MMM

Home Page
Title Page
CS432F/CSL 728:
Compiler Design
July 2004
Page 1 of 100
S. Arun-Kumar
sak@cse.iitd.ernet.in Department of Computer Science and Engineering I. I. T. Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110 016. July 30, 2004
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit
Contents
rst The Bigpicture last rst Lexical Analysis last rst Syntax Analysis last
Context-free Grammars last rst Ambiguity last rst Shift-Reduce Parsing last rst Parse Trees last
rst
Home Page
Title Page
Page 2 of 100
Go Back
rst Semantic Analysis last rst Synthesized Attributes last rst Inherited Attributes last
Contd . . .
Quit Full Screen
Close
Home Page
Contents
. . . Contd rst Abstract Syntax Trees last rst Symbol Tables last rst Intermediate Representation last
IR: Properties Typical Instruction Set IR: Generation
Title Page
Page 3 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
rst Runtime Structure last

Close
Quit
Home Page
Title Page
Page 4 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
The Big Picture: 1

stream of characters SCANNER stream of tokens
Home Page
Title Page
Page 5 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
The Big Picture: 2

stream of characters SCANNER stream of tokens PARSER parse tree
Home Page
Title Page
Page 6 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
The Big Picture: 3

stream of characters SCANNER stream of tokens PARSER parse tree SEMANTIC ANALYZER abstract syntax tree
Home Page
Title Page
Page 7 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
The Big Picture: 4

stream of characters SCANNER stream of tokens PARSER parse tree SEMANTIC ANALYZER abstract syntax tree I.R. CODE GENERATOR intermediate representation
Home Page
Title Page
Page 8 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
The Big Picture: 5

stream of characters SCANNER stream of tokens PARSER parse tree SEMANTIC ANALYZER abstract syntax tree I.R. CODE GENERATOR intermediate representation OPTIMIZER optimized intermediate representation
Home Page
Title Page
Page 9 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
The Big Picture: 6

stream of characters SCANNER stream of tokens PARSER parse tree SEMANTIC ANALYZER abstract syntax tree I.R. CODE GENERATOR intermediate representation OPTIMIZER optimized intermediate representation CODE GENERATOR target code
Home Page
Title Page
Page 10 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
The Big Picture: 7

stream of characters SCANNER stream of tokens PARSER parse tree ERROR HANDLER SEMANTIC ANALYZER abstract syntax tree I.R. CODE GENERATOR intermediate representation OPTIMIZER optimized intermediate representation CODE GENERATOR target code SYMBOL TABLE MANAGER
Home Page
Title Page
Page 11 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
The Big Picture: 7

stream of characters SCANNER stream of tokens PARSER parse tree ERROR HANDLER SEMANTIC ANALYZER abstract syntax tree I.R. CODE GENERATOR intermediate representation OPTIMIZER optimized intermediate representation CODE GENERATOR target code SYMBOL TABLE MANAGER
Home Page
Title Page
Page 12 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Scanner Parser Semantic Analysis Symbol Table IR Optimization Contents
Close
Quit
Home Page
Title Page
Page 13 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
Scanning: 1
Takes a stream of characters and identies tokens from
the lexemes.
Title Page
Page 14 of 100
Eliminates comments and redundant whitepace.

Go Back
Keeps track of line numbers and column numbers and

passes them as parameters to the other phases to enable error-reporting to the user.
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
Scanning: 2
Whitespace:
A sequence of space, tab, newline, carriage-return, form-feed characters etc. limited by whitespace or special characters (e.g. operators like +, -, *).
Title Page
Lexeme: A sequence of non-whitespace characters dePage 15 of 100
Examples of lexemes.
Go Back
reserved words, keywords, identiers etc. Each comment is usually a single lexeme preprocessor directives
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Scanning: 3
Token: A sequence of characters to be treated as a
single unit.
Home Page
Title Page
Examples of tokens.
Reserved words (e.g. begin, end, struct, if etc.) Keywords (integer, true etc.) Operators (+, &&, ++ etc) Identiers (variable names, procedure names, parameter names) Literal constants (numeric, string, character constants etc.) Punctuation marks (:, , etc.)
Page 16 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
Scanning: 4
Identication of tokens is usually done by a Deterministic Finite-state automaton (DFA).
Title Page
The set of tokens of a language is represented by a

large regular expression.
Page 17 of 100
This regular expression is fed to a lexical-analyser generator such as Lex, Flex or ML-Lex.
Go Back
A giant DFA is created by the Lexical analyser generator.

Full Screen Close
Quit
Scanning: 5
Home Page Title Page
ae,gz identifier f 2 i if 3 09,az identifier 09,az 4
09
h, j
5 09
09
09
1
chars
6 real 09
Page 18 of 100
white space 14
Go Back
other
7 int any char * 10 *
real
Full Screen
13 error
9 error
11 )
12 comment
Close
Quit
The Big Picture

Syntax Analysis
Consider the following two languages over an alphabet A = {a, b}.
Home Page
Title Page
R = {anbn|n < 100} P = {anbn|n > 0} R may be nitely represented by a regular expression
(even though the actual expression is very long).
However, P cannot actually be represented by a regular

expression
Page 19 of 100
Go Back
A regular expression is not powerful enough to represent languages which require parenthesis matching to arbitrary depths.
Full Screen
All high level programming languages require an underlying language of expressions which require parentheses to be nested and matched to arbitrary depth.
Close
Quit
CF-Grammars: Denition
A context-free grammar (CFG) G = N, T , P, S consists of
Home Page
Title Page
a set N of nonterminal symbols, a set T of terminal symbols or the alphabet, a set P of productions or rewrite rules, each production is of the form X , where
X N is a nonterminal and (N T ) is a string of terminals and nonterminals
Page 20 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
a start symbol S N .
Close
Quit
CFG: Example
G = {S}, {a, b}, P, S , where S ab and S aSb are the only productions in P .
Derivations look like this:
Home Page
Title Page
S ab
Page 21 of 100
S aSb aabb S aSb aaSbb aaabbb L(G), the language generated by G is {anbn|n > 0}.
Full Screen Go Back
Actually can be proved by induction on the length and structure of derivations.
Close
Quit
CFG: Empty word

G = {S}, {a, b}, P, S , where S SS | aSb |
generates all sequences of matching nested parentheses, including the empty word . A leftmost derivation might look like this:
Home Page
Title Page
S SS SSS SS aSbS abS abaSb . . .

Page 22 of 100
A rightmost derivation might look like this:
S SS SSS SS SaSb Sab aSbab . . .

Other derivations might look like God alone knows what!
Go Back
Full Screen
S SS SSS SS . . .
Could be quite confusing!
Close
Quit
Home Page
CFG: Derivation trees 1

Derivation sequences
Title Page
put an articial order in which productions are red. instead look at trees of derivations in which we may think
of productions as being red in parallel.
Page 23 of 100
There is then no highlighting in red to determine which

copy of a nonterminal was used to get the next member of the sequence.
Go Back Full Screen
Of course, generation of the empty word must be

shown explicitly in the tree.
Close
Quit

S S S
Home Page
Title Page
Page 24 of 100
Go Back
Derivation tree of abaabb
Full Screen
Close
Quit

S S S
Home Page
Title Page
Page 25 of 100
Go Back
b
Full Screen
Another Derivation tree of abaabb
Close
Quit

S S S
Home Page
Title Page
Page 26 of 100
Go Back
b
Full Screen
Yet another Derivation tree of abaabb
Close
Quit
Home Page
Title Page
Page 27 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Ambiguity: 1
Home Page
E I | C | E+E | EE I y | z C 4
Consider the sentence y + 4 z.
Title Page
E
Page 28 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Ambiguity: 2
Home Page
E I | C | E+E | EE I y | z C 4
Title Page
E
Page 29 of 100
E
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Ambiguity: 3
Home Page
E I | C | E+E | EE I y | z C 4
Title Page
E
Page 30 of 100
E
Go Back
* I E
E I
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Ambiguity: 4
Home Page
E I | C | E+E | EE I y | z C 4
Title Page
E
Page 31 of 100
E
Go Back
* I E
E I
Full Screen
I y C
C z
Close
Quit
Ambiguity: 5
Home Page
E I | C | E+E | EE I y | z C 4
Title Page
E
Page 32 of 100
E
Go Back
* I E
E I
Full Screen
I y C
C z
Close
z 4
4
Quit
Home Page
Title Page
Page 33 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Parsing: 0
Home Page
r1. E r2 E r3 T r4 T r5 D
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E ) a a / b
Page 34 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Parsing: 1
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E ) a / b
Page 35 of 100
Principle:
Reduce whenever possible. Shift only when reduce is impossible
a
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Shift
Quit
Parsing: 2
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E ) a / b
Page 36 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Reduce by r5
Quit
Parsing: 3
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E ) a / b
Page 37 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Reduce by r4
Quit
Parsing: 4
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E ) a / b
Page 38 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Reduce by r2
Quit
Parsing: 5
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
b
Page 39 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Shift
Quit
Parsing: 6
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
b
Page 40 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
a E
Shift
Close
Quit
Parsing: 7
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
b
Page 41 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
D E
Reduce by r5
Close
Quit
Parsing: 8
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
b
Page 42 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
T E
Reduce by r4
Close
Quit
Parsing: 8a
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
b
Page 43 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
T E
Reduce by r4
Close
Quit
Parsing: 9a
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
b
Page 44 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Reduce by r1
Quit
Parsing: 10a
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
b
Page 45 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
/ E
Shift
Quit
Parsing: 11a
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
Page 46 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
b / E
Shift
Close
Quit
Parsing: 12a
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
Page 47 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
D / E
Reduce by r5
Close
Quit
Parsing: 13a
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
Page 48 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
T / E
Reduce by r4
Close
Quit
Parsing: 14a
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
Page 49 of 100
Go Back
k!
St
uc
Full Screen
Reduce by r2
Close
Get back!
/ E
Quit
Parsing: 14b
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
Page 50 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Reduce by r2
Close
Get back!
/ E
Quit
Parsing: 13b
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
Page 51 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Reduce by r4
Close
Get back!
/ E
Quit
Parsing: 12b
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
Page 52 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Reduce by r5
Close
Get back!
/ E
Quit
Parsing: 11b
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
Page 53 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Get back!
b / E
Shift
Close
Quit
Parsing: 10b
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
b
Page 54 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Get back!
/ E
Shift
Quit
Parsing: 9b
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
b
Page 55 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Get back to where you once belonged!

E
Close
Reduce by r1
Quit
Parsing: 8b
r1. E r2 E r3 T r4 T r5 D E T T / D a | b | ( E ) D T
ed odifi m Principle:
Reduce whenever possible, but but depending upon lookahead
Home Page
Title Page
b
Page 56 of 100
Shift instead of reduce here!

e educ iftr ict Sh confl
T E
Go Back
Full Screen
Reduce by r4
Close
Quit
Parsing: 8
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
b
Page 57 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
T E
Reduce by r4
Close
Quit
Parsing: 9
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
b
Page 58 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
/ T E
Shift
Close
Quit
Parsing: 10
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
Page 59 of 100
Go Back
b / T E
Shift
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Parsing: 11
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
Page 60 of 100
Go Back
D / T
Reduce by r5
Full Screen
Close
E
Quit
Parsing: 12
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
Page 61 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
T E
Reduce by r3
Close
Quit
Parsing: 13
Home Page
E T T / D a |
T
Title Page
( E )
Page 62 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Reduce by r1
Quit
Parse Trees: 0
r1. E r2 E r3 T E T T / D T r4 T r5 D D a | b | ( E )
Home Page
Title Page
Page 63 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
b
Quit
Parse Trees: 1
Home Page
Title Page
Page 64 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
D
Close
b
Quit
Parse Trees: 2
Home Page
Title Page
Page 65 of 100
Go Back
T
Full Screen
D
Close
b
Quit
Parse Trees: 3
Home Page
Title Page
Page 66 of 100
E
Go Back
T
Full Screen
D
Close
b
Quit
Parse Trees: 3a
Home Page
Title Page
Page 67 of 100
E
Go Back
T
Full Screen
D
Close
b
Quit
Parse Trees: 3b
Home Page
Title Page
Page 68 of 100
E
Go Back
T
Full Screen
D
Close
b
Quit
Parse Trees: 4
Home Page
Title Page
Page 69 of 100
E
Go Back
T
Full Screen
D
Close
b
Quit
Parse Trees: 5
Home Page
Title Page
Page 70 of 100
E
Go Back
T
Full Screen
D
Close
b
Quit
Parse Trees: 5a
Home Page
Title Page
Page 71 of 100
E
Go Back
T
Full Screen
D
Close
b
Quit
Parse Trees: 5b
Home Page
Title Page
Page 72 of 100
E
Go Back
T
Full Screen
D
Close
b
Quit
Parse Trees: 6
Home Page
Title Page
Page 73 of 100
E
Go Back
T
Full Screen
D
Close
b
Quit
Parse Trees: 7
Home Page
Title Page
Page 74 of 100
T
Go Back
T
Full Screen
D
Close
b
Quit
Parse Trees: 8
Home Page
Title Page
Page 75 of 100
T
Go Back
T
Full Screen
D
Close
b
Quit
Home Page
Parsing: Summary: 1
All high-level languages are designed so that they may
be parsed in this fashion with only a single token lookahead.
Title Page
Parsers for a language can be automatically constructed by parger-generators such as Yacc, Bison, MLYacc.
Page 76 of 100
Shift-reduce conicts if any, are automatically detected

and reported by the parser-generator.
Go Back
Shift-reduce conicts may be avoided by suitably

redesigning the context-free grammar.
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Parsing: Summary: 2
Very often shift-reduce conicts may occur because
of the prex problem. In such cases many parsergenerators resolve the conict in favour of shifting.
Home Page
Title Page
There is also a possiblility of reduce-reduce conicts.

This usually happens when there is more than one nonterminal symbol to which the contents of the stack may reduce.
Page 77 of 100
Go Back
A minor reworking of the grammar to avoid redundant

non-terminal symbols will get rid of reduce-reduce conicts. The Big Picture
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Semantic Analysis: 1
Every Programming langauge can be used to program
any computable function, assuming of course, it has unbounded memory, and unbounded time
Home Page
Title Page
The parser of a programming language provides the

framework within which the target code is to be generated.
Page 78 of 100
The parser also provides a structuring mechanism that

divides the task of code generation into bits and pieces determined by the individual nonterminals and production rules.
Go Back
Full Screen
However, contex-free grammars are not powerful

enough to represent all computable functions. Example, the language {an bn cn |n > 0}.
Close
Quit
Home Page
Semantic Analysis: 2
There are context-sensitive aspects of a program that
cannot be represented/enforced by a context-free grammar denition. Examples include correspondence between formal and actual parameters type consistency between declaration and use. scope and visibility issues with respect to identiers in a program.
Title Page
Page 79 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
Title Page
Page 80 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Synthesized Attributes: 0
E / T ( F ) n T E
Home Page
Title Page
T /
Page 81 of 100
n F
( E
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n
Quit
n
E / T ( F ) n T E
Home Page
Title Page
T /
Page 82 of 100
n F
( E
Go Back
)
Synthesized Attributes 4 3 2 1
Full Screen
Close
F n
Quit
4 n
E / T ( F ) n T E
Home Page
Title Page
T /
Page 83 of 100
n F
( E
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n
Quit
4 n
E / T ( F ) n T E
Home Page
Title Page
T /
Page 84 of 100
n F
( E
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n
Quit
4 n
E / T ( F ) n T E
Home Page
Title Page
T /
Page 85 of 100
n F
( E
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n
Quit
4 n
E / T ( F ) n T E
Home Page
Title Page
T /
Page 86 of 100
n F
( E
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n 1
Quit
4 n
E / T ( F ) n T E
Home Page
Title Page
T /
Page 87 of 100
n F
( E
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n 1
Quit
4 n
E / T ( F ) n T E
Home Page
Title Page
T /
Page 88 of 100
n F
( E
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n 1
Quit
4 n
E / T ( F ) n T E
Home Page
Title Page
T /
Page 89 of 100
n F
( E 3
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n 1
Quit
4 n
E / T ( F ) n T E
Home Page
Title Page
T /
Page 90 of 100
F 3 n
( E 3
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n 1
Quit
4 n
E / 3 / T ( F ) n T E
Home Page
Title Page
Page 91 of 100
F 3 n
( E 3
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n 1
Quit
4 n
E / 3 / T ( F ) n T E
Home Page
Title Page
Page 92 of 100
F 3 n 2
( E 3
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n 1
Quit
4 n
E / 3 / T ( F ) n T E
Home Page
Title Page
Page 93 of 100
F 3 n 2
( E 3
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n 1
Quit
4 n
E / 3 / T ( F ) n T 1 E
Home Page
Title Page
Page 94 of 100
F 3 n 2
( E 3
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n 1
Quit
4 n
E / 3 / T ( F ) n T 1 E 1
Home Page
Title Page
Page 95 of 100
F 3 n 2
( E 3
Go Back
)
Full Screen
Close
F n 1
Quit
4 n
An Attribute Grammar
E 1
Home Page
Title Page
E0 E1T E T
F 2 n 2
E0.val := sub(E1.val, T.val) E.val := T.val T0.val := div(T1.val, F.val)

Page 96 of 100
3 /
T0 T1/F T F F F (E) n
( E 3
T.val := F.val
Go Back
F.val := E.val
Full Screen
F n 1
F.val := n.val
Close
Quit
Inherited Attributes: 0
C -style declarations generating int x, y, z. D TL L L,I | I
D
Home Page
T int | oat I x | y | z
Title Page
I int , L z I L ,
Go Back Page 97 of 100
y I D L T I
Full Screen
Close
int
x
Quit
D
Home Page
Title Page
I int int , L z I L ,
y I D L T I
Full Screen
Close
int
x
Quit
int
D
Home Page
Title Page
int
y I D L T I
Full Screen
Close
int
x
Quit
int
int
D
Home Page
Title Page
int
int
y I D L T I
Full Screen
Close
int
x
Quit
int
int
D
Home Page
Title Page
int
int
I int int , L int
int
Page 101 of 100
z I L ,
Go Back
y I D L T I
Full Screen
Close
int
x
Quit
int
int
D int T L int I int int , L int z I L int , int int int
Home Page
Title Page
Page 102 of 100
y I D L T I
Go Back
Full Screen
int
x
Close
int
int
Quit
D
Home Page
Title Page
int
int
I int int , L int
int
Page 103 of 100
z I L int , int
int
Go Back
y I D L T I int
int
Full Screen
Close
int
x
Quit
int
int
D
Home Page
Title Page
int
int
I int int , L int
int
Page 104 of 100
z I L int , int
int
Go Back
y I D L T I int
int
Full Screen
Close
int
int
Quit
int
int
An Attribute Grammar
D
Home Page
Title Page
D TL
L int I int
L.in := T.type T.type := int.int T.type := oat.f loat

Page 105 of 100
int
int
int
, L int z I L int , int int
T T
int oat
y I int
int
L0 L1,I L I I id
L1 := L0.in
Go Back
int
I.in := L.in
Full Screen
id.type := I.in
Close
Quit
Home Page
Title Page
Page 106 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Abstract Syntax: 0
E ET | T T T /F | F F n | (E)
Suppose we want to evaluate an expression (4 1)/2. What we actually want is a tree that looks like this:
Page 107 of 100
/
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
1
Quit
Evaluation: 0
/
Home Page
Title Page
Page 108 of 100
2
Go Back
Full Screen
1
Close
Quit
Evaluation: 1
/
Home Page
Title Page
Page 109 of 100
2
Go Back
Full Screen
1
Close
Quit
Evaluation: 2
/
Home Page
Title Page
Page 110 of 100
2
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Evaluation: 3
/
Home Page
Title Page
Page 111 of 100
2
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Evaluation: 4
Page 112 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
But what we actually get during parsing is a tree that looks like . . .
Quit
Abstract Syntax: 1
. . . THIS!
E
T /
n F
Page 113 of 100
( E
/
E T
Go Back
T F
Full Screen
n
F n
Close
Quit
Abstract Syntax: 2
We use attribute grammar rules to construct the abstract syntax tree (AST)!. But in order to do that we rst require two procedures for tree construction. makeLeaf(literal) : Creates a node with label literal and returns a pointer to it. makeBinaryNode(opr, opd1, opd2) : Creates a node with label opr (with elds which point to opd1 and opd2) and returns a pointer to the newly created node. Now we may associate a synthesized attribute called ptr with each terminal and nonterminal symbol which points to the root of the subtree created for it.
Home Page
Title Page
Page 114 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Abstract Syntax: 3
E0 E1T E T T0 T1/F T F F F (E) n E0.ptr := makeBinaryN ode(, E1.ptr, T.ptr) E.ptr := T.ptr T0.ptr := makeBinaryN ode(/, T1.ptr, F.ptr)
Home Page
Title Page
Page 115 of 100
T.ptr := F.ptr
Go Back
F.ptr := E.ptr
Full Screen
F.ptr := makeLeaf (n.val)

Close
The Big Picture

Quit
Home Page
Symbol Table:1
The store house of context-sensitive and run-time information about every identier in the source program.
Title Page
All accesses relating to an identier require to rst nd

the attributes of the identier from the symbol table
Page 116 of 100
Usually organized as a hash table provides fast access.

Go Back
Compiler-generated temporaries may also be stored in

the symbol table
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
Symbol Table:2
Attributes stored in a symbol table for each identier:
Title Page
type size scope/visibility information base address addresses to location of auxiliary symbol tables (in case
of records, procedures, classes)
Page 117 of 100
Go Back
address of the location containing the string which actually names the identier and its length in the string pool
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
Symbol Table:3
A symbol table exists through out the compilation and
run-time.
Title Page
Major operations required of a symbol table:

insertion search deletions are purely logical (depending on scope and visibility) and not physical
Page 118 of 100
Go Back
Keywords are often stored in the symbol table before

the compilation process begins.
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Symbol Table:4
Accesses to the symbol table at every stage of the compilation process, Scanning: Insertion of new identiers. Parsing: Access to the symbol table to ensure that an operand exists (declaration before use).
Home Page
Title Page
Page 119 of 100
Semantic analysis: Determination of types of identiers from declarations type checking to ensure that operands are used in type-valid contexts. Checking scope, visibility violations.
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
Symbol Table:5
IR generation: . Memory allocation and relativea address calculation. Optimization: All memory accesses through symbol table Target code: Translation of relative addresses to absolute addresses in terms of word length, word boundary etc. The Big picture
a
Title Page
Page 120 of 100
Go Back
i.e.relative to a base address that is known only at run-time
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Intermediate Representation
Intermediate representations are important for reasons of portability.
Home Page
Title Page
(more or less) independent of specic features of the

high-level language. Example. Java byte-code for any high-level language.
Page 121 of 100
(more or less) independent of specic features of any

particular target architecture (e.g. number of registers, memory size) number of registers memory size word length
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
IR Properties: 1
1. It is fairly low-level containing instructions common to all target architectures and assembly languages. How low can you stoop? . . . 2. It contains some fairly high-level instructions that are common to most high-level programming languages. How high can you rise? 3. To ensure portability
an unbounded number of variables and memory locations no commitment to Representational Issues 4. To ensure type-safety
Page 122 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
memory locations are also typed according to the

data they may contain, no commitment is made regarding word boundaries, and the structure of individual data items. Next
Close
Quit
Home Page
IR: Representation?
No commitment to word boundaries or byte boundaries No commitment to representation of
int vs. oat, oat vs. double, packed vs. unpacked, strings where and how?.
Title Page
Page 123 of 100
Go Back
Back to IR Properties:1
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
IR: How low can you stoop?

most arithmetic and logical operations, load and store
instructions etc.
Title Page
so as to be interpreted easily, the interpreter is fairly small, execution speeds are high, to have xed length instructions (where each operand
position has a specic meaning). Back to IR Properties:1
Full Screen Page 124 of 100
Go Back
Close
Quit
IR: How high can you rise?

typed variables, temporary variables instead of registers. array-indexing, random access to record elds, parameter-passing, pointers and pointer management no limits on memory addresses
Back to IR Properties:1
Home Page
Title Page
Page 125 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
A typical instruction set: 1

Three address code: A suite of instructions. Each instruction has at most 3 operands.
Home Page
Title Page
an opcode representing an operation with at most 2

operands
Page 126 of 100
two operands on which the binary operation is performed

Go Back
a target operand, which accumulates the result of the

(binary) operation. If an operation requires less than 3 operands then one or more of the operands is made null.
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page

Assignments (LOAD-STORE) Jumps (conditional and unconditional) Procedures and parameters Arrays and array-indexing Pointer Referencing and Dereferencing
Title Page
Page 127 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page

Assignments (LOAD-STORE)
x := y bop z, where bop is a binary operation x := uop y, where uop is a unary operation x := y, load, store, copy or register transfer
Title Page
Page 128 of 100
Jumps (conditional and unconditional) Procedures and parameters Arrays and array-indexing Pointer Referencing and Dereferencing
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page

Assignments (LOAD-STORE) Jumps (conditional and unconditional)
goto L Unconditional jump, x relop y goto L Conditional jump, where relop is a relational operator
Title Page
Page 129 of 100
Go Back
Procedures and parameters Arrays and array-indexing Pointer Referencing and Dereferencing
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page

Assignments (LOAD-STORE) Jumps (conditional and unconditional) Procedures and parameters
call p n, where n is the number of parameters return y, return value from a procedures call param x, parameter declaration
Title Page
Page 130 of 100
Go Back
Arrays and array-indexing Pointer Referencing and Dereferencing
Full Screen
Close
Quit

Assignments (LOAD-STORE) Jumps (conditional and unconditional) Procedures and parameters Arrays and array-indexing
x := a[i] array indexing for r-value a[j] := y array indexing for l-value Note: The two opcodes are different depending on whether l-value or r-value is desired. x and y are always simple variables
Home Page
Title Page
Page 131 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Pointer Referencing and Dereferencing

Quit

Assignments (LOAD-STORE) Jumps (conditional and unconditional) Procedures and parameters Arrays and array-indexing Pointer Referencing and Dereferencing
x := y referencing: set x to point to y x := *y dereferencing: copy contents of location pointed to by y into x *x := y dereferencing: copy r-value of y into the location pointed to by x Picture
Home Page
Title Page
Page 132 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Pointers
x *x *y y x := ^y @y x *y y
Home Page
Title Page
x *x @z
y *z x := *y *z z y *y
x @z
Page 133 of 100
*z z y *y x *x := y z @z *y
Quit Full Screen Go Back
x @z *z
z
Close
IR: Generation
Can be generated by recursive traversal of the abstract
syntax tree.
Home Page
Title Page
Can be generated by syntax-directed translation as follows: For every non-terminal symbol N in the grammar of the source language there exist two attributes N.place , which denotes the address of a temporary variable where the result of the execution of the generated code is stored N.code , which is the actual code segment generated.
Page 134 of 100
Go Back
In addition a global counter for the instructions generated is maintained as part of the generation process.
Full Screen
It is independent of the source language but can express target machine operations without committing to too much detail.
Close
Quit
IR: Infrastructure
Given an abstract syntax tree T, with T also denoting its root node. T.place address of temporary variable where result of execution of the T is stored. newtemp returns a fresh variable name and also installs it in the symbol table along with relevant information T.code the actual sequence of instructions generated for the tree T. newlabel returns a label to mark an instruction in the generated code which may be the target of a jump. emit emits an instructions (regarded as a string).
Home Page
Title Page
Page 135 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
IR: Infrastructure
Colour and font coding of IR code generation
Title Page
Green: Nodes of the Abstract Syntax Tree Brown: Characters and strings of the Intermediate
Representation
Red: Variables and data structures of the language in

which the IR code generator is written
Page 136 of 100
Go Back
blue: Names of relevant procedures used in IR code generation.

Full Screen
Black: All other stuff.

Close
Quit
IR: Example
E id E.place := id.place; E.code := emit()
Home Page
Title Page
Page 137 of 100
E0
E1 E2
Go Back
E0.place := newtemp; E0.code := E1.code || E2.code || emit(E0.place := E1.place E2.place)
Full Screen
Close
Quit
IR: Example
Home Page
S S.code S0
id := E := E.code || emit(id.place:=E.place) while E do S1
Title Page
Page 138 of 100
S0.begin := newlabel; S0.af ter := newlabel; S0.code := emit(S0.begin:) || E.code || emit(if E.place= 0 goto S0.af ter) || S1.code || emit(gotoS0.begin) || emit(S0.af ter:)
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
IR: Example
Home Page
S S.code S0
id := E := E.code || emit(id.place:=E.place) while E do S1
Title Page
Page 139 of 100
S0.begin := newlabel; S0.af ter := newlabel; S0.code := emit(S0.begin:) || E.code || emit(if E.place= 0 goto S0.af ter) || S1.code || emit(gotoS0.begin) || emit(S0.af ter:)
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
IR: Generation
While generating the intermediate representation, it is sometimes necessary to generate jumps into code that has not been generated as yet (hence the address of the label is unknown). This usually happens while processing
Home Page
Title Page
forward jumps short-circuit evaluation of boolean expressions

It is usual in such circumstances to either ll up the empty label entries in a second pass over the the code or through a process of backpatching (which is the maintenance of lists of jumps to the same instruction number), wherein the blank entries are lled in once the sequence number of the target instruction becomes known.
Page 140 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
A Calling Chain
Main program Globals Procedure P2 Locals of P2 Procedure P21 Locals of P21 Body of P21
Home Page
Title Page
Call P21
Page 141 of 100
Body of P2
Call P21
Go Back
Procedure P1 Locals of P1 Body of P1

Full Screen
Call P2
Main body
Close
Call P1
Quit
Run-time Structure: 1
Main program Globals Procedure P2 Locals of P2 Procedure P21 Locals of P21
Home Page
Title Page
Page 142 of 100
Body of P21 Body of P2 Procedure P1 Locals of P1 Body of P1

Close Full Screen Go Back
Main body
Globals
Quit
Main program Globals Procedure P2 Locals of P2 Procedure P21 Locals of P21
Home Page
Title Page
Page 143 of 100

Go Back
Return address to Main Dynamic link to Main Locals of P1 Static link to Main Formal par of P1 Globals
Full Screen
Close
Main body
Quit
Main program Globals Procedure P2 Locals of P2 Procedure P21 Locals of P21 Return address to last of P1 Dynamic link to last P1 Locals of P2 Static link to last P1 Formal par P2 Return address to Main Dynamic link to Main Locals of P1 Static link to Main Formal par of P1 Globals
Home Page
Title Page
Page 144 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Main body
Quit
Main program Globals Procedure P2 Locals of P2 Procedure P21 Locals of P21 Return address to last of P2 Dynamic link to last P2 Locals of P21 Static link last P2 Formal par P21 Return address to last of P1 Dynamic link to last P1 Locals of P2 Static link to last P1 Formal par P2 Return address to Main Dynamic link to Main Locals of P1 Static link to Main Formal par of P1 Globals
Home Page
Title Page
Page 145 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Main body
Quit
Main program Globals Procedure P2 Locals of P2 Procedure P21 Locals of P21 Return address to last of P2 Dynamic link to last P2 Locals of P21 Static link last P2 Formal par P21 Return address to last of P1 Dynamic link to last P1 Locals of P2 Static link to last P1 Formal par P2 Return address to Main Dynamic link to Main Locals of P1 Static link to Main Formal par of P1 Globals Return address to last of P21 Dynamic link to last P21 Locals of P21 Static link to last P2 Formal par P21
Home Page
Title Page
Page 146 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Main body
Quit
Home Page
Title Page
Page 147 of 100
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit

MMM

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

MMM

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Home Page

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

rst Runtime Structure last

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

The Big Picture: 1

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

The Big Picture: 2

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

The Big Picture: 3

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

The Big Picture: 4

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

The Big Picture: 5

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

The Big Picture: 6

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

The Big Picture: 7

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

The Big Picture: 7

Scanner Parser Semantic Analysis Symbol Table IR Optimization Contents

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

Eliminates comments and redundant whitepace.

Keeps track of line numbers and column numbers and

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

Lexeme: A sequence of non-whitespace characters dePage 15 of 100

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

The set of tokens of a language is represented by a

A giant DFA is created by the Lexical analyser generator.

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

ae,gz identifier f 2 i if 3 09,az identifier 09,az 4

7 int any char * 10 *

The Big Picture

However, P cannot actually be represented by a regular

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

Actually can be proved by induction on the length and structure of derivations.

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

CFG: Empty word

S SS SSS SS aSbS abS abaSb . . .

A rightmost derivation might look like this:

S SS SSS SS SaSb Sab aSbab . . .

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

CFG: Derivation trees 1

There is then no highlighting in red to determine which

Of course, generation of the empty word must be

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

CFG: Derivation trees 2

Derivation tree of abaabb

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

CFG: Derivation trees 3

Another Derivation tree of abaabb

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

CFG: Derivation trees 4

Yet another Derivation tree of abaabb

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit

First Prev Next Last Go Back Full Screen Close Quit