Life as we know it is carbon-based.

A carbon skeleton is the chain of carbon atoms that forms the "backbone," or foundation, of any organic molecule. Because of carbon's unique ability to form large, diverse and stable compounds, life would not be possible without carbon. Covalent Bonds

A covalent bond forms when two atoms share electrons or negatively charged sub-atomic particles. The number of covalent bonds any atom can form is related to the number of electrons in the outer shell. Carbon

Carbon has four electrons in its outer shell and can form four covalent bonds. This allows carbon to form large, diverse molecules. Macromolecules

There are four types of macromolecules, or large organic molecules, necessary for life to function: protein, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. All four macromolecules are based on a carbon skeleton. Functional Groups

When chains of carbon atoms are bonded to form a carbon skeleton, the types of chemical functional groups attached to that skeleton determine what kind of macromolecule will result. Significance

Carbon is ubiquitous in nature. There are almost ten million known carbon compounds. Hydrocarbons (carbon and hydrogen chains) are the foundation of the fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas. Carbon is found in carbon dioxide gas, diamonds, graphite and fullerines.

The carbon atoms form a "skeleton", in this example, shown on the right, a chain of six C atoms.

Hydrogen atoms are the most common atoms found linked to carbon atoms. In HYDROCARBONS, the major constituents of petroleum, they are the only atoms found linked to carbon. One or more reactive chemical groups of atoms (known as FUNCTIONAL GROUPS) are attached to the carbon chain (in the case illustrated above, the functional group is O-H). Hydrogen atoms are bound to the carbon skeleton by means of covalent bonds. There are other ways of representing the structure of organic compounds:

represents, in condensed form, the same molecule, without all the bonds being shown.

Sometimes only bonds are shown, or one uses models known as BALL-AND-STICK or FILLED (the colours black, red and white represent atoms of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen respectively):

The arrangement in space of all the atoms of a molecule is called the STRUCTURE of the molecule. The complexity of the structure will clearly depend on the size of the molecule.

For example, the structure of the particular substance with formula C6H14 might be described in terms of aSTRUCTURAL FORMULA such as the one shown on the left (expanded form with all atoms and bonds shown).

or, as shown here on the right, in condensed form.

As shown above, carbon skeletons are immensely varied: they may consist of straight chains of various lengths, branched chains, rings of various sizes and combinations of these.

Nucleotides are molecules that, when joined together, make up the structural units of RNA and DNA. In addition, nucleotides participate incellular signaling (cyclic guanosine monophosphate and cyclic adenosine monophosphate), and are incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions (coenzyme A, flavin adenine dinucleotide, flavin mononucleotide, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). Nucleotide derivatives such as the nucleoside triphosphates play central roles in metabolism, in which capacity they serve as sources of chemical energy (adenosine triphosphate and guanosine triphosphate)

Nucleotide structure
Ribose structure indicating numbering of carbon atoms

A nucleotide is composed of a nucleobase (nitrogenous base), a five-carbon sugar (either ribose or2'-deoxyribose), and one phosphate group.[2] Together, the nucleobase and sugar compose anucleoside. The phosphate groups form bonds with either the 2, 3, or 5carbon of the sugar, with the 5-carbon site most common. Cyclic nucleotides form when the phosphate group is bound to two of the sugar's hydroxyl groups.[1] Ribonucleotides are nucleotides where the sugar is ribose, and deoxyribonucleotides contain the sugar deoxyribose. Nucleotides can contain either a purineor a pyrimidine base. Nucleic acids are polymeric macromolecules made from nucleotide monomers. In DNA, the purine bases are adenine and guanine, while the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine. RNA uses uracilin place of thymine. Adenine always pairs with thymine by 2 hydrogen bonds, while guanine pairs with cytosine through 3 hydrogen bonds, each due to their unique structures. Synthesis Nucleotides can be synthesized by a variety of means both in vitro and in vivo. In vivo, nucleotides can be synthesized de novo or recycled through salvage pathways.[3] The components used in de novo nucleotide synthesis are derived from biosynthetic precursors of carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism, and from ammonia and carbon dioxide. The liver is the major organ of de novo synthesis of all four nucleotides. De novo synthesis of pyrimidines and purines follows two different pathways. Pyrimidines are synthesized first from aspartate and carbamoyl-phosphate in the cytoplasm to the common precursor ring structure orotic acid, onto which a phosphorylated ribosyl unit is covalently linked. Purines, however, are first synthesized from the sugar template onto which the ring synthesis occurs. For reference, the syntheses of the purine and pyrimidine nucleotides are carried out by several enzymes in the cytoplasm of the cell, not within a specific organelle. Nucleotides undergo breakdown such that useful parts can be reused in synthesis reactions to create new nucleotides. In vitro, protecting groups may be used during laboratory production of nucleotides. A purified nucleoside is protected to create aphosphoramidite, which can then be used to obtain analogues not found in nature and/or to synthesize an oligonucleotide. the three parts of a nucleotide are A Nitrogenous Base A Five-Carbon Sugar A Phosphate Group

Enzymes are important because they act as biological catalysts. This means that they bring molecules together in such a way that they can react. All of the reactions that they catalyze are chemically possible (at least in theory) even in the absence of enzymes. However, in the absence of enzymes, these reactions could not occur fast enough to support life. Enzymes are biological catalysts which means that they speed up chemical reactions inside and outside cells. Take for example, digestive enzymes: Amylase, found in the saliva, breaks down starch into smaller molecules so that it can be absorbed into the blood. Similarly, lipase breaks down lipids (fats) into smaller fat globules, so that they can also be absorbed into the blood. In conclusion enzymes are so important because they break big molecules down into smaller ones. Without them, our bodies would not be able to function properly. There are two theories about enzyme action and these are the lock and key theory and the induced fit theory. XD Enzymes are special proteins. They are essential for every chemical reaction in the body and for the normal activity of the cells, tissues, fluids, and organs. Vitamins, minerals, hormones, and all the food we eat can do nothing without enzymes. So taking vitamins for example is a waste if your body's enzyme reserves are depleted. Why Enzymes are necessary: 1. Predigestion of Food Plant enzymes eliminate digestive problems by increasing the supply of deficient enzymes during the pre-digestion process. 2. Nutritional Support Food enzymes help digest the foods with the needed vitamins and minerals. Without the enzymes, certain foods may not be easily digested, especially when the digestive system has been weakened by the processed refined-food diet. 3. Immune System Support Plant enzymes also help digest and dispose of toxins in the blood stream, as well as 'eat' the protein coating on certain viruses. Thus, enzymes help reduce inflammation and any health condition associated with it. MARKET UPDATE:

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