Shikongo Leonard H Student No:200615424 Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology Fluid Mechanic Assignment 2 (Boundary layer)

(iv)Laminar boundary layer formation

Considering a pipe section a laminar boundary layer is formed within the pipe section just when the flow enters the pipe section. A laminar boundary layers is formed in a pipe section is formed Almost in a similar manner as the velocity profile of the fluid flow as they are all formed from zero when a fluid starts to flow over a solid surface and as the fluid flows over a greater path over the solid surface more fluid particles are slowed down by the friction forces between the fluid layers closer to the boundary, and one can look at it more like the fluid particles near the top
of the boundary layer dragging the fluid particles nearer to the solid surface along, in a laminar boundary layer the normal viscous forces (the forces which hold the fluid together) are large enough to exert drag effects on the slower moving fluid close to the solid boundary. If the boundary layer is thin then the velocity gradient normal to the surface, (du/dy), is large so by Newton's law of viscosity the shear stress, T= m (du/dy), is also large. The corresponding force may then be large enough to exert drag on the fluid close to the surface. One can generally view it like a process whereby initially the fluid particles at the boundary of the pipe section are at rest due to the non-slip condition and right above it due to the viscous forces the fluid particle above the one at the solid boundary with a greater velocity is brought to a standstill but slightly at bit further than the fluid particle at the boundary layer and the same thing happens to the fluid particle above the one that was brought to rest due to the viscous forces by the particle at the solid surface and the phenomena continues and a profile like the one in figure 1 is obtained with the laminar boundary layer shown in dashed lines(3). As the boundary layer thickness becomes greater, so the velocity gradient become smaller and the shear stress decreases until it is no longer enough to drag the slow fluid near the surface along. If this viscous force was the only action then the fluid would come to a rest. So one can consider boundary layers to be function of inertial and viscous forces where by a laminar boundary layer is formed when the viscous forces are higher than the inertia forces in a fluid flow in a laminar flow Figure1. Laminar boundary layer

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Laminar_boundary_layer_scheme.svg/411p x-Laminar_boundary_layer_scheme.svg.png.

(V)Turbulent boundary layer formation

As the viscous shear stresses have held the fluid particles in a constant motion within the laminar boundary layer become smaller the boundary layer increases in thickness and the velocity gradient gets smaller And eventually they will be no longer be sufficient to hold the fluid particles in a constant motion and the fluid particles starts to rotate in a random manner causing the flow pattern in the pipe section to be turbulent as the fluid particles from the fast moving region moves to the slower zone transferring momentum and thus maintaining the fluid by the wall in motion. Conversely, slow moving fluid moves to the faster moving region slowing it down. The net effect is an increase in momentum in the boundary layer which is than referred to as the turbulent boundary layer see figure 2

Figure 2 boundary layers on flat plate

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(VI) Laminar sublayer formation

The laminar sublayer is formed right under the turbulent boundary layer at points very close to the boundary of the pipe section where the velocity gradients become increasingly large and the velocity gradients become very large with the viscous shear forces again becoming large enough to maintain the fluid in laminar motion, the laminar sublayer is relatively small and thin compared to the laminar boundary layer that forms in a laminar flow but they generally have the same appearance and characteristic.

(D).Boundary layer separation

Boundary layer separation generally occurs at: Tee-junctions Bends Flows past a cylinder Aerofoils A divergent duct or diffuser

Tee-junctions Figure3 boundary layer separation at tee-junctions

http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/physics/mechanics/FluidMechanics/RealFluids/BoundaryL ayers/BoundaryLayers.htm
If the fluid had initially developed a laminar boundary layer as it approaches the junction from left to right, the velocities at 2 and 3 are reduced than at 1, the entrance to the tee junction. This results in the pressure at 2 and 3 to be higher than at one, and this causes the separation as shown at point two and three this phenomenon can also occur in y-junctions. [3] And one can try to avoid this by manufacturing junctions that are not as sharp as the tee-junction or by putting up pressure valves at that junction.[3]

Bends

Figure 4 boundary layer separations in bends

http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/physics/mechanics/FluidMechanics/RealFluids/BoundaryL ayers/BoundaryLayers.htm Two separation zones occur in bends as shown in figure 4, the pressure at b must be greater than at a as it must provide the required radial acceleration for the fluid to get round the bend. There is thus an adverse pressure gradient between a and b so separation may occur here and the pressure at c is less than at the entrance to the bend but pressure at d has returned to near the entrance value - again this adverse pressure gradient may cause boundary layer separation. And this can be avoided by putting up pressure valves at that bend. [3]

Flows past a cylinder The pattern of flow around a cylinder varies with the velocity of flow. If flow is very slow with the Reynolds number (r v diameter/m) less than 0.5, then there is no separation of the boundary layers as the pressure difference around the cylinder is very small, but when the 2 < Re < 70 then the boundary layers separate symmetrically on either side of the cylinder. The ends of these separated zones remain attached to the cylinder and when Re is of 70 the ends of the separated zones curl up into vortices and detach alternately from each side forming vortices on the downstream side of the cylinder. Known as a Karman vortex trail which can also be called the boundary layer separation section. [3] Aerofoils Normal flow over a aerofoil a wing. The velocity increases as the air flows over the wing. Causing a [pressure difference and the boundary layer to separate. [3]

A divergent duct or diffuser The increase in area in a divergent duct of flow causes a velocity drop and hence a pressure rises (according to the Bernoulli equation). And increasing the angle of the diffuser increases the probability of boundary layer separation within the diffusing duct, and therefore the separation can prevented by decreasing the angle of the diffuser[3]

It has to be stated that the Reynolds number is a very significant number when it comes to boundary layer formation with in a fluid pattern.

References

1. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Laminar_boundary_layer_scheme.svg/411p x-Laminar_boundary_layer_scheme.svg.png(Visited:13 may 2010) 2. Ecomodder.com (Visited on: 13 may 2010) 3. http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/physics/mechanics/FluidMechanics/RealFluids/BoundaryL ayers/BoundaryLayers.htm (Visited on: 13 may 2010 4. http://www.onepetro.org/mslib/servlet/onepetropreview?id=NACE00062&soc=NACE&speAppNameCookie=ONEPETRO(Visited on: 13 may 2010