense
moving prey
through
changes in the
sound picture it
creates.
Below right:
The bulldog bat
uses echo-
location to pin-
point fish.
contracts a muscle in its ear
before making each call.
Bats that produce calls of
very low volume such as
many fruit- and nectar-
feeding species are known
as whispering bats.
The human ear cannot
detect the bat's high-
frequency sounds.
Far from being "blind
as a bat," most bats have
reasonable eyesight. Very
few fruit-eating bats use
echolocation.
~ SEEING WITH SOUND
Bats build up an image of the
world from reflected sound
waves, or echoes, much as
humans use reflected waves
of light to see. Humans de-
pend on external light sources
such as the sun, but the bat's
sound pictures come from the
echoes of calls that it pro-
duces itself.
To "see" in the dark, bats
produce a short series of high-
frequency sound pulses that
spread out into a cone of
sound like light from a flash-
light beam. When the sound
hits an object, an echo boun-
ces back to the bat. This is
called echolocation.
Bats use high-frequency
sound because it has a
shorter wavelength that can
detect small insects better.
Low-frequency sounds of
long wavelength wash
around small objects and do
not send back an echo.
Bats can distinguish high-
frequency sounds out of
background noise, which is
mostly at low frequency. By
using sounds pitched higher
than most other animals can
hear, the bat can hunt with-
out being detected by its
prey or by other predators.
~ THE NATURE OF SOUND
Each bat call has a mixture of
one or more frequencies and
up to five variations of tone.
The call may sweep through a
frequency range or be at a
constant frequency. It may last
from 1 to 1 00 thousandths of
a second.
Using calls of varying fre-
quency, the bat recognizes the
order in which echoes return.
The bat then builds a detailed
"picture" of its surroundings,
listening for changes.
To tell echoes apart, indi-
vidual species-and even in-
dividual bats-have distinctive
voices. By keeping calls short,
the bat avoids confusion from
"sending" and "receiving" at
the same time.
The bat can vary the
volume and quality of sounds
to suit the habitat it is flying
through. When flying close to
trees, it uses lower-volume
calls to avoid a confusing mix
of echoes. When flying from
one place to another, the bat
uses infrequent, simple calls.
The number and complexity
increases for hunting.
HOW BIRDS FL V
Man has always envied the ability of birds to soar through the air
with complete freedom. Flying is now commonplace, but even an
expert hang glider cannot match the natural skill of a bird.
ACTION FILE
BODY ADAPTATIONS
Apart from its wings, other
parts of the bird are also
adapted for flight. A relatively
large heart and powerful
lungs provide the energy for
this strenuous activity.
Birds' bones are light but
strong. Many of their limb
bones and parts of the pelvis
and skull are honeycombed to
eliminate excess weight.
A bird must keep its body
temperature high to turn food
quickly into energy. A small
SPEED AND DISTANCE
Fast flyers
The peregrine falcon flies at
60 miles per hour in normal
flight with spread wings, but
it sweeps its wings back and
reaches dive speeds up to 150
miles per hour to catch prey.
The sleek swift flies up to 62
miles per hour during aero-
batic displays over rooftops,
but it flies slowly when trying
to catch insects in flight.
v MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
bird must eat more than a
large bird because it loses
heat faster with its greater
surface-to-volume ratio.
Hummingbirds need so much
Left: The
puffin propels
itself through
water using
strong, stubby
wings to force
it deeper when
tracking fish.
On land, it
makes clumsy
landings.
Above: The porous structure of
the major bones reduces weight
but retains great strength.
energy that they eat half their
body weight in food each day.
Left: The
arctic tern's
elegant form
is instantly
recognizable.
Nesting on icy
coasts of the
for north, it
journeys half-
way around
the globe to
reach warmer
wintering
grounds.
Ducks have some of the fast-
est speeds for steady, direct
flight. The eider duck, with its
strong wings and flight mus-
cles, can fly at tremendous
speeds downwind.
Long-distance travelers
Also known for its fearless dives
on intruders at nest sites, the
arctic tern is one of the most
widely traveled birds. It often
migrates 22,000 miles round
trip to its breeding grounds.
One arctic tern traveled 11,185
miles in less than three months.
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The bird is a well-designed flying machine
with strong muscles, lightweight bones, a,!d complex
wings. Wing shapes differ according to lifestyle-forest
dwellers have short, stubby wings for swerving through
trees and undergrowth while seabirds have long, slender
wings so they can cover vast distances
with a minimum of effort.
~ FLIGHT
Birds fly in a variety of ways.
Active or flapping flight is used
for taking off, turning, land-
ing, and moving quickly from
place to place. The wings flap
in an energetic and exhausting
rowing action, sometimes in a
figure-eight rather than just
up-and-down.
To save energy, many birds
glide on outstretched wings in
between short bursts of active
flight. The direction of the
wind affects their ability to
stay aloft. Large birds glide
often, while small species glide
very little.
Front cover inset: A little owl's
primary (wingtip) feathers open
on the upstroke to reduce drag.
In hot countries, birds fly
long distances by soaring,
which is a form of gliding.
Rising thermals (currents of
warm air) carry them into
the air, keeping them up
without the birds' flapping
their wings.
Birds also hover. The
hummingbird stays in place
when feeding by rapidly
flapping while its body and
head stay still. It can hover
backward and forward by
rapidly rotating its wings in a
figure-eight motion, lifting
and keeping its body stable.
Below: A hummingbird beats its
wings 50 to 70 times each second
to keep its bill steady as it feeds.
~ TAKING OFF &: LANDING
Birds use tremendous energy
to take off. They accelerate
rapidly so they will not stall
and fall to the ground. Small
birds leap into the air and fly,
but larger species' weight
poses a problem.
Weighing up to 26 pounds,
the wandering albatross takes
off in strong head winds to
get sufficient lift. Some larger
birds run on the ground to
gather speed, while others
"fall" into the air from cliffs.
Water birds such as the mute
swan use a "runway" across a
stretch of water.
To land, these birds raise
and spread the alula (feathers
on the front wing edge),
which act as brakes. Some
species use their tail feathers
as stabilizers and brakes.
Right: The starling opens its alula
(feathers on the front wing edge)
to avoid stalling when landing.
~ WINGS &: FEATHERS
A bird's flapping wings keep
it airborne and moving for-
ward through the air. Wings
can twist, fold, flap, and
spread. In flight, the large
pectoralis major muscle pulls
the wings downward and the
Left: With wings spanning over
10 feet, the wandering albatrass
can glide for months on end.
smaller pectoralis minor
muscle pulls them back up,
helped by the bird's weight
against the air.
For flight, the primary and
secondary flight feathers give
the wings a smooth, aerody-
namic covering any way they
fold or turn. The feathers also
separate to allow air to pass
through them when landing.
Tail feathers direct maneu-
vering or braking in flight.
Wing and body size must
be balanced for flying. New
Zealand's kakapo, or owl
parrot, has well-developed
wings, but its body is too
heavy for flight. It can only
glide downward for short
distances.
The kakapo's body weighs
up to five pounds, but its
flight muscles are only three
to four percent of the total
weight. They do not have
enough power to raise the
body off the ground into
active flight.
Left: The spotted harrier's broad,
slotted wings give it good control
in gusty winds.
MAMMAL COURTSHIP
Why do some apes have colorful faces? What makes t ~ e red
deer fight so fiercely at certain times of the year? Mammals I
courtship rituals vary widely from species to species.
KEY FACTS
THE RED DEER'S RUT
Velvet-covered antlers
Physical changes are important
in the red deer's courtship
ritual. The male, or stag, sheds
his antlers every spring, and a
new set begins to grow. The
new antlers are covered with a
soft skin called velvet. With
growth complete in mid-
September, the blood supply to
the antlers stops and the velvet
peels away, revealing bone.
A state of arousal
Other changes take place in the
stag as he readies for mating.
He roars loudly, his neck thick-
ens, and he grows a mane.
Glands below his eyes give off
a scent. This seasonal state of
arousal is called the rut.
The display
When the stag is ready he seeks
out females, or hinds, rounding
them up into a harem. The
hinds are ready to mate with
him or any other stag.
Battling rivals
When a rival stag approaches
the harem, the two males do
battle. They fight fiercely,
though rarely to the death.
DID YOU KNOW?
Female black rhinos have
"courted" trucks and cars,
perhaps believing they
were bull rhinos.
Strong-smelling beaver
and civet pheromones
(hormones released by ani-
mals to attract sexual part-
ners) are added to many
popular perfume brands.
Above: After eight weeks of
growth the antlers are still small
and covered with velvet.
Above: The stag puts on a show
of masculinity to impress the
hinds in his harem.
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Above: As mating time draws
near, the aroused stag utters
loud, bellowing roars.
Below: Most duelling deaths
occur when stags' antlers become
interlocked.
0160200291 PACKET 29
The survival of every animal species
relies on its ability to reproduce. For some
mammals the mating process is quick and
simple. For others, courtship may be long
and elaborate before two animals
finally pair up to breed.
~ WHAT IS COURTSHIP?
Different species have their
own methods of reproduction.
Some have mating seasons,
others breed year-round.
Front inset left: A battle-scarred
bull elephant seal towers over his
mate. Right: Courting giraffes
nuzzle gently.
~ -V-I S-U-A-l -O-IS-P-l -A Y-
Among primates-the mam-
mals related most closely to
man-the sexes often attract
one another with their
brightly colored bodies. For
example, many species of
monkey have bare patches
of colored skin, particularly
around the genitals, anus,
and face. These areas some-
times become even brighter
when the animal is sexually
aroused.
Some take new mates each
season. Others mate for life.
For all mammals, however,
one thing remains the same:
a male's sperm must fertilize a
female's eggs. The rituals
performed to make this hap-
pen are called courtship.
~ TOUCHING RITUAL
Touching is often a necessary
part of courtship. Whale cou-
ples, for example, swim side
by side, stroking one another
with their flippers. Many bears
stand up to hug and paw one
another during courtship.
After the male bottle-nosed
dolphin has picked out his
left: Rival male zebras exhibit
an aggressive side to courtship;
the victor wins a mate.
~ V I T A l SIGNS
Humans use all their senses
during mating, especially
sight. Most mammals, how-
ever, have poor eyesight, or, at
best, black and white vision, so
their keen senses of smell and
hearing playa more important
part in attracting a mate.
A crowd of dogs circling a
bitch (female) in heat is a good
illustration of the importance
of scent. Once male and fe-
male mammals identify one
another by smell, many more
courtship rituals begin.
Right: A male and female hare
box playfully as part of their
courtship ritual.
mate, he swims with her so
that they can stroke each other.
They also rub their whole
bodies up against one another,
or nuzzle with a closed snout.
Indian elephants spend weeks
in courtship. During this time
they stand face-to-face, touch-
ing each other with their sen-
sitive trunks. They may inter-
twine them or playa gentle
game of tug-of-war.
~ THE THRill OF THE CHASE
During mating season, many
females avoid the male at first
and the male must chase them.
A male wild rabbit chases his
intended mate through open
fields, always remaining several
yards behind her. The chase is
more for show since the couple
stop frequently to feed.
After the chase, the male
left: The male mandrill's facial
coloring attracts the attention of
a female.
rabbit walks upright, his tail
folded along his back, revealing
his white belly. The courtship is
lengthy. Actual mating takes
place after nightfall.
The male squirrel also chases
the female, who stops every
few steps so that he can catch
up. Afterward they clash teeth
together and wave their tails.
Right: The lion mates with a female
only after he establishes domi-
nance over rival males.
Left: The
mating ritual
of the red
deer involves
many differ-
ent behaviors,
including
visual display,
scent release,
loud bellow-
ing, and
aggressive
competition
with other
males.
Rival males of some mammals
fight, sometimes to the death,
to get a female. The female
may also be attracted by the
display of fighting.
The gazelle gores its oppo-
nent with its horns, and lions
and tigers are fierce when
defending a mate.
Aggressive courtship is not
confined to male rivalry. Male
and female hares kick and box.
Oryx mates clash horns and
push each other. The male
elephant seal treats his mate
harshly. If she flees to the
territory of another bull, both
males may attack and kill her.
INSECT SOCIETIES
A busy ant nest may appear chaotic, but each scurrying insect is
performing a specific task. By dividing duties such as fighting or
breeding, an insect society ensures its survival.
KEY FACTS
----.J _____ _
TYPICAL INSECT SOCIETIES
TERMITES
Each termitaria (city) has a
queen, soldiers, and workers.
Queen: Lives at the center. Her
body is a huge egg-laying
machine, up to 4 inches long.
She lays millions of eggs.
Soldiers: Large, dark, with
extra-large heads and biting
jaws. They defend the colony.
Workers: Small, white, frail.
They build the nests.
ANTS
Almost all species are social.
Many live in nests, or formi-
caries, with several egg-laying
females, a few males, and
thousands of workers.
Queen(s): Fertilized female.
Lays all the eggs.
Workers: Wingless, sterile fe-
males that collect food, build
the nest, and defend it against
invaders. They tend the young,
carrying larvae or pupae out-
side to warm up in the sun.
SOCIAL WASPS
Social wasp colonies may be
very large, but their social
structure is usually poorly
developed, with only slight
differences between queens,
workers, and males. Social
I
DID YOU KNOW?
A queen termite may lay
30,000 eggs in one day, and
there may be seven million
termites in a colony.
The cuckoo bee lays its eggs
in the nests of social bees. The
cuckoo bee grubs (larvae) are
BLACK ANT SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Male: Dies
shortly after
mating.
wasps build nests made of
saliva and chewed wood in
sheltered places, often under-
ground. These nests have
many cells to house the young.
SOCIAL BEES
Honeybees live in complex
communities of up to 60,000
individual bees.
Queen: Lays eggs. One queen
reigns in each colony. She is
much larger than workers and
lacks the special organs for
pollen collection.
fed by the resident workers.
Some ants steal the young of
other species and rear them for
use as slave workers.
To divert attackers from the
rest of the colony, some ter-
mite workers actually blow
female tends a
larva (left) .
Worker milks
honeydew from
aphids (right) .
Queen ant: After
fertilization she
discards her
wings. Her eggs
develop into
workers.
Workers: Collect nectar and
pollen from flowers and main-
tain and defend the colony.
They construct a comb of six-
sided wax cells. These cells are
used to store honey and to
rear the young. The returning
workers "dance" on the comb
to inform other workers where
food is located.
Drones: Look like queens but
cannot sting and must be fed
by workers. Drones help regu-
late the colony's temperature
and mate with new queens.
themselves apart and cover
their enemies with slime
from their insides.
A worker bee may die de-
fending her colony, if the
barbed sting is ripped out of
her body during an a t t a c ~
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Social insects such as ants and termites
live in colonies where every individual has
a clearly defined role. Each colony is tightly knit
and operates as a unit as if it were a giant multipart
animal. The driving force is a/ways the queen.
~ EXTENDED FAMILIES
The social insects include ter-
mites, ants, and some wasp
and bee species. Each indi-
vidual has a specific role and
relies on the rest of the com-
munity for its other needs.
A termite colony may be de-
fended by soldiers with biting
jaws. But the soldiers cannot
gather their own food. They
are fed by the worker termites
they protect. Neither soldiers
nor workers can breed. All the
young are produced by a sin-
Right: Soldier
army ants with
fearsome jaws
guard their
colony.
Front inset
left: Weaver
ant workers
bind a nest of
leaves with silk
that is made
by the larvae.
Front inset
right: Potter
wasps gather
at their nest
entrance.
gle queen, who lives at the
center of the colony. She in
turn relies on workers and
soldiers for food and defense.
In a beehive there may be
80,000 workers. All are daugh-
ters of the queen and elder
sisters of the newly hatched
young. Genetically, they are
almost identical twins, which
gives them a powerful interest
in each other. A worker bee
will die defending her younger
sister bee.
Left: Worker
bees surround
the queen
honeybee. A
slightly longer
abdomen
distinguishes
her from the
workers.
~ COMMUNICATION
Social insects must exchange
information all the time. One
way they do this is by body
language. A honeybee, for
example, performs a "dance"
to point the way to a rich nec-
tar source.
If a foraging ant discovers a
good source of food, it lays a
scent trail. Others follow the
trail and add their scent to it
to attract still more ants.
These scents a;-e called pher-
omones, and they play an im-
portant role in insect societies.
Wasp grubs demand food by
emitting a pheromone that
signifies "feed me." The queen
has a distinctive scent of her
own that keeps all the workers
at their tasks. They touch her
regularly and douse them-
selves in her scent. If she is
Left: Worker
termites tend
to the queen
while she in-
cubates her
eggs. She can-
not move
because of her
huge swollen
abdomen.
removed, the workers may
lose all sense of purpose.
Worker bees who lose their
queen rear a replacement in a
special "queen cell." But if a
queen is still active, her pher-
omones prevent any replace-
ment of her. They also keep
the workers from becoming
sexually active, because all the
females in the colony have the
potential to become queens.
Pheromones occur in ants
and termites as well as bees
and wasps. Every egg is the
same, but when it hatches the
larva takes in pheromones
with its food. These phero-
mones determine its future
role. A termite may develop
into a worker, a soldier, a
fertile male, or a queen-it all
depends on the pheromones.
~ BUILDING THE COLONY
Each year the entire colony of
social wasps dies out-except
for the newly mated queens,
who crawl into crevices for the
winter. When she emerges in
the spring, each queen wasp
builds a cluster of 10 to 12
hexagonal cells made of wood
pulp. She lays an egg in each
cell, and when the grubs (lar-
vae) hatch, she feeds them
chewed-up insects. The grubs
develop into small worker
wasps that enlarge the nest.
The queen lays eggs in the
cells as they are built, and the
workers feed the grubs. These
grubs grow into more workers,
and so the colony expands.
A honeybee colony develops
similarly, but ant and termite
Left: Surrounded by workers,
winged adult termites prepare to
leave the nest and find a mate.
Right: Leaf-
cutter worker
ants carry
their "harvest"
to the nest.
They cultivate
a fungus on it
that the colo-
ny can eat.
colonies are more complex.
There may be castes of work-
er ants with different duties.
Some workers may attack
intruders with formic acid;
others may serve as storage
vessels for nectar.
Termites have larvae that
resemble small adults and may
act as workers. The larvae may
mature into workers or into
soldiers with heavy jaws or
nozzles that squirt a sticky
substance to trap enemies.
Both worker and soldier ter-
mites are blind and wingless.
But the sexually active males
and females can see, and they
have wings that drop off after
mating. Once the colony is
established, the queen's body
swells and becomes an egg-
laying machine. The male lives
beside her in the nest.
Left: The
queen paper
wasp uses
chewed plant
pulp to build a
basic nest with
a six-sided
chamber for
each egg.
Other females
assist her by
adding to the
nest structure
and helping to
feed the first
generation of
larvae.
HOW ANIMALS NAVIGATE
Many animals, from bees to humpback whales, can find their way
accurately from one place to another. The methods they use to
navigate vary from simple to extremely sophisticated.
KEY FACTS
EELS
European eels migrate each
year from rivers to breeding
grounds in the Sargasso Sea
in the North Atlantic, thou-
sands cif miles away. They use
several navigation methods.
The eels are sensitive to tiny
electrical currents and chem-
ical changes in the water.
They can also pick up the
earth's magnetic field.
Right: The eel travels part of the
way over land on its migration to
breeding grounds.
HONEY BEES
When worker bees find a
source of nectar, they return
to the hive using the sun to
navigate. When they return
they communicate with the
other bees, telling them the
distance to the food source
and its direction in relation to
the sun. They alter the infor-
mation during the day to allow
for the sun's movement.
The "round dance" tells
other bees that there is food
within 250 feet of the hive.
The other bees must track the
dancer's scent to locate it.
In the "waggle dance" the
dancer flies in two overlapping
semicircles. The bee waggles
its abdomen along the central
part of the run. The speed at
which the bee waggles indi-
cates distance. The angle be-
tween this part of the run and
the vertical equals the angle
between the sun and the food
source. The bees must fly out
of the hive at this angle.
lGMCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A
Left: If a
honey bee
finds a source
of nectar, it
returns to the
hive and
informs others
by dancing.
Below: The
waggle dance
shows other
bees the
direction to fly
from the hive.
Waggle dance: The I
angle (a) between "" /
the waggling part of -0
the run and the
vertical is the same / I ""
as the angle be-
tween the food
----
0160200321 PACKET 32
Animals navigate in a variety of ways.
Many bird species find their way using
the earth's magnetic field as a guide, while eels and
salmon rely on chemical changes in the water.
Still other animals like bats and whales
navigate with the use of sound waves
that allow them to avoid obstacles.
VISUAL CUES
Many animals find their way
simply by using landmarks to
identify their surroundings.
Migrating birds spot familiar
features along rivers and coast-
lines to keep them on their
route. Mammals and insects
navigate over short distances
using features in the landscape
for reference.
Other animals use the posi-
tion of the sun in the sky as a
guide, but this is more difficult
because the sun moves during
the day. Birds, bees, solitary
wasps, ants, and some butter-
Front inset above: Ants use the
sun as a navigational aid.
Front inset below: Dolphins
navigate using sound waves in a
process ealled echoloeaton.

Salmon migrate from their
birthplace in freshwater rivers
to the ocean and back again
several years later. Vision plays
a part in their finding the coast-
line. The fish also probably de-
tect chemicals in the water
and recognize their own river.
Chemicals also playa part in
the migration of the European
eel to its breeding grounds
across the Atlantic.
flies make allowances for the
movements of the sun to
judge their position.
Even in cloudy weather
these animals are able to con-
tinue their journey by using
polarized light. The light from
the sun shines in all directions,
but as it passes through the
atmosphere it becomes di-
rected, or polarized.
Birds, frogs, and toads are
also able to orient themselves
by using the stars, much the
way we use the North Star to
identify north.
Right: The salmon navigates its
way from the river in which it is
born, out to the ocean, then back
again. Chemicals in the water may
aid this process.
from Brazil to breeding beach-
es on Ascension Island in the
South Atlantic. They return
each time to the same place.
Scientists think smell helps
them recognize these sites.
Some female moths release
a chemical scent, known as
a pheromone, which attracts
males, often from great dis-
tances. The male Chinese
saturnid moth can find a
Green turtles move every year female seven miles away.
Left: Like many
bat species, the
greater horse-
shoe bat uses
the sounds it
emits to navi-
gate in total
darkness. Echo-
location en-
ables the bat to
accurately
judge distance.
THE EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD
Invisible lines of force exist be-
tween the magnetic north
and south poles of the earth.
A compass can detect them.
Humans can navigate using a
compass; some animals, too,
may use these magnetic lines
to navigate. Whales may fol-
low these lines, which could
explain why they get stranded
in inland waterways.
Birds use the earth's mag-
netic field to navigate. On
cloudy nights, when birds
cannot see stars and land-
marks and there is no light to
guide them, some can still
orient themselves correctly.
Below left: Emperor penguin pairs
migrate separately but meet again
at their destination.

A bat makes high-pitched
sounds that hit objects in its
path and bounce back to its
ears. This process, called
echolocation, is very accurate,
enabling the bat to find its
way in dark caves, avoiding
obstacles and catching flying
insects, such as moths. The
moth may emit "jamming"
sounds to confuse the bat.
Some birds also use echoloca-
tion to find their way in caves.
Emperor penguin pairs sep-
arate and migrate over long
distances in a snow-covered
landscape with no recogniz-
able features, but they still
meet up at the same point.
But if the magnetic field is
upset, birds become confused.
Scientists have studied the
homing pigeon, which can
fly home accurately from
great distances. Albatrosses
are able to fly home over even
greater distances. In order
to use the magnetic field
for navigation iron must
be present in the bodies of
homing animals. Magne-
tite, a form of iron, has been
found in pigeons' brains, as
well as in bees.
Whales and dolphins use
sound to communicate with
each other, to find a mate,
and to keep groups together.
The giant blue whale calls
to other whales hundreds of
miles away. The male hump-
back whale makes long, com-
plex, songlike calls that travel
across the oceans. A beached
whale's call may sometimes
guide its companions to a
similar fate.