Lecture Notes

Management of Feed Resources

Kode: PTN 509

by Prof. Dr. Ir. Sumarsono, MS Prof. Dr. Ir. Bambang Sukamto, SU Dr. Ir. Bambang Waluyo HEP, MS., MAgr. Dr. Ir. Retno Iswarin Pujaningsih, M.Agr.Sc. Ir. Tristiarti, MS

Master Animal Science Faculty of Animal Agriculture, Postgraduate Program Diponegoro University 2011
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List of Contents

1. Introduction 1.1. Concept of the lecture 1.2. Clasification of feed resources and problems

2. Potential of Local Feed Resources 2.1. Agricultural ecosystems 2.2. System Analyzing 2.3. Land suitability 2.4. Potential of feed production

3. Feed Resources Conservation 3.1. Preservation purposes 3.2. Feedstuffs characteristic 3.3. Damage factor 3.4. Storage 3.5. Preservation

4. Processing of Feed Resources 4.1. Processing purposes 4.2. Mechanical processing 4.3. Chemical processing 4.4. Biological processing

5. Feed Resource Management for Feed Industry 5.1. Feed industrial purposes 5.2. Concentrate Feed 5.3. Complete Feed

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Foreword
Management of feed resources including process has been done since years ago. But information and data yield in the form of publications still spotted in international and national journals, published and unpublished literatures and leaflets as well. This modul of the lecture tried to make data compilation on gathering informations needed for feed resources management. After following this course the student can explain and distinguish the processing techniques of animal feedstuffs and ultimately determine a strategy to maintain quality and improve the nutritional value of feed materials. Moreover, student can explain the meaning and distinguish the techniques of recognizing the feed resources, managing concept, diversity and potential of coastal areas including the environment, carrying concept, continuity of supply and nutritional value through processing to improve the conservation and utilities as well as the nutritional value of feedstuffs, and utilization of agricultural waste and industrial waste as a feed ingredient. Hopefully this modul can be used as basic reference for students and community in the fields of feedstuffs management. Deep gratitude to all those who have assisted the preparation of this modul. Optimistically the information contained in this modul can be useful and utilized.

July, 2011

Authors

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I. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Concept of the lecture Term of resources.-- A resource is any physical or virtual entity of limited availability that needs to be consumed to obtain a benefit from it. Feeds are edible material which are consumed by animals and contribute energy and/or nutrient to animals diet. In most cases, commercial or even non-commercial factors require resource allocation through resource management. There are two types of resources; renewable and non renewable. Agricultural development in an agrarian economy largely depends on the existing nature of man-land relationship. Crop-sharing is one of the earliest forms of production organization in agriculture. It is still a matter of considerable importance in present agriculture in many countries. According to Bishop and Toussaint (Bishop and Toussaint, 1958) both land lord and tenant are utilizing inputs belonging to other party. Each party may consider the inputs contributed by the other party to have a zero price. In this case, there will be a tendency to use the other person's input up to the point where the value of the marginal product is zero. For example, the tenant's labor has no price to the landlord. The landlord tends to push the use of the tenant's labor, in so far as he is able to reach the point where additional labor brings no return. That is, land lord would like to see enough labor used so that the value of the marginal product of labor would be zero. The tenant on the other hand, considers the price of land zero. He has incentive to use additional land as long as the value of the marginal product of the land greater than zero. But the land has a cost to the landlord. For this reason a conflict of interest may develop. Evaluation.-- The term evaluation taken by its self has not much meaning as far as is not clarified which are the values of individuals in a community. When resources evaluation is examined, an entire set of values has already been expressed from the start in so far as some entities have been qualified as "resources" i.e. rich of value. But what is an implicit acknowledgement needs to be openly clarified. For clarity sake, analytical reasoning is used to reach a synthetic perception of the matter that is being examined. Resources evaluation is here considered to be a process of connecting in a logic, coherent way two sets of entities. The two sets of entities referred to are:

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a set of values a set of resources

Set of values.-- Each society (in time and space), interacting with the environment (natural-human-built) produces and reproduces (evolves) certain patterns of behaviour. The core of this behaviour, the so-called generator, is a mix of natural-cultural drives, an individual and/or societal framework of theoretical and practical behaviour that is defined as a "set of values". What is thought and what is done depends on this set of values. Set of resources.-- According to the set of values, certain entities inside and outside the individual are considered worthwhile as means and as ends (having-doing-believingbeing). They express or contain something of what is considered "value" (moralecological-economic-etc.). These entities are here defined as resources. At this stage the relationship between values and resources can be considered as that between ends and means. The values are ends that are satisfied using certain resources as means. But, as said before, the division between values and resources is just for analytical purposes. In practice there is not a clear differentiation between the two sets. As a matter of fact, the definition of some entity as "resource" includes already a declaration of value. And a "value" cannot exists without having experienced it as a "resource". In other terms, values and resources are at the same time ends and means, and the dichotomy values/resources ends/means becomes a synthesis, involving the matching between instrumental values and valid instruments, each one covering both roles according to the perspective from which they are seen. Resource evaluation means this theoretical interrelation between values and resources existent in a society at a certain time in a certain space. So, each society should clarify (define) its set of values/resources, arrange them (classify) in a suitable order, according to the priorities and the weighting conferred to them (evaluation = definition + classification) and then practically match (i.e. express/employ them) in the most appropriate way. Environment factor that may be obtained as resources (for example : soil, plant, solar radiation etc.). Resources : Part of total stock that may be obtained (for example : suitable land for agriculture, part of agriculture crops for food or feed). Reserve : Part of resources that are exactly obtained (for example : 1. land area for food crops, plantation,

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pasture etc

2. crops production for food or feed etc.).

Result of the term : Natural resources are natural environment, biotic and non biotic, for thing sufficiency of need and feed resources are physical and biological environment factor for feed sufficiency Management concept and feed resources problem.-- Management Natural Resources is human effort to convert of environment resources of ecosystem for maximum utilize of sustainable production. Management Feed Resources stated for human effort to convert of environment resources of feed production ecosystem for maximum utilize of sustainable production. Lack/Deficit/scarcity of Resources.-- Caused by limitation of resources stock at local area local or regional for need sufficiency, concentration of resources stock at local area but needed by another area so distribution problem happen and also caused by feed that are used continue that make so stock decrease or deplete. Scarcity of Resources Solution.-- Alternative of lack resources solution : 1) Exploration and new finding 2) Technology improvement 3) Use of substitution resources 4) Re use resources or recycle

Problem of feed resources scarcity are: 1. Potency depend on the agriculture system Important to indentify of system, identify of resources potential, identity of land suitable and capability, intervention, potential improvement of feed resources : species (quality) and availability (quantity) 2. Fluctuation of feed resources availability depend on the season and production arrangement . Important to identify of fluctuation feed available, it is affected by dry and wet season, therefore can affect the production arrangement. This condition need application of feed conservation. 3. Problem of low quality feed resources Utility of feed resources are low because problem of physical and chemical

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characteristic. It is need of processing technology to improve of feed quality via physical, chemical and biology method. 4. Pollution of environmental from Animal waste Animal waste product include dung, urine, by product of animal post harvest can be recycled as feed resources. It is need of conservation and processing technology.

1.2. Clasification of feed resources and problems According to Lassiter and Edwards (1982)d, feedstuffeds were classified as : 1.Forage and Pasture 2. Hay 3. Silage 4. Cereal Grains 5. Common Protein Supplement : milk product, other animal product, marine product, poultry by-product, oilsed meals and cakes, other protein source, non protein nitrogen source. 6. Important Cereal By-Product : Corn by-product from wet milling, brewing and distillation by-product, dry milling by-product 7. Other Product Used in Feed: Fat and oils, fermentation product, amino acid, yeasts 8. Feed additive

Type of lack of feed resources Scarcity has led to the increase in prices of raw materials, goods, and services that will cause economic disruption, so that the necessary resources to find substitutes for scarce resources had to change. Scarcity of resources can be classified into two types : 1) absolute scarcity 2) relative scarcity Absolute scarcity.-is a phenomenon of scarcity of physical resources.

Reliance on one particular resource that has a certain extent in physical availability. Absolute scarcity occurs when the request (demand) of a resource exceeds supply

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(supply). Absolute scarcity of feed resources: if the dependence on a particular commodity is very difficult to substitutes (e.g maize and fish meal for poultry feed). Relative scarcity.-- is a phenomenon of needs which often are not so limited that resource becomes limited or scarce. Relative scarcity of natural resources also occur, although still enough resources are available but distribution is uneven. The relative scarcity of feed resources can occur if a sufficient quantity available but have trouble on gathering and distribution (e.g feed production center resources away from the location of livestock production, fluctuations in season)

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II. POTENTIAL OF LOCAL FEED RESOURCES

2.1. Agricultural ecosystems The main challenge for the agricultural sector is to simultaneously: secure enough high-quality agricultural production to meet demand; conserve biodiversity and manage natural resources; and improve human health and well-being, especially for the rural poor in developing countries. 2.1.1. Termination System : A united set of component are interrelated and influence upon them so that a matching process occurs Ecology : Science about the interrelationships between organism and their environment Ecosystem : The system consist biotic and non biotic component involved in the process together (energy flow and nutrition cycling) Agro : Production activity / biological industry with the object of human managed crops and livestock. Artificial environment for cultivation crops and livestock activities. Harvesting solar energy directly and indirectly through the growth of crops and livestock. Agro ecosystem (AES) ; Ecological systems in the agricultural environment. Agroecosystems (AESs) are autotrophic ecosystems managed by man. The goal of the management is to obtain the maximum possible amount of high-quality agricultural products while preserving agricultural resources, primarily the soils and biodiversity. The main components of the management of AES structures and functions, including primary and secondary biological production, the ratio between the energy flows in the plantman and plantlivestockman food chains, the efficiency of energy transfer in the plantlivestock link, and conservation of agricultural resources, are considered.

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2.1.2. Component and Importance Agro ecosystem component : 1. Famers. 2. Land crops. 3. Livestock. 4. Management / technology. AES approach in livestock husbandry development and in integration of specific region agriculture. AES approach in management of feed resources is the management potential and utilization in integrated farming areas and livestock development.

Importance of AES approach : The integration component for the economic interests of agro ecosystem The integration commodities to the production process upsteams to downstreams The integration region to for sustainable of environment / natural resources

Type/kind of AES Specific: AES base of food crops (wetland and dry land) AES base of plantation AES base of fishery AES base of forestry AES base Agro-forestry (Pastoral, Agro silvo culture, Agro silvo pasture)

Character of each AES Agroecosystems differ from natural ecosystems in several fundamental ways. First, the energy that drives all autotrophic ecosystems, including agroecosystems, is either directly or indirectly derived from solar energy. However, the energy input to agroecosystems includes not only natural energy (sunlight) but also processed energy (fossil fuels) as well as human and animal labor. Second, biodiversity in agroecosystems is generally reduced by human management in order to channel as much energy and nutrient flow as possible into a few domesticated species. Finally, evolution is largely, but not entirely, through artificial selection where commercially desirable phenotypic traits are increased through breeding programs and genetic engineering. Agroecosystems are

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usually examined from a range of perspectives including energy flux, exchange of materials, nutrient budgets, and population and community dynamics. Solar energy influences agroecosystem productivity directly by providing the energy for photosynthesis and indirectly through heat energy that influences respiration, rates of water loss, and the heat balance of plants and animals. Nutrient uptake from soil by crop plants or weeds is primarily mediated by microbial processes. Some soil bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen into forms that plants can assimilate. Other organisms influence soil structure and the exchange of nutrients, and still other microorganisms may excrete ammonia and other metabolic by-products that are useful plant nutrients. There are many complex ways that microorganisms influence nutrient cycling and uptake by plants. Some microorganisms are plant pathogens that reduce nutrient uptake in diseased plants. Larger organisms may influence nutrient uptake indirectly by modifying soil structure or directly by damaging plants. Although agroecosystems may be greatly simplified compared to natural ecosystems, they can still foster a rich array of population and community processes such as herbivory, predation, parasitization, competition, and mutualism. Crop plants may compete among themselves or with weeds for sunlight, soil nutrients, or water. Cattle overstocked in a pasture may compete for forage and thereby change competitive interactions among pasture plants, resulting in selection for unpalatable or even toxic plants. Indeed, one important goal of farming is to find the optimal densities for crops and livestock. See also Herbivory; Population ecology; Weeds. Widespread use of synthetic chemical pesticides has bolstered farm production worldwide, primarily by reducing or eliminating herbivorous insect pests. Traditional broad-spectrum pesticides such as DDT, however, can have far-ranging impacts on agroecosystems. For instance, secondary pest outbreaks associated with the use of many traditional pesticides are not uncommon due to the elimination of natural enemies or resistance of pests to chemical control. Growers and pesticide developers in temperate regions have begun to focus on alternative means of control. Pesticide developers have begun producing selective pesticides, which are designed to target only pest species and to spare natural enemies, leaving the rest of the agroecosystem community intact. Many growers are now implementing integrated pest management programs that incorporate the new breed of biorational chemicals with cultural and other types of controls.

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Variety of Terms Sustainable Agriculture Ecofarming Agroecological Organic Farming

2.1.3. Balance Input Sustainable The term low-input agriculture has been defined as a production activity that uses synthetic fertilizers or pesticides below rates commonly recommended by the Extension Service. It does not mean elimination of these materials. Yields are maintained through greater emphasis on cultural practices, IPM, and utilization of on-farm resources and management. .

Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) The LEISA concept seeks to optimize the use of locally available resources by maximizing the complementary and synergistic effects of different components of the

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farming

systems.

External

inputs

are

used

in

complementary

way.

Although, the term low-input farming .ds often been used to describe any system of alternative agriculture, if can be seen that it is distinctly different from organic farming etc. Nevertheless, any system that reduces purchased chemical inputs can be called lowinput farming, some examples are: 1. Poultry litter can replace nitrogen fertilizers in the production of watermelons. 2. Legume cover crops can supply the total nitrogen requirements of pecan trees. 3. Compost amended potting mixes produce superior vegetable trarisplants than traditional soilless mixes. 4. No-till vegetable systems lire feasible using reduced herbicide rates to kill cover crops. 5. Subterranean clover living mulches supply nitrogen and weed control in peach orchards.

LEISA CONCEPT Local resources use optimization Maximize re cycling (Zero Waste)

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Minimizing environmental degradation (Environmental friendly) Business diversification Achievement level production of stable in long time term Creating independence Integrated pest management is probably the oldest and most widely recognized Extension Service program devoted to low-input agriculture. However, only recently have the nonchemical approaches-such as cultural, mechanical, and biological-within the IPM framework been emphasized over the chemical component. Some programs, in fact, are now termed biologically- intensive IPM. The intentions of the LEISA concept are obvious, but in practice the way it differs from integrated agriculture (understood to be a gradual minimization of external inputs) is not too clear. Defining what constitutes low inputs will always be difficult, therefore, LEISA remains an ambiguous concept. Important characteristics of LEISA systems are that thy are based on a preventive approach whereby the problem is tackled at its roots, as opposed to the more symptom-curing nature of modern agriculture. Ecological and biological principles are the basis of the farm system. Nature works for the farmer, the farmer does not have to work against it. They are often based on local knowledge and production systems adapted to modern requirements and much less on external expertise. They are generally more labor-intensive compared to the mechanization-and petrochemical-intensive character of the agriculture envisioned by the Green Revolution and what it has become.

Appropriate technology in the LEISA : How to convert agricultural waste into a resources (feed) and their utilization? How to turn farm waste into a resources (compost) and their utilization, either for agriculture crops, plantation, forestry and fisheries to aquaculture ?

2.2. System analyzis The overall challenge of land use analysis is to explore and evaluate land use options for sustainable development. Current estimates suggest that 10-20% of the global terrestrial area has degraded soils, and that area is extending. The increasing populations and activities put increasing pressure on land and water resources. This, in particular,

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applies to densely populated regions in the tropics. For instance, in Asia, rapid population growth coupled with economic expansion is increasingly putting claims on land, not only for agriculture but also for housing, infrastructure, recreation and industry. Many agricultural regions in East, South and South-east Asia characterised by intensive rice- or wheat based agricultural systems provide striking examples of such conflicting uses. For example, the need for crop diversification, in order to increase labour productivity and farmers income, conflicts directly with the required growth in staple-food production, and also with the need to at least maintain the quality of the natural resource base. Higher farmer incomes are a prerequisite in curbing massive migration of the rural population to the rapidly expanding and degrading mega-cities in developing countries. Key issues to be addressed in resolving such conflicts include: (i) identification and implementation of production systems that make optimum use of external inputs and natural resources, but that avoid degradation of the natural resource base, and (ii) policy measures that support the (participatory) development and adoption of such systems for sustainable agriculture and rural development. Analysis of land suitability combines a study of land (properties) with a study of land-use and determines whether the compounded requirements of land-use are adequately met by the compounded properties of the land. That sounds simpler than it actually is. Land properties vary in time and space, and land-use is equally dynamic. Over the years a variety of evaluation procedures have been proposed to cope with the complexity of land and its use. The growing confusion came to an end when the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) organized an 'Expert Hearing on Land Evaluation' in Wageningen in 1972. The objective of this meeting was to define standards for the appraisal of land suitability for agricultural uses. The definitions and concepts agreed upon were published in the FAO 'Framework for Land Evaluation' in 1976.

2.3. Land suitability Land suitability is the fitness of a given type of land for a defined use. The land may be considered in its present condition or after improvements. The process of land suitability classification is the appraisal and grouping of specific areas of land in terms of their suitability for defined uses.

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In this chapter, the structure of the suitability classification is first described. This is followed by an account of the range of interpretative classifications recognized: qualitative, quantitative and of current or potential suitability. Separate classifications are made with respect to each kind of land use that appears to be relevant for the area. Thus, for example, in a region where arable use, animal production and forestry were all believed to be possible on certain areas, a separate suitability classification is made for each of these three kinds of use. There may be certain parts of the area considered, for which particular kinds of use are not relevant, e.g. irrigated agriculture beyond a limit of water availability. In these circumstances, suitability need not be assessed. Such parts are shown on maps or tables by the symbol NR: Not Relevant.

2.4. Potential of feed production In many developing countries, two potentially important objectives of animal production are the maximization of food production and the generation of supplementary cash incomes. These have been achieved, for example, by the large-scale development of increased milk production from mainly Holstein-Friesian cross-bred cattle or the wider use of milch buffaloes. With small ruminants in the Asian region, the two objectives present a much greater challenge since these species have not as yet made a parallel impact. Increasing their productivity is therefore an important objective. This is further justified by such species being identified with the poorest people in agriculture, in pastoral systems ranging from the arid and semi-arid tropics to complex crop-livestock systems in the humid tropics; and by the projections made by the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) on the annual increase in demand for goat and sheep products and milk from all animals up to the year 2000 (FAO, 1985), which indicate that the gap is widening faster than for any other food commodities. Since expansion can result from improvements to production systems, it is relevant to enquire into, and examine, prevailing and alternative avenues of food production specifically in terms of potential increased production. In this context, integrated small ruminant and tree-cropping systems represent an underestimated, unexplored and potentially important avenue for increasing food production in Southeast

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Asia and the South Pacific (Devendra, 1979; Mahadevan and Devendra, 1985). These systems were identified as meriting high priority in research and development at the FAO Expert Consultation on Small Ruminant Production in the Developing Countries held in Bulgaria in 1986 (Timon, 1986) and, more recently, at the International Research Centre/Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Program Workshop on Small Ruminant Production Systems in South and Southeast Asia (IDRC/SR-CRSP, 1987). Failure to have given importance to this system in the past was a result of the emphasis on the traditional systems of managing ruminants (roadside, communal and stubble grazing, tethering- and cut-carry-feeding methods), which are consistent with the thrust on arable rather than tree cropping in Asian agriculture. Effects of animal integration on the parent crop A wide variety of issues must be considered in this complex interaction. The following are not listed in any particular order of priority, but refer to a number of important examples. It is by no means an exhaustive list. - Possible damage to leaves or bark of the primary tree by the grazing or browsing animal: greater precautions must be taken in introducing goats in rubber plantations because of possible damage to the bark. Young coconut, oil-palm and rubber trees are more susceptible to browsing. - The beneficial effect of the animal in weed control, sparing herbicide use and costs; the complementarily of animal and chemical weed control must be studied. - Beneficial effect of the animal in browsing lower, senescent leaves. - Possible transmission of plant diseases from pasture plants to the trees. - Soil compaction by grazing animals. - Soil organic matter and nitrogen fertilizer from animal excrete and urine. - Soil moisture depletion by the forage crop; higher evaporation rate if

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ground cover is overgrazed. - Animal damage to latex collection cups with rubber cultivation. - Possible reduction of rodent population (important in oil-palm plantations) with grazing.

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III.
3.1. Preservation purposes

FEED RESOURCES CONSERVATION

Feed preservation is the process of treating and handling feed to stop or slow down spoilage (loss of quality, edibility or nutritional value) and thus allow for longer storage. Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, yeasts, fungi and other micro-organims (although some methods work by introducing benign bacteria, or fungi to the feedstuffs), as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which cause rancidity. Feed preservation can also include processes which inhibit visual deterioration that can occur during feed preparation; such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut. Many processes designed to preserve feed will involve a number of feed preservation methods. Preserving fruit, by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling (to reduce the fruits moisture content and to kill bacteria, yeasts, etc.), sugaring (to prevent their re-growth) and sealing within an airtight jar (to prevent recontamination). There are many traditional methods of preserving food that limit the energy inputs and reduce carbon footprint. Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavour is an important aspect of feed preservation, although, historically, some methods drastically altered the character of the feed being preserved. In many cases these changes have now come to be seen as desirable qualities cheese, yoghurt and pickled onions being common examples. 3.2. Feedstuffs characteristic The reliance on pasture grown on dairy farms continues in many districts, but farmers are increasingly relying on both supplementary fodder grown off-farm and introduced rations. Types of feed are many and varied, and their use depends on cost, availability access and preference. Feeds include: straw hay silage grain pellets

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 food by-products; e.g. brewers grain, palm kernels, marc (the residue left after grape pressing), citrus pulp, chocolate powder time-expired or unsaleable food products, such as stale bread, fruit and vegetables, bakery products and confectionery seconds.

3.3. Damage factor Environmental factors, such as moisture (feed moisture content and relative humidity), temperature, light, and oxygen influence deteriorative changes and losses in feedstuffs. These affect the feedstuff either directly or by influencing the rate of development of insects and fungi which consume the feed during storage. The following

are the major factors which affect the quality and weight of feedstuffs during storage: a) major losses due to human theft, fire and the consumption of scavenging animals, such as rats and birds b) damage due to rain and condensation, and to high temperatures c) damage by insects d) damage by fungi e) changes in the quality of the feeds due to enzymatic actions and the development of oxidative rancidity Of the above factors, (b) is probably the most important as it influences the rate of loss or damage caused by most of the others listed. Though oxygen (from air) is necessary for the development of oxidative rancidity and for the growth of fungi and insects, it is impracticable to exclude it from feed storage areas. Oxygen is sometimes replaced by nitrogen or carbon dioxide for the storage of specialized foods for humans but has to be accepted as omnipresent in feed stores.
3.3.1. Physical Loss Significant loss can occur as an accumulative effect of individually small, but regular theft. Less obvious are the losses caused by scavenging animals, particularly rats and mice. Food stores are notorious breeding grounds for such animals. Temperature increases sufficient to cause fire (see 7.1.2 and 7.1.4) can occur in stacked feeds. Feed stores are flammable, particularly if they are constantly full of fine atmospheric dust from

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grinding processes within the store or adjacent areas. 3.3.2. Water and Heat Damage High levels of moisture content and relative humidity cause direct losses by making it difficult to use the material in its original form. It may be too wet to mix if it is an ingredient, or its physical structure may be destroyed if, for example, it is in pelleted form. More serious is the effect that high levels of product moisture and relative humidity have on insect infestation and the growth of fungi. Regardless of the initial moisture content of the feed materials put into the store, their actual moisture content will gradually reach an equilibrium dependent on the relative humidity of the air in the store. Generally a safe moisture level for a specific product is that which develops at a relative humidity of 75%. However, relative humidities above this level in tropical areas are common; moisture levels in feeds therefore tend to rise. This is one of the reasons why it is sensible to store feeds for much shorter periods before use in tropical areas than in temperate zones. Cereals will store quite well at 10-12% moisture. In general, moisture levels of 10% or less should be sought. Fungal growth increases moisture content also. High temperatures also affect the rate of loss and damage in feeds, another reason why feeds in tropical zones should not be stored as long as in temperate areas. High temperatures in feeds may occur not only because of environment and the way in which they are stored but because of the heat generated by the growth of fungi and insects. Increases in temperature within large stacks of feed have been known to cause 'spontaneous combustion' followed by fire losses. Increase in temperature may reduce the availability of the amino acids in feeds. 3.3.3. Insect Damage Feeds are attractive places for insects, including various species of moths, weevils and beetles, which consume the feed. All grow well at normal temperatures in feed stores. At temperatures from 26-37 C they can reach epidemic proportions. Insects thrive better on ground materials. Whole cereals or oil cakes can therefore be stored longer than meals made from them. Insects cause damage through weight loss, the exposure of the feed to further damage by fungi and through oxidation, and the introduction of contaminating bacteria.

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3.3.4. Fungal Damage Fungi grow at relative humidities above 65%, moisture contents generally above 15% (although some mycotoxin producing fungi grow well at only 9-10% moisture) and temperatures which are specific to the fungal species. Most fungal growth occurs at temperatures above 25 C and relative humidities above 85%. Higher temperatures and moisture levels favour increased growth. Fungal growth itself encourages local rises in temperature and moisture content. Many fungi are killed during the processing of ingredients but their spores are resistant and remain present to re-infect the material later if the environmental conditions become favourable for their development. Fungal growth causes weight loss, increases in temperature and moisture, staleness (off-flavour), discolouration and, perhaps worst of all, some common species produce mycotoxins (see Appendix XV). Mycotoxins, the best known of which are called aflatoxins, are known to be toxic to some species of fish at least. In addition, as the toxins remain in the flesh of the animal which consumes them, they are also a health hazard to humans. Sorghum, maize and its by-products, groundnut, cottonseed, cassava, coconut and sunflower are ingredients especially prone to contamination with mycotoxins. 3.3.5 Chemical Changes During Storage The following deteriorative changes can occur in feeds during storage. Lipids can break down into free fatty acids which make the feeds more prone to the development of rancidity. This breakdown can be caused by the damage resulting from insect infestation and fungal growth. High lipid ingredients are more susceptible to this type of chemical change than others. Carbohydrates may ferment, to produce alcohols and volatile fatty acids. Lipids undergo oxidation, causing rancidity. Materials with high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids and of course, pure lipids themselves, are more prone to the development of rancidity than others. Fish meals, expeller vegetable oil cakes, and rice bran are particularly vulnerable. Grains have natural antioxidants which protect them from rapid deterioration. There are various types of chemical reactions which cause rancidity to develop. The result, as far as feed quality is concerned, is similar. Rancid fats reduce the palatability of the feed and contain toxic chemicals which may depress growth (Appendix XV). Chemicals may also be produced which reduce the availability of amino acids in the feed proteins. Vitamin potency decreases during storage (and processing),

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particularly in premixes which also contain minerals. Naturally occuring vitamins in feedstuffs also deteriorate on storage. Vitamin C is particularly susceptible, as is thiamine (vitamin B1).

3.4. Storage Production started from the feed to be placed in the tub / box packaging which is usually placed on the packaging machine. Weighing, sewing, congestion on the pallet (palletizing) and the movement of food packaging to storage included in this phase. Each material has characteristics that are based on physical properties, chemical and biological. Of these properties, the material damage mechanisms can be known, such as: attack macroorganisme (fleas, etc.), contamination of microorganisms (bacteria, yeast, etc.), chemical reactions (eg, enzyme), physical changes (shrinkage, etc.). Packaging and storage required to meet various objectives, among others: to hinder / prevent loss of quality / nutritional value, providing protection / protect products from environmental contamination, given the aesthetic aspects of the treatment process (handling) and distribution. Various ways of handling the damage done to overcome them, will determine the techniques and types of packaging materials. This is provided so that the function and purpose of the packaging can be achieved. Terms of packaging materials a) Transparances and there are surface appearance b) Control of the transfer or water penetration c) Control of the gas transfer d) Resistance in a wide temperature variations e) Does not contain toxic compounds, f) Protection against physical damage (smash, etc.), and g) Low price

Kinds of packaging materials: Paper (zak, cardboard), cellulose materials (bags, etc.), metals (aluminum, stainless steel, tin plate, etc.), glass, ceramics, rubber, plastics, etc.. Each packaging material has advantages and disadvantages, with regard to flexibility, reaction with the packaged material, resistance to the environment, etc.. Derivatives plastic materials, such

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as polyethylene, polypropilene, polyvinylchloride, polystirene, polyamide, polycarbonate, packaging materials and more are popular today because almost can meet all the requirements for packaging materials. Packaging in the food industry is a continuation of the process from feedstuffs processing. Product packaging is intended to increase flexibility in handling both product distribution, storage and use. Milestones that need to be considered in the packaging is filling, weighing, closing the packaging, then check the packaging, labeling, and continue to the storage and distribution. Some things that need to be taken into consideration in determining the strategy of construction packages: Construction of packaging materials should provide facilities for the packaging process. Packaging of wood, paper, plastics and derivatives or combinations is a popular ingredient for livestock feed product packaging. Use of the material they will be adjusted to the shape and type of product to be packaged. Various forms of existing bag has the functionality and ease of specification for example: valve bags for powder / flour, SOM, easy filling and closing, DFB (fould double bag), easy filling, tight, strong. Construction of packaging must support and ensure the smooth process of filling the packaging, which is measured from the accuracy and or heavy volume, at least the material spilled, the number of bags / min. Accuracy of the content is done by measuring the volume (m3/bag) or weighing (kg / bag), as measured by gross weight or net weight. Construction must also provide facilities in the process of closing the bag / package in the form of stitches and / or glueing, and to ensure the packaging density. The failed process of closure (stitches are not perfect / not appropriate) is usually the cause of leakage / rupture of the packaging. Construction should be able to make checks to ensure the accuracy of the contents and packaging. Should facilitate the construction package labeling. Packaging label must indicate trademarks, content, information & guide for users, and quality assurance. In the packaging process, duties and functions of the service varies depending on the system and equipment used. In general, duties and functions of the operator is

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operating the various valve filler and conveyor systems; to adjust the function of tools, selecting and providing packaging; to set the code for packaging; record the information in the packaging; visual inspection of the contaminants; packaging with identification labels, tags , Etc.; check and to adjust or measure and packaging; take samples for quality control; maintain cleanliness of equipment and location of packaging. Scheduling operations is necessary to ensure: the accuracy of the amount and time; basic information to the operator, as a record of what, when by whom they will be packaged products; as well as to the amount of actual information packed products. Quality control in the packaging process is the assignment operator. Quality control functions on the packaging are: packaged product from the right tank / silo; bag and label / tag is used correctly; free of contamination; taking samples for QC in accordance with the requirements and procedures; packaging weight is within the limits of tolerance; stitches or glue really close packing; in and the outer packaging are clean; code on the package correctly and clearly visible on each package; selection / re-examination carried out carefully; and operator activity reports carefully written.

Unlike the transportation and distribution systems, unpacked products usually end in a storage tank or bin, while for the packed product is stored in the warehouse. On packaging product, the packaging process is usually carried out sequentially in the material flow system on the conveyor system. Final product which has been packed, set in place the pallets to be moved. Use a palette / pad will facilitate the distribution process (loading and unloading), count (number / pallet), avoiding physical damage to packaging (torn, collisions, etc.), facilitate the accumulation of storage, ease the process of supervision, improve efficiency and reduce warehousing system of labor. Warehousing and Uploading This phase involves the movement of all finished product from the warehouse or tank / bulk tanks and loading into trucks for delivery. Warehouse is the last place before the product is used. Physical form, equipment, and loading and unloading systems & storage

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is an important aspect in the warehouse. Storage management is an aspect related to the warehouse, facilities and human resources will determine the success of maintaining the quality of stored products in accordance with the purposes and functions of storage. Physical form which includes the construction of the warehouse walls, floors, and roof is very influential in management at the time of storage products. Warehouse construction in general should protect the product from damage due to external processes (environment and macro / microbiological), providing easy loading and unloading process, and ensure more efficient. Some things to note: Wall of the warehouse should be tight, strong, enough ventilation and easy to maintain, Roof of the warehouse should be able to protect the material from the heat and rain, the roof form should ensure the smooth circulation of air, Warehouse floor should be tight, solid and strong that it can facilitate the drainage system / setting materials; facilitate the movement of tools / equipment in the warehouse; macroorganisme prevent the development of (mouse, etc.), easy to clean, The layout of the warehouse should be made by considering the transport system and the movement in the warehouse, The width and location of the door should be adjusted to the main transportation system used (railway, truck). Placement and proper design will ensure the utility equipment and space effectively and efficiently. In a warehouse facility that includes tools and equipment should ensure the smooth movement, security, storage of materials. Rack, Pallet, lift-trucks are the main tool in the warehouse. Storage system is all in all out, first in first out, recording and monitoring systems should be well discripted to ensure the usefulness of storage activity. Storage Management: is the effort to plan, manage and evaluate the existing components (storage, facilities and systems) is adjusted to the ability of human resources that are available, so that provides maximum results.

3.5. Preservation To avoid the scarcity of feed, it is necessary to find the ways to procurement of

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good quality crops to supply throughout the year. It can be done through the preservation and processing system. Preservation system can be done through of silage processing (preservation of forage) and hay processing (dried forage preservation), while the processing can be performed by a physical processing (chopping, milling or heating), chemical (alkali treatment and amoniation) and in biological way who is generally done by fermentation using microbial cellulolytic.

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IV.

PROCESSING OF FEED RESOURCES

Food processing is an activity to convert single-or mixed feed into a new feed ingredients or feed preparations. New feed material produced from manufacturing processes are expected to increase the quality.

4.1. Processing purposes

This feed processing has several objectives, including:

Increasing Feed Quality The low quality of feed ingredients (high crude fiber content and low crude protein content) can be improved through better processing of mechanical, physical, biological, chemical or combination of various ways of processing Storage Facilitating Processing on the feed material can make a material feed become smaller in size and more homogeneous so as to facilitate the storage. Preservation Processing can be used for preservation purposes so as to maintain the quality of feed materials. Increasing of Palatability Feed Palatability can be improved through the feed manufacturing process according to the type, age and life phase of livestock. Increasing Feed Efficiency Improving feed quality through manufacturing processes will increase the productivity of livestock which reflects the increasing of feed efficiency. Facilitating handling and mixing in the feed manufacture Feed manufacturing includes preparation of feed material, the weighing of feed ingredients, feed milling materials, mixing and packaging of the feed. Setting the feed-processing stage of the process will produce the increasing of feed quality.

4.2. Feed Processing Method The selection of the proper processing of the feed material needs to be done so that the treatment would be really useful to improve the quality of nutrients. In general,

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food processing can be done through 5 different ways: Mechanical Processing Physical Processing Chemical Processing Biological Processing

4.2.1. Mechanical processing Mechanical processing is an attempt to change the nature of feed through mechanical process. Mechanical process is including: Dehulling is a process of releasing or cracking the peel of seeds, legumes, or fruits. Feed which had been through dehulling process will have its peel and its core separated. Peels obtained from this dehulling process is a compost heap that can be used as feed, but with lower quality. Its low quality makes it needs further manufacturing until it can be used as proper feed.

Grinding is a kind of feed manufacturing for increasing the feeds surface area by reducing the size of feed particles. Particle size obtained will fit in with the filter size used in grinder. Types of grinding machine used are: diskmill, hammermill, and rollermill. The difference of these grinders lies in shape and the crushing method of feed. Diskmill rips and grinds feed until it crushes with disk-shaped crusher. Hammermill used a hammershaped crusher which beats feed and Rollermill used a cylindrical crusher which presses feed.

Rolling is pressing feed into a cylindrical mould. Feed manufacturing by rolling without water vapor addition is called dry rolling. Feed manufacturing by rolling with water vapor addition for 1-8 minutes is called steam rolling. The function of this manufacturing is extenuating feed and increasing palatability.

Chopping is a feed manufacturing (usually forage for ruminance) by cutting or chopping feed until 25 cm in length. The purpose of chopping is reducing feed size and avoiding cattles choosing behaviour.

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4.2.2. Physical Processing Physical processing is an attempt to change the nature of the feed through a process or temperature change treatment so that at the end of the process, feed will experience a decrease in water content. The magnitude of temperature and processing time must be observed to prevent these things as follows: - Essential amino acid damage (especially lysine and methionine) - Changes of starchs chemical and physical properties into a gelatin-like form - Damage in thermolabil vitamins (Vitamin B and C) - Damage in unsaturated fatty bond The advantages of this physical process are: - Extend the storage period of feed stuffs - Inactivating several antinutrition substance (e.g.: antitrypsin in raw soybean and HCN in cassava) Physical processing has 2 types: natural and artificial. Natural processing is using natural forces such as sunlight and wind (sun drying). The advantage of this processing type is the low cost drying process and the UV rays obtained that can help reduce the adverse microbial growth (at an appropriate process). The intensity of optimal heat is approximately 40 C to 50 C at 09.00 until 15.00 (sunny condition). The weakness of this type of processing is the depend-weather factor, need a lot of energy, wide area and long time. Artificial processing needs help from drying machine (oven, tunnel dryer (tunnel), and other spin dryer). The advantage of this type of processing is the efficiency in place, time, and energy. Weaknesses that need to be considered in this type of processing are: - The loss of volatile substance - Change in physical and chemical properties of feed stuffs - The possibility of thermolabil vitamin loss

4.2.3. Chemical processing Chemical processing is an attempt of changing the nature of feed through chemicals addition. Chemical processing can be done with the addition of alkali and acid. Alkali addition Alkali treatment lead to a basic condition with pH > 7,0 by using alkali chemicals

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such as NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, ammonia anhydrous (gas or liquid), urea, ammonium salt or other chemicals (chicken manure, feses, urine, ashes). Alkali treatment is needed for feed from agricultural waste with high content of crude fiber. Besides the existence of 1,4 glycocide bonds, lignification is also happens from indigestible cellulose part. There are 2 kinds of chemical processing with alkali: - Wet method (soaking) - Dry method (spraying) Processing with alkali addition can increases digestion coefficient, caused by: - Some silicate and lignin wore off - Swollen tissue because of hydrogen bond detachment between cellulose molecules - Hydrolyzed ester bond at uronic acid group between cellulose and hemicelulose that facilitate digestive enzyme penetration. Alkali treatment can also be done by ammonia addition which is used as fungicide and bactericide and thus can serve as preservative. Amonia can be bonded with acetate group of feed material (straw) and becoming smmonium acetate salt and can be used as nitrogen source for ruminances microbe. Ammoniation process advantages are: - Increasing crude protein content (3 10% equivalent) in non-nitrogen protein (NPN) - Increasing total digestable nutrient (TDN = Total Digestible Nutrient 3 23 % equivalent) - Increasing feed consumption until 20 27% - Prevent fungi growth - No mineral residue in amoniation product Acid addition Acid treatment lead to acid condition with pH < 5,0 by using acid chemicals (strong acid, organic acid, etc.). The advantages of acid treatment are: - Increasing feed stuffs quality, loosing/breaking crude fiber bonds and indigestible crude protein. - Increasing low-quality concentrate feed consumption (from 10% to 50%) - Increasing digest potention of energy source concentrate feeds cell wall -

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Acid treatment weaknesses: - Chemicals used are corrosive, sometimes toxic and produce mineral residue - The result produced are acidic, so it needs to be dried before it is given to cattle

4.2.4. Biological processing Biological feed stuffs processing is done by enzyme through approproate microbes assistance is called fermentation. Microbes which is usually used are celulolitic microbes (for degrading crude fiber), ceratine-degrading microbes (for indigestible protein), or microbes which are able to eliminate antinutrition substance (tannin,

mimosin, etc.). The advantages of this biological processing are short and efficient time and not weather-dependent but needs optimal condition for microbial growth (temperature, humidity, pH, etc.). Biological processing also can be done by direct enzyme addition. Direct enzyme addition is usually done by using crude enzyme so the tim used is short but the enzyme needed is dear.

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V. FEED RESOURCES MANAGEMENT FOR FEED INDUSTRY

5.1. Feed industrial purposes Agribusiness is the conception of the whole system, integrated, and is mega sector, consisting of subsystems agribsinis upstream, farming subsystem (on farm), downstream agribusiness subsystems, and subsystems supporting services. The scope of development activities of processing and marketing agricultural products is the development of systems and efforts in the field of agricultural product processing activities include post-harvest handling and product processing of fresh produce, primary processed products, products follow-up, and waste products, as well as development marketing, both domestic and international markets. Different from non-agricultural products, agricultural products have special characteristics that can be easily damaged (perishable), a variety of quality and quantity (Variability), and bulky with the risk of price fluctuation is quite high. To improve the competitiveness and value added agricultural products required the development of downstream processing and industry. So far the role of agro-industries in the national industry big enough; the share of value added in non-oil and gas industry for 80.70%, 74.90% of employment opportunities, and the multiplier effect of the added value of 3.23. This fact shows that the agro-industry is moving in the food sector, fisheries, livestock, and estates are complementary sectors that can be developed to encourage the growth of the agricultural sector and rural areas. This agro-industry sector is a strategic pillar of the agricultural sector development (R & D Board of Agriculture, December 2000) . Development of various industries as a means of economic development of a country, also caused by the unwanted side to the environment because it can damage the balance of natural resources, sustainability and environmental carrying capacity. Initially, the strategy refers to the environmental processing capacity approaches the carrying capacity (carrying capacity approach). The concept of carrying capacity is in fact difficult to apply because of constraints that arise and often must be done remedial environmental conditions and polluted and damaged, thus requiring a high cost. The concept of environmental processing strategy eventually turned into efforts to solve pollution problems with how to process waste that is formed (end of pipe

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treatment) in the hope of environmental quality can be further improved. This method is less effective because it requires a wider area, time and cost more expensive than preventive control of waste from the beginning the production process. Nevertheless the problem of pollution and environmental damage continues, so that current treatment strategies into the environment or the prevention of preventive efforts and developed the principle of cleaner production (cleaner production) as a preventive strategy and an integrated operations. Efforts to improve livestock productivity is often faced with the constraints that feed needs not fulfilled either in quantity or quality. Provision of a cheap feed and the quality and sustainable is a serious enough challenge for the breeders, both ruminants and non ruminants. Therefore, the development and success of a farm is determined by the supply of feed continuously throughout the year with the quality and adequate quantity. Obstacles that often arise in the provision of fodder in the tropics, including Indonesia is a high quality feed at a cheap price. One alternative solution to meet the low price is the use of feed materials which are usually unconventional waste and plantation agricultural crops, eg rice straw, maize straw, sugarcane tops and others. Besides the processing of waste grain and food, eg rice bran, cacao bark, corn bran, polard, wheat brand, tumpi (corn husk), chicken feathers, blood (especially in western Sumatra), onggok and so on. However, the constraints of the use of unconventional feed ingredients are generally low nutrient content. Therefore, for more mendayagunakannya, especially to increase the protein content and decrease in crude fiber content, need to be a treatment or processing to improve its quality.

5.2. Concentrate Feed Livestock feeds provide the basic nutrients required for animal production, including energy, proteins and amino acids (macro-nutrients), and minerals, vitamins and other micro-nutrients. Feeds may be broadly classified as concentrates and roughages, depending on their composition. Concentrates are feeds that contain a high density of nutrients, usually low in crude fibre content (less than 18% of dry matter (DM)) and high in total digestible nutrients. Roughages are feeds with a low density of nutrients, with a crude fibre content over 18% of DM, including most fresh and dried forages and fodders. Definitions of these feeds and their nutrient contents vary somewhat in the literature;

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terminology used in this report follows that of FAO (eg. FAO 1983). Concentrates may be high in energy, referred to as energy concentrates, such as cereals and milling by-products, or high in protein, with over 20% crude protein, referred to as protein concentrates. Concentrates may be fed in raw or milled forms as individual feeds (sometimes referred to as straights), or may be blended or formulated into balanced rations for particular production purposes (compound feeds). Compound feeds may be mixed on-farm but are also produced by the commercial feed compounding industry. Available published data on compound feeds mainly refer to the latter.

Raw materials for concentrate feeds. Raw materials for concentrate feeds are commonly classified into the following categories: Cereals : the main cereals are rice, wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, sorghum and millet Grains : all cereals except rice

Course grains : all cereals except wheat and rice Food grains Feed grains : grains used for human food consumption : unmilled grains to be used as livestock feeds

Milling by-products: by-products from the milling of cereals and pulses, such as brans and pollards Feed-grain substitutes: dried roots and tubers (chiefly cassava and sweet potatoes), or by-products of crop processing such as molasses, maize gluten feed, distillery and brewery grains, dried citrus pulp etc. In some classifications, 'roots and tubers' are classed separately while the latter kinds of feeds may be regarded as 'other concentrates' or 'nonconventional concentrates'. Oil meals and cakes: products of oilseeds (including copra, cotton seed, groundnuts, linseed, palm kernels, rapeseed, sunflower seed and soyabeans) and fish after extraction of their oil component either by expeller methods (oilcakes) or solvent-extraction methods (oilmeals). Other concentrates: other energy or protein concentrates including processed livestock products (inedible fats and oils, meat, blood and bone meal and milk

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products) and industrial products such as urea and single-cell protein. Non-conventional feeds and processed harvested forages: these include a variety of feeds not widely used in commercial livestock diets; some may be considered as concentrate feeds after processing, such as dried lucerne (alfalfa) leaf meal, dried cassava leaf, cassava pulp, processed pea and bean meals, sal and rubber seed meals, citrus pulp wastes and others. Roles and implications of concentrate feeding. The primary role of concentrate feeds is to provide concentrated sources of necessary nutrients for livestock production. These nutrients include not only macronutrients of energy and protein but also important specific nutrients such as amino acids, fatty acids, enzymes, vitamins, minerals and others. Both monogastric and ruminant livestock are fed concentrates. Monogastric livestock have a limited capacity to digest fibre and thus require diets of higher nutrient density with a higher proportion of concentrate feeds and less roughage, particularly for intensive poultry and pig production systems. Less intensive monogastric production systems may utilise smaller amounts of conventional concentrates to supplement available feeds in the form of wastes or by-products of human food preparation, together with some forage feeds. Many ruminant production systems also use concentrate feeds. In intensive systems, especially for milk production and in fattening periods for meat production, concentrates may form a high proportion of diets (over 30% and 70% respectively).

5.3. Complete Feed Complete feed is a thoroughly blended mixture of different feed ingredients formulated to meet specific nutrient requirements that allows for greater efficiency in feeding and provides better control of nutrient intake. A complete feed may or may not include the roughage portion of the ration. Refer to AAFCO (2000), a nutritionally adequate feed for animals other than man: by specific formula is compounded to be fed as the sole ration and is capable of maintaining life and/or promoting production without any additional substance being consumed except water. Processing refers to the individual or collective mechanical treatments applied to single or multiple feed components during the manufacture of compound aquatic feeds.

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These processes are carried out to modify the physical and nutritional properties of the ingredients and of the finished feed to ensure a consistent quality product. Key processes may include: batching, mixing, particle size reduction, conditioning, agglomeration, post pellet conditioning, fat coating, drying/cooling, crumbling and bagging. Magnets should be located above all processing equipment and be checked and cleaned as required by the production superintendent. Failure to capture tramp iron may result in expensive repairs to equipment, injury to personnel, contamination of product, delivery delays, or all of these problems at once, including customer dissatisfaction. Production runs of medicated feeds manufactured on processing equipment should be grouped together as much as possible. When sequencing is not possible, the processing system should be flushed with ground corn meal, or similar ingredient. Flush material should be routed into the same medicated batch, whenever possible. All equipment operators should be familiar with basic equipment operation, such as that contained in the particle size reduction operators manual, pellet mill operators manual, extrusion operators manual or other mill equipment manuals. Before starting the equipment, the operator should check the flow of the product to its destination to prevent cross-contamination. Particle size reducing machinery (hammer mills, roller mills, etc.) should be routinely checked for correct particle size. When pelleting, product should be checked for pellet durability and pellet water stability where appropriate (Tacon & Obaldo, 2001). Proper conditioning with steam will enhance the process of starch gelatinisation, which in addition to enhancing digestibility also improves pellet stability in water (Bartone, 1999). For extrusion of the formula, the product should be checked for shape, bulk density, floating, slow sinking, or sinking, and also routinely checked for correct particle size (McEllhiney, 1994). Turnheads, distributors, diverter valves and spouting should be routinely checked for operability, leaks and accuracy. The miller must know that the ingredients are reaching the processing destination intended.

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REFERENCES

Bishop, C.E. and Toussaint, W.D. 1958. Introduction to Agricultural Economic Analysis. New York, J. Willey and Sons.125pp. Driessen, P.M and N.T. Konijn. 1982. Land-use systems analysis. Wageningen: Wageningen Agricultural University, Department of Soil Science & Geology: Malang: INRES With ref. ISBN 90-6754-228-8 Mathius, I.W, A. P. Sinurat, D. M. Sitompul, B.P. Manurung dan Azmi. 2006. Pengaruh Bentuk Dan Lama Penyimpanan Terhadap Kualitas Dan Nilai Biologis Pakan Komplit. Seminar Nasional Teknologi Peternakan dan Veteriner 2006. Moore, L. A. 1964. Symposium on Forage Utilization: Nutritive value of forages as affected by physical form. Part I. General principles involved with ruminants and effect of feeding pelleted or wafered forage to dairy cattle. J. Animal Sci. 23:230. ORiordan, T. 1971. Perspectives on Resource Management. Pion: London. Retnani, Y., W. Widiarti, I. Amiroh, L. Herawati dan K.B. Satoto. 2009. Daya Simpan dan Palatabilitas Wafer Ransum Komplit Pucuk dan Ampas Tebu untuk Sapi Pedet. Media Peternakan Vol 32. No. 2. Nurtjahya, E., Rumetor, SD., Salamena, JF., Hernawan, E., Darwati, S., dan Soenarno, SM. 2003. Pemanfaatan Limbah Ternak Ruminansia untuk Mengurangi Pencemaran Lingkungan. Makalah Pengantar Falsafah Sains. Program Pasca Sarjana / S3. Institut Pertanian Bogor Yuwono, SD. 2002. Penerapan life cycle assessment pada pemanfaatan limbah pertanian menjadi furfural. Jurnal IPTEKS. Nurhasan dan Pramudyanto. 1991. Informasi Praktis Pengelolaan dan Limbah Tahu Tempe. Yayasan Bina Karya Lestari. Jakarta. Nurhasan dan Pramudyanto. 2000. Informasi Praktis Pengelolaan dan Limbah Tapioka. Yayasan Bina Karya Lestari. Jakarta. Pemanfaatan

Pemanfaatan

Linn, JG dan Martin, NP. 1993. Forage Quality Test and Interpretation. In : Feeding and Nutrition. University of Minnesota

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