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Alberto studied in Perez-Gomez architecture and a Mexico received Ph.D.inHistory and from of Theory theUniversityEssex,England. Heis currently Associate an Professor of at ArchitecturetheUniversityHouston. of His book Architecture theCrisis Modern and of in 1983. Science Press)willappear July, (MIT

the architecture a became During Renaissance, liberal because wasperceived be an art it to of akin and activity theintellect, to geometry mathematics. was Disegno a "graceful preof in conceived ordering thelinesand-angles, themind."6 entailed imitation "Image" (mimesis), and and assothought, conception, wasusually ciated thenewly with discovered of powers man as a magus.7 "image" thearchitecThedistance between architectural The was drawing tural (from root to see) inthe idea the andbuilding always has and beenopaque 1I, strict much sense,implying etymological Indeed, of theconfusion "look," ambiguous. and The facedbycontemporary architects educators "semblance," "form." "image" and was alsoanalogous derivation original in and seemsto be linked a misunderstanding to of sense to "species" spec-ere, behold), to This is as which (from drawing a toolof reduction. article an alludes theoriginal to this to of perception thea priori attempt castsomelight upon problem, order reality. thearchitect images of Thus that historical evidence willleadto used examining to embodytranscendental, a a discussion prevalent of abstract which prejudices (geometin with our of architecture's rical) order, accordance thetraditional hamper perception modern Aristotelian of truepotential. hierarchyplaces. While traditional the a builder,primeaval poet the made his (from Greek poesis,to make), into the thoughts building through implementationof anoperational (in geometry theoriginal senseof giving human dimensions external to the architect articulated reality), Renaissance thenecessarily "abstract of language" walls, and in openings, columns architectural drawing, of elevations bymeans plans (ichnographia), and or In (orthographia),profiles sections. the context its institutions and defining urban the enhanced the through "images," architect traditional ofplace,adding sense meanings thatspoke man to about about new a himself, of life understanding as valuable experience, medieval but beyond determinism, thatwas never contradictionordefied, order in the to, of Creation. Renaissance architectural was drawing perceived a symbolic as intention befulfilled to inthebuilding, remaining autonomous while an realm expression. of the Hence, building, i.e., of meaning intheimmediacyembodied given was as perception, always accepted primary. Instead dictatingset of instructions of a that to were be actualized implementing neutral by the still technological processes, architect, a builder, thatthe"distance" knew primarily between andmatter, idea between and design would his construction, be reconciled through owninvolvement inbuilding. Filarete's In

The ofBramante's inthe ofS. plan Tempietto courtyard Pietro inMontorio, Serlio Montorio, Rome. this Rome. reproducedoriginal inhis 'Idea" Serlio this reproduced original "idea" his treatise Architettura etProspettiva inspite thefact of (1519), that thecentral structure wasactually built. only (E)

at Vitruvius understood drawing, best,as a minor of thepractice architecture, of while part of "the explained productionsarchi"theory" of tecture theprinciples proportion."1 on Alberti, was as weknow, thefirst distinguish to between as and design structure thetwoconstituent of The parts architecture.2 opening pagesof DeReAedificatoria that concontend design sists "ina right exactadapting joining and and the which together linesandangles compose The andform faceof thebuilding."3 role the of design "toappoint theedifice all was to and determinate its parts proper their places, and order."4 number, proportion beautiful just was mind however, inAlberti's "insepDesign, arable matter", thatdrawing perfrom so was as of ceived theembodimentarchitectural ideas, from distinct perspectives represented that (in the of painting), reality a building.5

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for Platonic overtones Trattato, example, thearchitect wellaware was notwithstanding, thatthebuilding change thecourse in would of and and be construction, thatit could enriched evenimproved.8 primacy synesthetic, The of embodied wasrecognized. perception Nothing a canreplace meaning experiencing the of of the building, regardless howsophisticated of reduction a building other into mediums appear. might Phenomenological psychology teachesus thatsuchembodied is experience theground allother for of perception meaning.

InLaPratica Perspettiva della Daniele (1569), the the of and Barbaro, philosopher mathematician, Toward end the18th century Gaspard friend patron Palladio, someinterand of made his Monge developed descriptive geometry, about a becamebasic architectural which of estingcomments Vitruvius's disciplineDurand's "ideas." Barbaro with the The emphatically disagreed school, Ecole Polytechnique.problem theclaim linear that ofdescribingobject an its perspective (perspectiva through projections and onthree had a of artificialis), with (ichnographia) along plan planes been concern archielevation was tectsbefore but of (orthographia), oneof thearchiMonge, theinvention tectural ideasreferred byVitruviusthe to in was than descriptive geometry more a systemasecond of tization known One.9 interof The methods. chapter his Book Descriptive geometry of remains the for ofthe pretation Vitruvius's sciographia opened way a functionalization and commenta- "lived of problematic, themostsensible world," for inceptionnoni.e., the torsandtranslators thetexthave of Euclidean Itbecame effective an geometries. always with It that ofpower, anabsolutely instrument and essential struggled thepassage.10 is clear Vitruvius notreferring linear was to of Revolu- B perspective, tool precision theIndustrial during butrather a perception thebuilding's to tion. original of The architectural were ideas in a reconciled the into transformeduniversal that totality depth, viewwhich projections internal external and the and could and then, perceived as orders, plan the then, only be elevation. Vitruvius posited three his reductions ofbuildings, had the of creating illusion as "ideas" themeans expression archiof of as tool communicates drawinga neutral that tectural ordisposition, Barbaro order and like scientific information, unambiguous prose. that contended sciographia should be not Don't even we see educators today architectural as misunderstoodscenographia,stage or in stand front projects a review ignore of in and which thetrueprovince perspec- architectural pretending to was of instead ideas, design, tive.Instead, proposed he criticize the or that adding section "buildings," assuming it is possibleto predict objective their to theplan to theelevation that and profile meaning?14 hadbeenrecommendedVitruvius. by For mostpart, century the 17th architects to continued distinguish between architecture, which depended geometrical upon operations andcombinations, perspective, acted and which as a toolof illusionism.1 Perhaps inthe only 18th treatise Ferdinando of Galliearly century was Bibiena thetaskof thearchitect identified with ofthestagedesigner.12 ambiguity that The the as concerning use of perspective a means to embody architectural an intention exis the tremely revealing. During Renaissance could or drawing be more less precise, making use sometimes of toolslikegrids scales,13 or butthedrawing evidently perceived was not as a "picture" thebuilding, its reduction, of as or

as a neutral collectioninformation of forits construction. road certainly for The was open thetransformation builder aneffiofthe into cient of designer, capable controlling practice methods precise and drawthrough prescriptive But did not ings. thetransformation happen more this overnight. Perhaps importantly, historical evidence that perception shows the oftheory method, ofdrawing itstool as and as ofreduction, notbetaken granted. should for modern architects Durand after have Only assumed a role drawingprimary such of as and unquestionable.

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the Although seemingly reacting against "engineers" theEcole of Polytechnique, professors and students theEcole Beaux at des Arts as manifestation regarded drawinganimplicit ofdescriptive This geometry. understanding hasalways taken granted makes been for and fora crucial extremely and complex problem. The and of depth extensionitsramifications canbegrasped remarking itsconnection by towhat Edmund describedthe Husserl as crisis European of and science,15 totheinception non-Euclidean of inthe geometries early 19th century. Q

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nomic manner pragmatic the for requirements shelter. amounted a denial symbolic This to of as order thecrux architecture. Durand, of For thebuilding to provide maximum had pleasure In with minimum means. hisPr6cis, and myth concerns excluded were from metaphysical architectural andarchitecture became a theory, of combinations facilitated the game formal by of of grid his "mechanismcomposition.'21 of Thus, was,inessence,a logicdevoid design in absolute of meaning, which thesyntax only be stylecould controlled reason. by Modern architects" taken have "professional forgranted Durand's of "design" understanding as reduction. to Consequently, continue they create and mute uninteresting functional buildfollows theother: means from the are ings.One notneutral. is inessential, fact,is What in whether material of a building gothic, the skin is a of of classical, m6lange styles,ora denial Arts was styles.TheBeaux tradition as rooted if as infunctionalismthe Bauhaus, oneunderas functionalisma reductionistic stands architecturethefunction is attitude, whereby of of a combinationvariables, themathei.e., This matization human of needsandvalues.22 than issueis more profound "post-modern" the And architects to suspect. although seem between in belief a one-to-one correspondence conis and thedrawing thebuilding ludicrous, fusion prevailed. has for cannot concern meaning The architect's true in whose embodied a drawing beproperly or or role explicit implicit is thereduction must of "picture"a building. Drawing serveas in intention the of theexpression a symbolic of ideas. form architectural Because few very in architects thelasttwohundred have years of their the made ownbuildings, importance have Architects has drawing beenemphasized. a to unable build symbolic beeneither order, because avoided orhaveintentionally building role their a)theydidnotcomprehend primordial their hence of as makers a symbolic order, task to the willingness accept irrelevant of strucwith and the filling world sterile inhuman or turesdictated consumerismeconomics; by not andb)because societyis apparently interseem order. Individuals estedina symbolic their ad of capable postponing infinitum pressunder living problems, instead ingexistential without of the illusion absolute rationality, and only sightof objectives, focusing onthe of efficiency means.

inarchitecture of Therejection reductionism of a of must about recognitionthevalue bring as theoretical (or projects drawing model): the which, definition, question projects by world. in of their execution a prosaic possibility to Boull6e Ledoux, and this Prior Piranesi, would have not notion a theoretical of project reason the sense.During 18thcentury, made excluded The but became powerful never myth. of of natural prototype all philosophy Newton, motivated the was by knowledge, ultimately a of of through possibility therevelation God of His better Art, understanding works.23 poetry, andsciencetherefore, notcontradictory. were the Alldisciplines envisioned were against on horizon sameepistemological dependent a rerational in belief a harmonious, cosmos, of the to vealed man through perception Nature. form between the After Durand, reconciliation became paradigmatic the andcontent problem Absowith concerned meaning. forarchitects of lutevalidity anyonestylewasquestioned to was andarchitecture reduced its pragmatic of that function, is, themaking material to I was The commodities. architect thusforced the art choosebetween andscience,between of falseextreme anabsolute objectivity or mathematical reason) thatof an (universal absolute poetic subjectivity (personal myth). in of architecturethelast Thehistory Western of twohundred is thusa description how years with to have architects tried cometo terms down an thisissue.Clearly, architecture gnawed techabout one to its bones, thatspeaksonly values human and nological process notabout hasoften beendeemed unacceptable, both by at architects architects society large. and True, to ornament often added have "referential" their their buildings, to make utilitarian trying more structures "human,' anddeterministic at has butthesuccessof suchbuildings been, contrathe witness irreconcilable best,partial: from evident Labrouste's dictions Biblioteque Ifthe to Ste.Genevieve post-modernism. soluit order tionis nottheabstract of technology,is alsonotembellishment. is we remember,giveninperMeaning, must of it ception; is nota product "association." that shown studies Phenomenological have or is meaning notprimarilysolelyan intellectual that is an Architecture order construct.24 our addresses ambiguous, human finite, reality, for "truths." a it is notmerely vehicle scientific

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Theparadox is thatarchitecture,definihere by and of abstract, a mimesis a transtion,is both But man cendental reality. modern hasgenerally reveas denied andpoetry theprimordial myth insensitive lation reality. havebecome of We of the andblind, explanation preferring logical of it because is thesource techsciencesimply the for Durand, one,ridiculed power. nological of as of traditional concept thecolumn thebody more outthatit wasnothing than man, pointing world Our a cylinder matter. modern is superof and rational deterministic, embodying ficially it no utopia; constitutes placefor technological than chaosrather Our humanity. citiesrepresent rather freedom our structures restrict order, it. than enhance

can world-view easilydeny Thetechnological as of thenecessity architecture a symbolic is But order. human Irrespecreality ambiguous. man wishto posttiveof howlongmodern may with with to coming terms Being, the pone of of hisexistence, regardless and meaning wishto conceal he howlong may emptiness of he with illusion progress, must the ultimately of the his confront limits: dilemma hisfinite The to lifeandhis power embody divinity. and remains of universal, perception meaning the man's endures through crisis. humanity attitude be? the What must architect's then

Notes 1 Vitruvius (Marcus) Ten Pollio The BooksonArchitecture Dover Publications York) 1960,P.5. (New 2 Alberti, Tiranti Leone Battista ReAedificatoria De (London) 1955,P.2. 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. On with and Compare of these Regardless suchboundaries, twoalter- 5 On DeReAedificatoria Alberti's Painting 1972. Sculpture (London) natives seemto betheonly of making way 6 Alberti, ReAedificatoria, De P.2. architecture. these Ironically, arethevery 7 See, forexample, Cornelius Occulta De Agrippa Philosophia alternatives 1531. art, explored modern butwhich by (Antwerp) 8 Averlino, Antonio Filarete) Tratatto Architettura di II (II areseldom understood architects. by By Polifilo (Milan) the accepting statusquoof thearchitectural 9 Barbaro, 1972,P.504. Perspettiva Daniele Pratica La della Arnaldo Forni and of as practitioner the "reality" drawing a (SalaBolognese) 1980,PP.129-130. referential onerejects architecture's tool, Fabio Ravennate's place 10 See, forexample, Calvo manuscript, in e Officina Edizioni as a primordial cultural as printed VitruvioRaffaello (Rome) 1975, institution, the PP.78-79. of embodimenta pre-intellectual whose order Guarino Architettura IIPolifilo taskis nothing andnothing than more less the 11 See Guarini, ThefirsteditionCivilework (Milan) of this was published 1968,P.242 ft. of and perpetuationculture its coherence. inTurin, 1737. 12 Galli-Bibiena, L'Architettura Benjamin Ferdinando Civile Blom 1971.First in 1711. (NewYork) published Parma, Our is collective illusion a reality wetake that treatise insomeof Antonio and forgranted, Platonic a world devoid mystical 13 Thisis clearinFilarete's of daSangallo's for See Christof drawings St. Peter's. Thoenes, that have connotations Plato himself would "St.Peter's: Sketches," First Daidalos (September 5, be technolog- 1982),P.81. Can repudiated. reality simply our in icalnon-sense? wasthequestion This and already 14 1discussthisextensively Architecture theCrisisof Modern Science,PartIV. addressed Piranesi, and Boull6e, Ledoux by 15 Husserl, Edmund Crisis European The of Sciencesand the the during 18thcentury. Particularly two Transcendental Northwestern Phenomenology University French architects explicit their in were rejection Press(Evanston) andL'Origine la Geometrie de 1970; of mathematical as thestructure reason of PressesUniversitaires France de 1974. (Paris) en Revista y architectural anauthentic 16 Ortega Gasset,JoseLaIdeadePrincipio Leibniz theory.25 Betraying de Occidente 1967, Ernst The existential to anguish, struggled transform Philosophy (Madrid) vol.IandCassirer, (New they of Symbolic Forms University Yale Press into that theory anexplicit metaphysics ex1972.vol.2, PartII. Haven) the of a 17 Even found plained meaning architecture to the through geometricians it impossible prove limitationsof Euclid's the See postulate during 18thcentury. discourse. drawings Their a constituted poetic G. ab naevo. Saccheri, Euclides omni translation English set of theoretical that projects theyassumed 1920. (London) to betruearchitecture,opposition their in to 18 Thebasicprinciple Poncelet's of had projective geometry actual Not both beendiscovered the 17thcentury Girard in buildings. surprisingly, archiby Desargues. See his Oeuvres 1864.Desargues's was never work tectsfeltthatarchitecture deeply to (Paris) was akin by Thus became the 19 understood hiscontemporaries. painting. architecture primarily Jean-Victor des Proprietes Traite Poncelet, des Projectives of the making thedrawing themodel), same (or 1822. Figures (Paris) act revealed 20 Thisis veryclearin Rondelet, Traite poetic thathasalways magically Jean et Theorique of del de thetruth reality: process 3 a similar the to 1830. Pratique I'Art Batir vols.(Paris) 21 Durand, Precis search truth theenlightened for Jacques-Nicolas-Louis de Lecons gnostic by 2 vols. 1819. architect. true The architect pursue must either d'Architecture (Paris) Thisunderstanding as characof twoparallel in alternativesthehope find- 22 teristicof modernof functionalism anexclusive in of architecture discussed is extensively a point reconciliation:must a born of he be ing book. the Gottfried myforthcoming Toward mid-19th century or would use And of to Semper gnostic a born actually the analogy an equation phenomenologist. when illustrate processof solving architectural the an problem. thearchitecturethemodern is built, of world PeterThe An 2 Enlightenment Interpretation it willbe (as it hasbeeninexceptional cases) 23 See Gay,House(London) vol.2, PP.126-166.vols. Wildwood 1973, founded theconvergence thesetwo of upon 24 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice of PhenomenologyPerception a future of perspectives: and Paul overlappingpoetry 1970,see especially Routledge Kegan (London) andcriticism. partsI andII. C 25 Boullee, Etienne-Louis Architecture. surI'Art Essai Miroirs de L'Art Claude-Nicholas 1968;andLedoux, (Paris) L'Architecture Consideree le Rapport L'Art sous de des Moeurs de la Legislation I (Paris) et vol. 1804.

Additional Readings Suggested of Hartcourt, John Bannan, ThePhilosophy Merleau-Ponty 1967. and Brace World York) (New Press in Reason theAgeof ScienceMIT Gadamer, Hans-Georg 1981. Mass.) (Cambridge, of A Elizabeth Documentary (New History ArtDoubleday Holt, translated contains excerpts 1957,vol.3. Thisvolume York) in the sourcesquoted the article. from primary Art 1964. Dover William andGeometry (NewYork) Ivins, and Martin BasicWritings (NewYork) Harper Row Heidegger, VI, and 1977,chapters VII VIII. of Maurice Primacy Perception The Northwestern Merleau-Ponty, 2 Press 1964, University (Evanston) chapters and5. Maurice Northwestern Sense andNon-Sense Merleau-Ponty, 1 Press 1964, University (Evanston) chapters and4. Vincent and Martinus Greatness Philosophy Nijhoff Vycinas, 1966. (The Hague)

a like serial language, much becominghermetic or which removed music abstract is painting, from realm the from primary of experience, the in is world which shared meaning grounded.